GENDER AS A

SOCIAL CONSTRUCT
Prepared by: Ma. Catherine A. Bacor, RSW
 Four (4) Premises of GAD
1. GAD is not a war of the sexes;
2. GAD is not anti-male;
3.Both men and women are victims of gender
inequality, although victims are more often women than
male; and
4.Both women and men have a share in the struggle
for gender equality.
Defining Gender Roles
Gender roles are not an inherent disposition or behavior.
Instead, gender roles are the product of socialization or the way
by which children learn what behaviors are considered
appropriate in society. Children's understanding of the roles
appropriate for different genders is shaped by what they witness
and hear in their homes and the outside world. Gender roles are
enforced by socializing agents, or entities that influence people
to observe certain social norms. Socializing agents of gender
roles include family members, peers, religion and religious
leaders, teachers, peers, and language and media such as
books, movies, music, and advertising.
Traditional Gender Roles
Gender roles are based on society's understanding of femininity
and masculinity, or the combined attributes deemed natural to
women and men. Gender roles are closely related to gender
stereotypes, or generalizations about how an individual is or
should be based on the individual's gender. Gender stereotypes
fall into four main categories:
Physical appearance
Personality traits
Occupations
Domestic behaviors
Historical Definition
The traditional definition of gender, a word which was
historically used interchangeably with sex, centers around work,
responsibilities, attitudes, and behaviors. Traditionally, as
described by Valentova (2015), men were viewed as
breadwinners, as those who earned the most income, and
women as housewives and homemakers. This meant that the
public sphere of life involving political matters, paid labor, and
civil society or community involvement, was associated with
men (Valentova 2015).
Historical Definition
The private sphere, on the other hand, which involves personal
family matters, maintaining the household, and unpaid labor,
was associated with women (Valentova 2015). Historically,
these traditional beliefs controlled how men and women
behaved, how they divided their activities, and what career
paths they were allowed to pursue (Valentova 2015). Gender
roles, according to Newman (2018), include mannerisms,
demeanor, recreational and play preferences and interests, and
conversational topics. To be male or female meant that one had
to act a certain way, present oneself in a certain manner both
publicly and privately, and perform certain responsibilities.
Sex versus Gender
Historically, gender and sex were intrinsically linked, as it was not
always understood that there was a difference between the two.
It has only been within the last couple of decades that sex was
recognized as a biological function and gender as something
influenced by cultural forces (Smithstein 2017). Sex refers to
both internal and external anatomical and physiological
differences between the male and female sexes (Newman 2018).
Sex versus Gender

Sex is represented by the types and levels of

hormones as well as by other genetic factors, such as
X and Y chromosomes or the amount of progesterone,
testosterone, and estrogen a person has (Newman
2018). Because of these genetic factors, individuals
may not always fit comfortably in either the male or
female category (Smithstein 2017).
Sex versus Gender
Gender, on the other hand, refers to the social and
cultural roles associated with each sex in any given
society (Newman 2018). These roles are considered to
be direct responses to environments and are
influenced by the various agents of socialization within
their lives (Newman 2018). It is now commonly
understood that the concept of gender is a role that
one performs, whereas sex is biological and often
assigned at birth.
Evolution
In conjunction with this shift in understanding, there was also a
shift in the roles and responsibilities associated with traditional
gender roles. Beginning in the 1990s, men and women started
sharing domestic roles, with unpaid labor being almost equally
split in some cases (Jackson, Perrone, and Wright 2009). With
this shift, more nontraditional career paths, such as lawyers,
construction workers, and office professionals, also became
open for women (Jackson, Perrone, and Wright 2009). As
traditional roles are discarded, the division between the labor of
men and women lessons (Jackson, Perrone, and Wright 2009).
Evolution
As more men assume the role of nurturer, which was
traditionally a woman’s responsibility, more women break into
careers that were traditionally male-centric (Jackson, Perrone,
and Wright 2009). As nontraditional career paths become more
receptive to women, earning potential rises. Researchers have
found that the more a woman makes, the more child-rearing
and household chores the husband performs (Jackson,
Perrone, and Wright 2009). Jackson, Perrone, and Wright
(2009) believe that exchange theory best helps to explain this
shift of roles and responsibilities, where one partner is doing
something in exchange for something else. For many, this
means that the trend continues to move towards greater
equality within relationships, as both partners share the burden
of responsibility of the second shift of unpaid labor in the home.
We learn gender through all
the agents of socialization.
Ruth Hartley notes 4 processes
involved in gender socialization
:

Manipulation
Canalization
Verbal Appellation
Activity Exposure
How Agents of Socialization Shape
Gender Roles
There are many factors which contribute to the
understanding of gender and gender roles.
Primarily, the agents of socialization that shape
these roles include media portrayals, religious
organizations and beliefs, and parent’s beliefs
and actions. Through these interactions and
socializations, ideas concerning gender roles are
adopted and internalized, thus constructing
gender identities.
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Media
Is often criticized for its portrayal of couples, as it most commonly depicts
men and women in traditional roles. Collins (2011) reviewed 18 different
empirical articles concerning women in media. She found that women are
grossly underrepresented in all types of media (2011). When women are
present, they are scantily clad, sexualized, and subjugated to stereotypical
roles (Collins 2011). Their roles include homemakers, nonprofessionals,
wives, mothers, and sex objects (Collins 2011). Men, who are
overrepresented in all forms of media, are portrayed as the breadwinners,
professionals and office workers, and authority figures (Collins 2011).
Social cognitive theory suggests people learn from the behaviors that are
portrayed in media and that this affects the attributes and actions
associated with gender roles (Collins 2011). It can be detrimental for
children and adolescents to only see men and women portrayed in the
traditional sense, which is not necessarily reflective of current cultural
beliefs and practices.
Religion is a set of
organized beliefs,
practices, and systems
that most often relate to
the belief and worship
of a controlling force,
such as a personal god
or another supernatural
being.

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Religion
In many conservative religions, traditional roles are revered.
There is a strong association with men as patriarchal figures
that must protect and provide for their families, and women as
matriarchal figures that must nurture their families (Anderson
et al. 2017). A number of religions teach that women possess
positive traits that are merely complimentary to those that men
possess (Anderson et al. 2017). This reinforces traditional
gender roles and attitudes and serves as justification for
divisions of labor. Men are encouraged to work outside of the
home, and women are encouraged to remain as caregivers,
unpaid workers, and housewives (Anderson et al. 2017).
Religion
When role ideology is closely aligned with traditional religious
beliefs, Anderson et al. (2017) found that women’s career
aspirations were lower and that they had negative
connotations associated with high career aspirations.
Anderson et al. (2017) also found that these religious beliefs
were positively associated with self-silencing behaviors,
feelings of body shame, and overall sexism. This means that
religion is a powerful tool used to control and mold, that it is
used to shape ideologies, social behaviors, and constructs.
Parents
At a young age, children are exposed to activities performed
by their parents which are typically associated with their
gender. Witnessing traditional activities affects the gender role
formation process and has long-lasting effects (Valentova
2015). According to traditional gender roles, women must limit
their involvement in the public sphere while men’s involvement
is seen as both natural and desirable (Valentova 2015).
According to Derks, Endendijk, and Mesman (2018), when
parents hold these types of stereotypical views, it has been
found to impact their gender socialization practices, as well as
their children’s future career aspirations.
Parents
Ultimately, this affects the stereotypes that are formed, and the
behaviors and attitudes adopted (Derks, Endendijk, and
Mesman 2018) If raised in a traditional stereotypical type of
environment, then children are more likely to adopt these
same stereotypes (Derks, Endendijk, and Mesman 2018). If
raised in a nontraditional environment, children are freer to
explore nontraditional careers, behaviors, divisions of labor
within the home, and their role within the public sphere (Derks,
Endendijk, and Mesman 2018). By witnessing the roles and
relationships of their parents, children form ideas of how they
should behave and what it means to perform gender.
Challenges to the Social
Construct of Gender Roles
In recent years, armed with the understanding
that there is a difference between sex and
gender, there has been a gender revolution
which challenges the way that gender is
recognized and understood.
Gender Revolution
To those who don’t conform, gender roles can
be both restrictive and oppressive. It has been
argued that challenging gender norms and
constructs is liberating (Smithstein 2017). This
is especially true for those who have been
historically viewed as different, including
members of the lesbian, gay, bisexual,
transsexual, and queer (LGBTQ) community
(Smithstein 2017).
Gender Revolution
Deviations from traditional and acceptable roles
is often met with ridicule and bullying, but young
people are challenging and dismantling these
gender constructs (Smithstein 2017). In 2014,
three people legally changed their gender to
non-binary and in 2015, California became the
first state to introduce a bill which would make
this a legal gender (Smithstein 2017).
Gender Revolution
By allowing individuals to legally define their
own gender, a huge step towards equality and
understanding was taken.
Another step towards understanding was
implemented in universities across the United
States.
Gender Revolution
In an effort to be more inclusive, multiple
colleges, including Harvard University, the
American University in Washington DC, and
the University of Vermont, allow students to
state their preferred pronouns and preferred
names (Chak 2015).
Gender Revolution
These universities believe that it gives
students greater control over their identity
(Chak 2015). To some, moves like this seem
revolutionary and extreme, while to others, it is
comforting to know that it is acceptable to not
fit into the normal categories of male or female
(Smithstein 2017).
Gender Revolution
This revolution is slowly making it more
culturally acceptable to be gender-fluid,
transgendered, intersexed, non-binary, and
nonconforming (Smithstein 2017). For
those who have been labeled “different”
their entire lives, it is important that norms
and ideas of deviance are challenged.
Sociological Theories of Gender
 References and Link
Agdalpen, Renato, Desingaño, Armi Grace, Dicen, Joven. Gender and

Society.Panday- Lahi, 2019.ISBN 978-6218094345

Wilson, Amy. (2019). The Social Construct of Gender.

Gender Roles in Society: Overview & Examples.

https://study.com/learn/lesson/gender-roles-in-society-overview-examples-how-

society-enforces-gender-roles.html