FORM 5 Bio Essay Module

TEACHER CHIA : 012-9848477
FORM 5: CHAPTER 1
● At zones 1 and 2, meristem cells divide mitotically to produce new cells.

● The number of cells will increase at the tip of the shoot
● In zone 3, cells undergo cell elongation
● New vacuoles will form and enlarge
● Size of the cells increase.
● At zone 4, cells undergo differentiation and specialization
● Growth is said to occur when there is an increase in plant height
● This process is irreversible
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FORM 5: CHAPTER 1
● The vascular cambium in the vascular bundle divides by mitosis to form a cambium ring.
● New cells on the inside of the cambium ring will undergo differentiation and form a
secondary xylem
● New cells on the outside of the cambium ring will undergo differentiation and form a
secondary phloem
● The primary xylem will be pushed towards the pith
● The primary phloem will be pushed towards the epidermis
● Cork cambium cells divide to form the outer layer of cork cells and the inner layer of the
secondary cortex.
● The proliferation of all secondary tissues causes the girth of the stem to increase.
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FORM 5: CHAPTER 1
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FORM 5: CHAPTER 1
a) ● gives stability to plants

● Provides mechanical support
● Produces more xylem and phloem tissues
● Produces strong and thick bark
● Causes plants to live longer by increasing the chances of producing seeds and
reproducing.
b) ● Secondary growth occurs at different rates according to the seasons.

● In the spring, when the water and light supply is sufficient
● the secondary xylem produced is large and thin-walled
● then the xylem tissue formed is brightly coloured
● when plant growth is less suitable in summer and dry
● causing the resulting secondary xylem to be small and thick-walled
● then the xylem tissue formed is dark in color
● the number of light and dark color bracelets is the age of the plant
c) ● Able to produce high quality timber

● Has a strong and hard wood
● suitable for use as boat house structures, furniture, fences and doors
● the presence of annual bracelets makes the furniture look attractive and can be
used as decorative items
● wood / bark of some plants can produce resins and oils
● these materials can be commercialized as varnishes, adhesives, perfumes and
medicines
● flowering plants can be used as ornamental plants
● fruits from secondary growth can generate a source of income and the national
economy
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FORM 5: CHAPTER 2
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FORM 5: CHAPTER 2
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FORM 5: CHAPTER 2
A (i) ● The process of water loss in the form of water vapor through evaporation from
the plants to the atmosphere.
A (ii) ● evaporation of water from mesophyll cells removes heat from the leaves
● gives a cooling effect to the plant
● helps supply water for photosynthesis
● maintaining the turgidity of plant cells
● producing transpiration pull
● for transporting water and mineral ions in xylem vessels
● helps the absorption of water by the roots continuously
b) ● vegetables production is reduced

● the cement factory releases a lot of dust
● dust covers the surface of vegetable leaves
● causing the stoma pores to become clogged
● low transpiration rate
● the plants will die
c) ● area B/desert has very high light intensity

● Area A plants/tropical rainforests have broad/thin/flat Leaves
● the leaves have an abundant stoma distribution
● more water vapor is lost through the stoma pores
● area B/desert area has very high temperature
● very low rainfall
● the rate of water evaporation increases
● area A plants cannot store water
● area B/desert area has very low air relative humidity
● area B/desert area is often hit by storms/strong air movements
● water vapor from the stoma is released more quickly
● the transpiration rate becomes too high
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FORM 5: CHAPTER 2
Similarities:
● Controlled by guard cells that exist in pairs

● Affected by the intake of potassium ions, K+ by guard cells
● Affected by the concentration of sucrose in (the cell sap of) guard cells
● Involved the diffusion of water by osmosis
Differences:
Stoma opens Stoma closes

● Occur during day time/ in the presence ● Occurs at night/ during the absence of
of light light
● Potassium ion/ K+ diffuses into guard ● Potassium ion /K+ diffuses out ofguard
cells (by active transport) cells.
● Photosynthesis is carried out/ sucrose ● Photosynthesis is not carried out by

is produced by guard cells guard cells/ no sucrose is produced
● Water diffuses into guard cells (by ● Water diffuses out of guard cells (by
osmosis) osmosis)
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● Heat from the sunlight is absorbed by the leaves

● causes water in spongy mesophyll cells/ leaves evaporates to water vapour
● The air/ substoma spaces are saturated/ full with water vapour.
● The air/ atmosphere is less humid/ drier than in the leaves// the concentration of water
vapour in the air/ substoma space is higher than in the atmosphere.
● Stoma opens on a hot day/ in sunlight/ any suitable explanation of the opening of stoma
● Water vapour in the air/ substoma spaces diffuses out through stoma.// Transpiration
occurs
● Water in the xylem diffuses into spongy mesophyll cells/ leaves
● to replace water loss
● the plant loses heat/ maintaining temperature by releasing heat to the surrounding
● gives cooling effect
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FORM 5: CHAPTER 2
B (i)
● Compensation point is the specific low light intensity (of the surrounding) that causes the
rate of photosynthesis to be the same as the rate of respiration in plants.
B (ii)
● All glucose and oxygen produced during photosynthesis is used by plants to carry out
respiration.
● No excess glucose stored as starch. /The growth rate of the plant is zero.
● No fruit/ food production in plants.
● No food supply for the consumers in the ecosystem/ habitat// Food chain/ web disrupted.
● No oxygen released to the atmosphere// Oxygen cycle cannot be maintained.
● No oxygen supply for other organisms might cause breathing difficulties.
● All carbon dioxide and water produced during respiration are used by plants to carry out
photosynthesis.
● Carbon dioxide concentration/level in the atmosphere increases.
● Greenhouse effect/ global warming occurs./ Leads to climatic changes/ the melting of
iceberg causes lowland flood.
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FORM 5: CHAPTER 2
● has a hollow stem

● to store water for a long time
● has long roots
● so that it easily absorbs groundwater
● leaves hard, small, needle-shaped and prickly
● to reduce the rate of water loss
● high temperatures cause plants to experience high transpiration rates

● low relative air humidity causes plants to experience high transpiration rates
● high light intensity causes high transpiration rate
● excessive water loss through the process of transpiration causes plants to lack enough water
for growth
● Excessive dust causes the stoma pores on the leaves to be blocked which in turn disrupts the
exchange process during respiration and photosynthesis
● low respiratory rate causes plants to lack energy for growth
● low photosynthesis rate causes plants to not have enough food resources to do growth
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FORM 5: CHAPTER 2
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FORM 5: CHAPTER 2
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FORM 5: CHAPTER 2
b (i)
b (ii)
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FORM 5: CHAPTER 2
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FORM 5: CHAPTER 2
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FORM 5: CHAPTER 3
● Contain sufficient nitrogen for the formation of chlorophyll.

● Main component of protein/ enzyme formation.
● Contain sufficient potassium.
● Important in protein synthesis/ carbohydrate metabolism.
● Potassium ions are important to maintain turgidity.
● Contain sufficient phosphorus.
● Important in ATP/ acid nucleic synthesis.
● Contain sufficient magnesium.
● As the main component of the structure of chlorophyll molecules.
● Needed in carbohydrate metabolism
● Contain sufficient calcium. Main component of leaf lamella
● (Potassium/ phosphorus/ magnesium) act as cofactor/ coenzyme In photosynthesis and
respiration.
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FORM 5: CHAPTER 3
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FORM 5: CHAPTER 3
b) ● Numerous root hairs to increase the total surface area of the root.
● Root hair cells are not layered with cuticles .To allow easily water and mineral
salts absorption// To increase the absorption of water and mineral salts.
● Root hair cells have big vacuole. to store more water and mineral salts.
● Epidermal cells have thin cell walls// water-permeable cell membrane.
● to facilitate water and mineral salts movement in the roots.
c) Plant P:
● is a carnivorous plant
● Have leaves that are modified into traps. to trap insects.
● Insects are digested to gain nitrogen sources. Also carry out photosynthesis to
produce its own food.
Plant Q:
● is a parasitic plant.
● It absorbs/ obtains organic substances/ nutrients from the host.
● Have modified roots/ haustorium.
● which is able to penetrate the host plant into xylem and phloem.
● It harms the host// causes fatality of the host.
Plant R:
● is an epiphytic plant
● It grows on the host to receive more sunlight.
● to carry out photosynthesis to produce its own food
● It does not harm the host.
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FORM 5: CHAPTER 3
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FORM 5: CHAPTER 3
● Orchids are living epiphytic/ grows on other plants (hosts)

● So as to get more light sun
● Has a swollen stem
● Can store more water
● The roots can absorb the nutrient available in the crevices of the trunks of the host trees
● Has green leaves and can synthesize their own food // carry out photosynthesis
● No
● Orchid can get water and minerals from rainwater
● When in a low position superior, orchids will compete with big trees to obtain water and
minerals in a soil
● making it difficult for orchids to get sunlight
● Lack of sunlight causes rate of photosynthesis lower
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FORM 5: CHAPTER 3
● Adding fertilizer to the soil

● Fertilizer contains nitrogen/ sulphur
● Give a green colour to the plant
● through the formation of chlorophyll
● component of amino acids/ vitamin B/ coenzyme
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FORM 5: CHAPTER 4
Root pressure:
● uptake of mineral ions by root hair cells via active transport

● water potential inside root hair cells is lower than soil water
● water diffuse into the root hair cells by osmosis
● water molecules diffuse into cortex until xylem vessel
Capillary action:
● involved cohesion force and adhesion force
Transpiration pull:
● loss of water in the form of water vapour through leaves

● water molecules pulled from the leaf xylem move out of the leaf
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FORM 5: CHAPTER 4
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FORM 5: CHAPTER 4
B (i) ● Treatment method uses plants for degradation, extraction or elimination of

pollute substances from soil and wate
B (ii) ● Rapid growth rate

● Able to accumulate heavy metals\
● Able to absorb nutrients from sewage plants
● Decrease pollutes substances in the water
B (iii)
● applied to polluted soil or static water environment
● Low cost
● Most of the plant are easy to find
● plants are easy to care
● Plants can reduced the soil erosion
● Limited to depth occupied by the roots
● only can reduce the polluted substance/not resolved the problem of
contamination
● survival of the plants is affected by toxicity of the soil/water
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FORM 5: CHAPTER 4
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FORM 5: CAHPTER 4
● The water potential in the root hair cells is lower compared to water in the soil.
● Water from the soil diffuses into the root hair cells and epidermal cells via osmosis
● The high-water potential in the root hair cells causes the water to diffuse from the root hair
cells into the cortex via osmosis.
● Osmosis continuously occur throughout the cortex, endodermis and pericycle layers
● This causes root pressure to push water into the xylem vessels of the root and then into the
xylem vessels of the stem.
● the movement of water molecule in the xylem vessel is also helped by the capillary action of
xylem
● Adhesion and cohesion forces produce a pulling force which continuously moves water in
the xylem vessel.
● When transpiration process happens, water diffuse out as water vapour from the spaces
between the cells to the surroundings through opened stoma.
● Spongy mesophyll cells lose water and they have low water potential towards adjacent cells.
● Water molecules diffuse from neighbouring cells via spongy mesophyll cells by osmosis
● This movement is known as transpirational pull
● Transpirational pull will pulls water molecules in the xylem vessel of the leaves to the
outside of the leaves.
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FORM 5: CHAPTER 4
● Use phytoremediation method

● Use plants to treat waste water by eliminating heavy metals and also trapping harmful
nutrients and microorganisms.
● Sunflower acts as a hyperaccumulator which can eliminate heavy metals such as zinc,
chromium, copper, lead and nickel and also radioactive substances such as caesium and
strontium in the soil
● The roots of ground water spinach are able to absorb mercury from the soil
● The roots of river water spinach are able to absorb heavy metals such as cadmium from the
water.
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FORM 5: CHAPTER 4
A (i) ● During a cool day, the plant is firm/ upright.

● The plant cells are turgid
● Because there is enough water in the plant
● During a hot day, the plant wilts.
● Evaporation increases, the rate of water loss is faster
● The cells in the leaves become flaccid
A (ii) ● During a cool day, all leaves open

● To increase the surface area
● For the absorption of light
● During a hot day, the plant wilts
● To reduce the surface area exposed to sunlight
● So as to reduce the rate of transpiration
● Stomata are closed to prevent the plant from drying up
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FORM 5: CHAPTER 5
Similarities:
● Both responses the action of auxin

● Both responses involve the production of auxins in the apical meristems
● High concentration of auxin at lower part of tip of root and tip of shoot causes by
gravitational force
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FORM 5: CHAPTER 5
c) ● auxin used to promote growth of watermelon

● Auxin is spray on the stigma/ovary causes the development of ovary
● no fertilisation
● Produced seedless fruit
● Known as partenocarpy
● consumption of gibberellin causes the fruit become larger
● free from insecticide (does not need pollination agent)
d) ● -Inhibit the production of ethylene

● -less / no cellulase produce
● no breakdown of cellulose in the cell wall (causes the apple keep firm)
● And no conversion of starch into sugar
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FORM 5: CHAPTER 5
● In the morning, the leaves of the tree shrink
● At noon the leaves of the semalu tree expand
● The leaves of the semalu tree perform a thermos nasty reaction
● /In the morning, low temperatures cause the leaves to shrink
● At noon, high temperatures cause the leaves to expand
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At shoot:
● High concentrations of auxin at the bottom of shoots
● causing the cells at the bottom to elongate faster
● in turn causing the shoots to bend upwards
At roots:
● Higher auxin concentrations at the base of the roots
● inhibits root cell elongation
● causing the roots to bend downwards
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FORM 5: CHAPTER 5
● Accelerates fruit ripening when volatile ethylene gas accumulates in the plastic
● The hormone involved is ethylene
● used commercially to stimulate fruit ripening quickly and evenly
● so as to be able to market more fruit at one time
● Can improve the economy
● stimulates simultaneous flowering on plants
● in order to be able to harvest a lot of produce at one time, this situation can save time
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FORM 5: CHAPTER 5
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FORM 5: CHAPTER 5
A (i) ● The phenomenon is called parthenocarpy

● Auxin is sprayed onto the flower/ ovary
● To stimulate mitosis in the ovary
● To inhibit mitosis of nucleus in the embryo sac
● The fruit tissues develop but the seeds do not develop
● No fertilisation of gametes
A (ii) ● Auxin encourages growth in crops.

● Auxin promotes root growth on woody plant stems for horticultural crops
● Auxin induces dormancy in potatoes during storage or distribution
● Gibberellin treats mutates dwarf plants to grow to normal heights
● Gibberellin promotes rapid elongation of flower stems
● Gibberellin is used to produce larger grapes
● Gibberellin promotes germination of seeds such as salads, oats and tobacco
during low temperatures and low light intensity
● Cytokinin is used in tissue culture technique to promote division and
differentiation of cells
● Cytokinin is used in tissue culture technique together with auxin to
stimulate the formation of plant organs such as roots and stems
● Cytokinin is used to delay leaf senescence in newly cut flowers
● Abscisic acid inhibits germination and growth
● Ethylene is used commercially to promote maturation of fruit quickly and
evenly
● Ethylene promotes simultaneous flowering in plants in the field
b) ● Due to presence of ethylene hormone

● Released by ripe mango fruit in the form of gas
● Will spread and stimulate mango fruit ripening evenly
● Ethylene promotes maturation of mango fruit
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FORM 5: CHAPTER 6
● One male gamete fuse with egg cell /ovum to form diploid zygote
● Another male gamete fuse with two polar nuclei to form triploid nucleus
● This process known as double fertilization
● Triploid nucleus develop into endosperm
● Integument develop into testa /seed coat
● Ovule develops into seeds
● Ovary develops into fruit
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FORM 5: CHAPTER 6
● Seeds contain X/embryo that germinate to form seedlings
● Inside the seeds, the Y/endosperm tissue or cotyledon source of nutrients to supply energy
when germination occurs.
● Seeds are enclosed by the Z/testa which is strong and impermeable to water
● to prevent the seeds from spoiling
● form a dormant structure
● which enables the seeds to be stored for a long time
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FORM 5: CHAPTER 6
● Anther produces pollen grains/male gametes.

● Each pollen mother cell (in the anther) undergoes meiosis to produce four microspores (n) /
haploid cells / tetrad.
● Microspores (n) / haploid cells tetrad develop into pollen grains.
● The nucleus of each microspore (n) / haploid cell / divides by mitosis to form one tube nucleus
and one generative nucleus
● pollen grains fall on / transferred to the stigma // Pollination occurs
● (pollen grains) stimulate the secretion of sucrose / sugar solution on the stigma.
● This stimulates the pollen grain to germinate and form a pollen tube
● The pollen tube grows down the style towards the micropyle / ovule.
● (During the growth of the pollen tube,) the generative nucleus divides by mitosis (once).
● To produce two male nuclei.
● When the pollen tube reaches the ovary, it enters the ovule through the micropyle
● (The tube nucleus disintegrates and) the two male nuclei enter the embryo sac.
● During double fertilisation, one male nucleus fuses with the egg cell / ovum to form a diploid
zygote
● the other male nucleus fuses with the two polar nuclei to form a triploid
● zygote develops into embryo consists of (one / two) cotyledon, a radicle and plumule.
● triploid nucleus develops into an endosperm tissue
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FORM 5: CHAPTER 6
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FORM 5: CHAPTER 6
b) ● During anther development, a cluster of tissue also grows inside each lobule to form four
pollen sacs.
● Inside each pollen bag there are hundreds of pollen stem cells or diploid microspore stem
cells (2n)
● Microbial stem cells will divide by meiosis to produces four haploid (n) microspore cells
● These four microspore cells are called tetrads
● Every cell in the tetrad will grow forming pollen
● The nuclei in the pollen will divide by mitosis and produce cells with two nuclei ,namely the
generator nucleus and the tube nucleus.
● Thick and waterproof pollen pouch wall will burst when the pollen matures. Pollen will
released
c) ● Pollination can be done using a pollination agent

● Examples of pollinating agents are ants, butterflies and bees
● Anther walls on mature pollen will dries, shrinks and cracks. Pollen in the pollen bag will be
released
● The released pollen will be transferred to the stigma on the same or different flowers by the
pollinating agent
● Pollen that has been transferred to the stigma will germinate and form pollen tubes. The
pollen tube elongates and grows towards the ovule through style.
● The generator nucleus will move along the pollen tube towards the ovule. At the same time,
the generator nucleus will divide mitotically to forming two male gametes (n).
● Upon arrival at the embryo sac, the pollen tube will penetrate the ovule through the
micropile. The nucleus of the tube will degenerate and both male gametes enter the
embryonic sac.
● The end of the pollen tube will secrete enzymes to digest the stylus tissues
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FORM 5: CHAPTER 6
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FORM 5: CHAPTER 6
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FORM 5: CHAPTER 6
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FORM 5: CHAPTER 7
● Leaves with thick cuticle can reduce the rate of transpiration / water loss
● Leaves with sunken stomata can reduce the rate of transpiration / water lose
● Succulent leaves can store water
● Leaves with a special structure known as hydatode eliminate excess salt.
● Old leaves can store salt and fall off when the concentration of salt stored is too high.
● The root system that branches widely to Provides support for the plants to continue living in
the soft and muddy soils / Prevents plants from being uprooted due to strong wind.
● There are many pores on this root which are called lenticels to enable the exchange of gases
with the atmosphere.
● The cell sap of mangrove roots has a higher salt content / hypertonic than sea water, the cell
sap of the roots does not lose water by osmosis / the mangrove trees receive water and
mineral salts from the seawater entering their roots
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FORM 5: CHAPTER 7
Plant P Plant Q
● sinking in the water ● Live in the desert, an area that receives very
little rainfall.
● stems is smaller than Q ● Stem is larger than P
● help these plants float upright in the ● The larger stem stores air
water / help to reduce water flow
resistance
● Leaves with no cuticles ● Leaves with (thick waxy) cuticles
● Easy / increase the diffusion rate of ● reducing water loss.

water / mineral salts / dissolved gases
directly into the plants / through the
epidermis.
● do not have stomata ● The stomata are embedded
● dissolved gases directly into the plants ● reduce water evaporation from the leaves
through the epidermis
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FORM 5: CHAPTER 7
● Relevant
● needle -shaped leaves of the tree
● the leaves of the coconut tree are splited
● can reduce wind resistance next // prevent it from falling when blown by strong winds.
● reducing the exposed surface area of the leaves
● reduce excessive water loss
● as a result of exposure to high light intensity
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FORM 5: CHAPTER 7
● Has aerenchyma tissues

● Make it lighter
● Has air spaces/ air sacs
● The plant able to float/ provides buoyancy in the water
● Has fibrous roots
● Provides a wider surface area
● To trap air bubbles
● Parts of the stems are large
● To increase the air content to help the plant to float
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FORM 5: CHAPTER 7
● Tree P/ Rhizophora sp.have tangled prop roots.

● Tangled prop roots can trap twigs and mud which are washed away and block the flow of
water
● The trapped mud causes sedimentation to occur much faster
● The river bank becomes higher and drier because less seawater overflows during high tides.
● The soil becomes less suitable for the growth of Rhizophora sp. instead it is more suitable for
Tree Q/ Bruguiera sp.
● Bruguiera sp. succeeds and replaces Rhizophora sp.
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FORM 5: CHAPTER 7
Protection Zone
● Become a natural barrier to lessen the impact of strong waves and wind that reach the
seashore area //coastal protection from erosion//barrier to avoid tsunami//trap sediments
● protected site for small fish, shrimps and crabs from predators as well as swift movements
of currents and waves.
● Preserved area where various species of migratory birds can search for foods.
Forestry Resources
● Mangrove woods can be used to build boats, fish traps, building frames and make
handicrafts//timber resources.
● Mangrove wood is burnt to produce charcoal as renewable resource of fuel.
Fishery Resources
● Sea products such as fish, shrimps, crabs and sea snails become a source of income for
fishermen living near the mangrove areas.
● Wetlands in mangrove areas are conducive for fish rearing in floating cages and also for
breeding commercial species // provide food source
Medicine Resources
● The fruit of Avicennia sp. can be consumed as a vegetable and teh flower can produce
honey.
● The fruit of Sonneratia sp. is used in the production of drinks.
● The fruit of Nypa sp. can be eaten and water from the fruit can be used in the production of
vinegar and nira.
● The bark of Bruguiera sp. tree can be used to treat diarrhoea
● Breeding, nursing grounds for various aquatic species
● Preserve natural resources for ecotourism / research /education activity.
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FORM 5: CHAPTER 8
Bacteria X:
● Decomposing microorganisms such as bacteria and saprophyte

● Protein compounds in body tissues will be broken down into ammonium ions (NH4+)
● through the process of ammonification
Bacteria Y:
● nitrifying bacteria, Nitrosomonas sp.

● convert ammonium ions to nitrite ions (NO2- )
● through the process of nitrification
Bacteria Z:
● nitrifying bacteria, Nitrobacter sp

● Nitrite ions are converted to nitrate ions (NO3 -)
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FORM 5: CHAPTER 8
Causes:
Disease P:
● Cause by bacterial Vibrio cholerae

● Ways of spread through contaminated food
Disease Q:
● Cause by pathogen Aedes aegypti virus

● Spread through mosquito bites
Ways to overcome:
Disease P:
● Cover food/ do not allow food exposed to vectors

● Keep hands clean when preparing food
● Wash hands before eating
Disease Q:
● Destroy Aedes mosquito breeding place

● Use a mosquito repellent
● Avoid leaving the house when mosquitoes are present active
● Put mosquito nets on windows
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FORM 5: CHAPTER 8
C (i) Bacteria name: Salmonella typhi

Effect:
● May cause typhoid fever
● Prolonged fever
● Constipation
● Headache
● Diarrhea/ abdominal pain
● body aches / weakness / tiredness
● lack of appetite
C (ii) How to produce organic pesticides:

● Use pandan leaves / cloves / fragrant lemongrass
● Blend with a little water and spray on the desired area
Advantages of using organic pesticides:

● These poisons are made from natural ingredients only / not chemicals
● Does not cause environmental pollution
● Harmless/ no side effects to humans
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FORM 5: CHAPTER 8
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FORM 5: CHAPTER 8
A (i) ● Maintains the concentration of nitrogen in the atmosphere (at 78 %).

● Helps in the production of nitrogenous compounds/ nitrates/ ammonium
● that is water soluble/ can be absorbed by plant (roots)
● Needed by plant for healthy growth
● Involved in the production of plant proteins/ animal proteins
● As food sources
● Assists in recycling ammonium/ nitrates/ nitrogenous compound from dead/
decay organisms
● Involves the activity of good bacteria/ nitrogen-fixing bacteria/ decomposer/
nitrifying bacteria/ denitrifying bacteria (is naturally involved)
A (ii) Nitrogen-fixing bacteria in soil/ root nodules of leguminous plant:

● Carry out nitrogen-fixing process
● That fixes nitrogen gas (in the air/ atmosphere) into ammonium
● Ammonium is absorbed by leguminous plant
Nitrifying bacteria:
● Carry out nitrification
● Occurs in two stages
● Ammonium is converted into nitrites
● Nitrites is converted into nitrates
● Nitrates is absorbed by plant roots (by active transport)
● Nitrates/ Nitrogen needed to produce plant protein/ for plant growth
● Plant/ plant protein is eaten by animal
● To obtain nutrient/ acid amino// to produce animal protein// for animal growth
Decomposer:
● Carry out decomposition/ ammonification process
● When plants/ animals die/ decay
● Plant/ animal protein is converted into ammonium
Denitrifying bacteria:
● Carry out denitrification
● Nitrates is converted into nitrogen (gas)
A (iii) ● Less decomposers in the ecosystem/ habitat

● Less decomposition of dead/ decay organism/ plants/ animals// Less
ammonification occurs// less ammonium (compound) produced
● Less ammonium converted into nitrites/ nitrates// less nitrates recycled
● Less nitrates absorbed by plant (roots).
● Less plant protein/ crop yield // plant growth is stunted.
● Less food/ fruit for consumers/ food chain/ web
● The environment will be polluted
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FORM 5: CHAPTER 8
● Rhizobium/ nitrogen-fixing bacteria inhabits root nodules of leguminous plant
● Rhizobium/ nitrogen-fixing bacteria and leguminous plant show mutualism interaction
● (Rhizobium/ nitrogen-fixing bacteria ) fix nitrogen into ammonium
● Ammonium is used by leguminous plant to produce plant protein
● Ammonium produced (also) diffuses into the soil.
● Conserves/ restore ammonium/ nitrates content in soil
● Absorbed by other plants/ crops
● Reduce the use of fertilisers
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FORM 5: CHAPTER 9
● intraspecies competition
● Competition between animals of the same species for food
● Parasitism
● Interactions that benefit one organism only and harm another organism
● Cat fleas will suck blood on the cat's body and cause itching / infection
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FORM 5: CHAPTER 9
● Natural buffer / reduce the speed of waves and winds reaching the shore
● Avoid natural disasters such as Tsunami
● Shelter / breeding ground for small fish, shrimp and crabs (from predators)
● Sanctuaries and foraging areas for various species of migrating birds
● Can be used as an ecotourism area
● Sea product is a source of income for fishermen in mangrove swamps
● Mangrove wood can be used to make canoes, fish traps, building frames, handicrafts
● Mangrove wood (burned in a furnace to produce a source of fuel), i.e. charcoal
● Workers in mangrove -based factories do not lose their jobs / gain a source of income
● The fruits and bark of mangrove trees are used in for food / medicine
● The construction of resorts can generate new jobs / improve the economy for the locals
● Improving infrastructure facilities in the area
● The area is at risk of pollution
● The area faces the risk of disease transmission / vector reproduction
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FORM 5: CHAPTER 9
● Biological control
● Using owls to control rat populations (in oil palm plantations)
● Prey predator interaction
● Do not use pesticides / Unpolluted farm environment
● Does not require high costs
● Owls can eat up to two rats a day compared to snakes that only eat one rat a week
● Owls are an active species and go out hunting at night // not a threat to livestock and others
at risk (active during the day)
● Owl populations are easy to breed (by placing nest boxes in oil palm plantations)
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FORM 5: CHAPTER 9
● Capture Mark Release Recapture technique

● snails / study sample were captured randomly ( in study area / vegetable garden )
● the number of snails / study sample captured is recorded
● Each study sample / snail captured marked using paint / Indian ink// marker pen
● study sample/ snails release to (the same area study)
● After a week /a few day. The study sample/ Snail were captured a second time (same study
area)
● total number of study samples / snail in second capture, the number marked and unmarked
were recorded
● Calculate the estimate population size of snails// sample study by using formula:
60
FORM 5: CHAPTER 9
● Rabbit is a prey and fox are the predator

● when the population of prey increase, the population of predator also increase // vice
versa
● because predator have move food// rate of reproduce faster // migrate faster
● when the population of predator increases, population of prey decreases // vice versa
● More prey is eaten by predator // vice versa
● And achieved dynamic equilibrium
61
FORM 5: CHAPTER 9
a) Parasitism
● The organism benefits by living and obtaining nutrients from its living host
● And causes harm and weakens its host in the process
● Using its modified root
b) Use biological control
● Which involves predation relationship
● Where predators are used to catch prey
● Population of mice decreases
● Predator must be specific/ natural
● Predator must not harm the oil palm tree
● This predation interaction will ensure that the population of each other will be
regulated in a cyclical manner which maintains the population of both organisms
in a dynamic equilibrium
62
FORM 5: CHAPTER 10
● the burning of fossil fuels releases smoke contains sulphur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide
● These gases dissolve in rainwater /water vapor in atmosphere
● Form sulphuric acid and nitric acid
● form acid rain
● Acid rain corrodes mineral salts in the soil and washes them into the bodies of water
● This releases poisonous chemically including aluminium
● River / pond / lake water becomes more acidic
● Destroying many aquatic species such as phytoplankton and fish
● Destroy food chain/ food web
● Soil erosion occur

● Heavy rain will erode the surface soil
● Flash floods occur
● The water is not absorbed into the ground fast enough
● Landslide occur
● Heavy and prolonged rain causes a large amount of Soil will slide downhill
63
FORM 5: CHAPTER 10
● Hybrid car use conventional petrol engine and electric generators

● It reduce emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide
● Decrease of carbon dioxide concentration in the atmosphere will reduce green house effect
● Prevent global warming
● Reduce the melting of icebergs
● Decrease risk of sea level to rise
● Prevent flooded in low land area
● Decrease the impacts of climatic change such as drought
● Reduce risk to human health such heat stroke
● Use electric to charge the car can reduce emission of lead from motor vehicles
● Reduce in lead usage will reduce risk of brain damage, kidneys dan digestive problem
64
FORM 5: CHAPTER 10
Ozone layer depletion:
Causes:
● Causes by increases level of CFC in the air

● CFC is chemical compound that contains chloroflouro and carbon
● CFCs are used as spraying agents in aerosol cans
● CFCs are used as cooling agents in air conditioners
● CFCs are used as a cooling agent in refrigerators
Effects:
● Increase in the temperature of the Earth

● Significant seasonal changes
● Weakens the immune system of the human body
● Causes skin cancer/cataracts
● Disturbing the balance of the ecosystem
65
FORM5: CHAPTER 10
● Reduce emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide

● Prevent global warming or the rise of Earth’s temperature
● Reducing the melting of icebergs
● Decreases risk of sea levels to rise
● Prevent flooded in low land area
● Reduces of impact of climatic change
● Use of renewable energy

● Efficient use of energy such as the Sun, wind, waves and biomass
● Use biological control/ organic fertiliser
● Less uses of chemicals such as insecticides
● Practise 5R: rethink, repair, reuse, reduce, recycle
● Disposal of waste materials can be reduced
● Collect rain water or reuse water to water plants and wash vehicles
66
FORM 5: CHAPTER 10
● The greenhouse effect occurs due to human activities that increase the release of
greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide gas/methane/nitrogen oxides/CFC in the
atmosphere, thus more heat is trapped
● When sunlight enters the atmosphere of the earth, some of the light is reflected back to
atmosphere.
● Some of the lights will be absorbed by the earth and cause the earth’s surface to heat up
● Heat energy in the form of infrared rays is reflected back into space
● The reflected heat is absorbed and trapped by greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide
/methane/nitrogen oxides/CFC in the atmosphere
● Thus, preventing the infrared rays from being reflected back into the space
● / human activities have caused the increase in concentration of these gases, thus more heat
is trapped
● This will cause the earth’s temperature to rise and is known as the greenhouse effect
67
FORM 5: CHAPTER 10
● Having a herb garden landscape as a green area to reduce the heat island effect
● Using mirrors of selected types to reduce heat build- up.
● Using plenty manganese dioxide during construction to optimal airflow and good lighting.
● Using low volatile organic compound (voc) or formaldehyde-free materials during
construction to provide clean and fresh air.
● Using recycled materials to reduce the use of raw materials.
● Taking construction materials from a place not far from the project site to save energy and
natural resources.
● provide large open emissions/open spaces in the building to release low/zero greenhouse
gas /to reduce/not disrupt climate change
● The use of Solar panels that convert solar energy Into electrical energy for lighting inside the
buildings To encourage the usage of renewable resources.
68
FORM 5: CHAPTER 10
The conversion of agricultural land to industrial areas provides several benefits.
● First, it offers job opportunities and further improve the economic status of the local
population as well as increase national income
● Second, it will improve infrastructure facilities such as roads and electricity.
● However, there are some adverse effects as a result of the upgrade.
● First, it can cause air pollution.
● The release of carbon dioxide gas can cause a greenhouse effect or an increase in
temperature
● The release of sulphur and nitrogen oxides can cause acid rain which can contaminate
drinking water as well as destroy aquatic ecosystems.
● Second, it can also cause noise pollution that can disturb local residents.
● Third, chemicals released from factories can also contaminate water and in might destroying
aquatic ecosystems.
● Fourth, it can also cause the destruction of habitats and ecosystems of organisms that
inhabit the paddy fields
● The food web in the area will be destroyed
69
FORM 5: CHAPTER 10
● Agricultural activities use fertilizers to maintain soil fertility. for example nitrates and
phosphates.
● When it rains, the fertilizers will dissolve and flow into the pond.
● As a result the nutrient content in the pond increases dramatically
● An increase in nutrients will cause algae pollution to increase dramatically
● and this phenomenon is known as eutrophication.
● At night, the algae do not do photosynthesis so no oxygen is released.
● On the other hand, algae also use dissolved oxygen to perform respiration.
● Therefore an increase in the algae population will increase the BOD value / decrease the
percentage of dissolved oxygen.
● When algae die, they will be broken down by decomposing microorganisms
● and the decomposition process requires a lot of oxygen
● As a result, the BOD value increases further and the percentage of dissolved oxygen
decreases
● Decreased oxygen levels will cause the death of other aquatic plants and fish in the pond
due to inability to breathe
70
FORM 5: CHAPTER 10
71
FORM 5: CHAPTER 10
72
FORM 5: CHAPTER 10
73
FORM 5: CHAPTER 10
Good effects:
• enough food supply

• (Use of fertilizer) increase crop production / yield
• (Crop yield/ food supply increase to) fulfil human need that are increasing
• better health/quality of life
• provide job opportunities/Increase income of the country
Bad effects:
• lead to water pollution

• excessive fertilizer run off / leach into the lake// Animal farming pollute the lake water with
animal faeces
• causes nutrient /nitrogen/phosphate ( in the lake) increase
• Algae bloom/ algae growth rapidly // alga cover the surface of the water/lake
• reduce penetration of sunlight to the bottom of the lake
• aquatic plant cannot undergo photosynthesis
• intraspesific competition takes place in alga population
• aquatic plant die// algae die
• this will promote the growth of decomposer/bacteria
• to decompose dead aquatic organism/ dead alga
• decomposition process required/using a lot of (dissolve) oxygen / dissolve oxygen content
reduces
• Fish/aquatic plant die
• cause eutrophication
74
FORM 5: CHAPTER 10
By reusing used paper:
● less tree will be chopped

● many habitats for fauna / flora can be preserved
● less/ no food chain/ web is disrupted
● the extinction of fauna / flora can be avoided to preserve biodiversity
● concentration of CO2/ O2 is maintained
● water catchment area is preserved
● prevent flash flood / soil erosion / mud flood/ landslide// global warming
● maintain recreational area
● Reduce air / water pollution
● reduce the number of landfills
● preserve source of medicinal plants/ food
By reusing used glass:
● less new glass is produced from the factories

● more money/ energy can be saved
● prevent depletion of mineral // less fossil fuel will be used // mineral can be saved
● reduce air / water pollution
● exploitation of earth resources will be reduced
75
By reusing plastic:
● Less petroleum is needed to produced new Plastics

● more petroleum in the earth can be preserved for future
● less plastic block the drain cause flash flood
● because plastic do not decompose/ not biodegradable / by bacteria// decomposer
● damage the beauty of scenery // plastic can be found at the beach / roadside and other
examples
● release poisonous gases if they are burnt
● reduce the number of landfills
● reduce// less water/ air pollution
● Reduce number of animal who mistakes plastics for food
76
FORM 5: CHAPTER 10
77
FORM 5: CHAPTER 11
● The alleles that control the types of blood group are I A , IB and I O.
● I A and I B are dominant alleles whereas I O is recessive allele.
●
The man’s/father’s genotype is I B I O whereas the woman’s/mother’s genotype is I A I O
● During the gamete formation / meiosis, pair of alleles of each parent will separate/segregate
●
The man/father will produce gamete I B and I O whereas the woman/mother will produce
gamete I A and I O
● Two gametes that carry recessive allele / IO will be fertilised / fused
● produce offspring / zygote which contains genotype I OI O / homozygous recessive allele
● Thalassemia is due to gene mutation

● occurs on an autosome / on chromosome 11 / 16
● causes formation of abnormal haemoglobin / low number of haemoglobin
● the red blood cell is smaller than normal / the colour of red blood cell is paler
● Red blood cell transport/carry less/insufficient oxygen // oxygen transportation by red blood
cell is less efficient
● causes tiredness // paleness // breathing difficulties // changes in facial bone formation
78
FORM 5: CHAPTER 11
Similarities:
● Both are genetic diseases

● Both male and female individuals / genders can suffer from the diseases
● Chromosomal mutation occurred
Differences:
● Down syndrome ● Colour blindness
● Abnormal number of autosome // has 47 ● Normal number of autosomes // has 46

chromosomes // has one extra chromosome chromosomes // has normal number of
/ autosome for chromosome pair number chromosomes
21/trisomy 21
● The disease is not inherited from parents ● The disease is inherited from parents
● Both male and female has the same ● Male has higher probability of having the
probability of having the disease (which is disease (which is 50%) than female (which is
50% 33.3%
● It is caused by chromosomal mutation ● It is caused by gene mutation
● The disease involves autosome ● The disease involves sex / X chromosome
● The characteristic of the person who suffers ● The person who suffers from the disease
from the disease is flat/broad forehead // cannot differentiate between red and green
slanted eyes // protruding tongue // short colour
palms // mentally retarded
● It is caused by non-disjunction of ● It is caused by the recessive allele located on

homologous chromosomes/ chromosome the X chromosome
during meiosis // It is caused by the failure of
homologous chromosomes / chromosome to
separate during anaphase I / anaphase II
79
FORM 5: CHAPTER 11
● Type of hair
● B is dominant allele for curly hair whereas b is recessive allele for straight hair
80
FORM 5: CHAPTER 11
81
FORM 5: CHAPTER 11
82
FORM 5: CHAPTER 11
Diagram shows an albino boy in an African village.
Explain why a pair of normal parents could produce an albino offspring. [6m]
• Albinism is caused by recessive allele / gene

• Albinism is homozygote (aa)
• Both of the parents are carrier (Aa)
• Genotype of both the parents are heterozygote (Aa)
• Both the parents produce gametes that carry the allele for albinism through meiosis
• The gametes fuse through fertilisation and form the zygote which is homozygote (aa)
83
FORM 5: CHAPTER 11
84
FORM 5: CHAPTER 11
d)
• The allele for colour blindness is recessive. Found on the X recessive.

• Mother is the carrier carrying one recessive allele for colour blindness and one dominant
allele for normal vision.(Mother: XXb)
• Father is normal carrying one dominant allele for normal vision in his X chromosome and
none in his Y chromosome. (Father : XY)
• Let Xb represents the X chromosome carrying the colour blind allele
• Let X represents the X chromosome carrying the normal blind allele
• XY = Normal allele, XbY = colour blind male, XX = Normal female, XbX = Carrier female, XbXb
= colour blind female
85
FORM 5: CHAPTER 11
Similarities:
Both individual R and individual S
• have abnormal number of chromosomes

• Suffer from genetic disease
• Caused by spindle fibres that are failed to form/ nondisjunction of X chromosome/ sister
chromatids of X chromosome failed to separate during anaphase II
• Chromosomal mutation occurred
• Might experience infertility problem
Differences:
Individual R Individual S
• Suffers Klinefelter syndrome • Suffers Turner syndrome
• Chromosomal number is 47/ 44 + XXY • Chromosomal number is 45/ 44 + X/ 44 + XO
• A male • A female
• Has more fat accumulation in the body/ • Has underdeveloped/ small breasts/ less fat
bigger breasts compared to normal accumulation in the body compared to
male/ small penis/ testis/ less or no normal female/ no ovum production/ does
sperm production not experience menstrual cycle
86
FORM 5: CHAPTER 12
Describe the factors that cause continuous variation.
Environmental factor:
• Eating habit/ type of food intake

• Excess of fat/ carbohydrate
• Causes increase in body mass
• Using body energy
• Causes decrease in body mass
Genetic factor:
• During prophase I
• Crossing over occurs
• During the formation of gametes
• Independent assortment occurs
• Random fertilisation
• Ovum fuse with sperm randomly
• Mutation occurs
• Drastic changes in sequence of base in DNA
• Temperature is higher at lower altitudes

• The growth rate of the plant is higher
• Because the temperature is more optimum for enzyme reactions
• There are more insects, air and wind at lower altitudes
• Therefore increase the frequency of pollination and flowering.
87
FORM 5: CHAPTER 12
• Discontinuous variation
• Crossing over
• Occurs during prophase I of meiosis//segment of chromatids exchange places//the segment
of maternal chromatid attaches to the paternal chromatid// new combinations of genes are
produced on these chromatids
• Independent assortment of chromosome.
• During metaphase I of meiosis, the homologous pairs of chromosomes are arranged on the
equatorial plate at random//this result in a variety of gametes, each with different
combinations of maternal and paternal chromosomes
• Random fertilisation
• The random fertilisation of the gametes from different parents//gametes with diverse
combinations of homologous chromosomes are fused together to form a zygote with variety
of gene combination.
88
FORM 5: CHAPTER 12
89
FORM 5: CHAPTER 12
• Colour blindess caused by recessive alleles on X sex-chromosome
• During meiosis, the male gamete XB and Y are formed
• The female gamete XB and Xb are formed
• During fertilisation, the offspring genotype are XB Xb , XBXB , XbY and XBY
• All female offspring has normal vision
• Because female has two X chromosomes
• If the female has XBXb , she is normal//carrier
• The female inherit colour blind if she has XbXb
• Male only has one X chromosom
• If the male has Xb , the male inherit colour blindness
• Probability of male offspring to suffer colour blind is 50%
• Probability of female o
• ffspring to suffer colour blindness is 0%
• Yes (there is possible treatment)
• Growth hormone injection
• To help the child (with the Turner syndrome) to grow taller
• Undergo oestrogen replacement therapy // take combination of oestrogen
and progesterone pills/patch by the age of 12 years old
• To help trigger the growth of breast/pubic hair//other sexual characteristics
• If women with Turner syndrome wish to conceive a child may consider using donor egg//
embryo// IVF
90
FORM 5: CHAPTER 12
• Provides adaptations and characteristics needed for individuals to survive in the
environment that is changing.
• Prevents extinction
• Protects from predation//camouflage
• Able to conquer//inhabit a new habitat
• Produces variety in the same species
• Differentiates individuals
91
FORM 5: CHAPTER 12
• The process of meiosis causes the number of chromosomes in a gamete to become haploid
• Crossing over occurs during prophase 1 meiosis
• Random arrangement of homologous chromosomes at metaphase 1 stage of meiosis
• Twin chromatid separation during anaphase II of meiosis
• Produces different types of gametes with different genetic content.
• Fertilization randomly produces a zygote that has different genetic information from its
parent
• Genes passed down from a parent to her offspring consist of dominant genes and recessive
genes.
• The dominant gene will show its characteristics and suppress the recessive gene.
• Only half of the number of maternal chromosomes will be passed down to the child and half
of the number of paternal chromosomes.
• Gene mutations / chromosome mutations can produce individuals with different traits
92
FORM 5: CHAPTER 13
Reason of choosing GMO:

• Cheaper
• More attractive
• GMO grow faster
• GMO are more resistant to diseases / weather
• GMO farming produce more yields.
Disadvantages:
• Gene / DNA / soil contamination

• Natural species will be threatened.
• There is a small possibility for genes included in GMF to be transferred to humans for
example antibiotic resistance genes
• Ethical problems: There are foods that contain organisms / animals that are not allowed in
terms of religion (non-halal)
• Disturb the food chains / ecosystem / variation
Reason of choosing organic food:
• Safe to be consumed / healtier

• Pesticide / fertiliser / antibiotic free
• higher antioxidant / immune system boost
• Better taste
• Preserve the environment
Disadvantages:
• Higher price / cost

• Lower yields / growth rate
• Usually require bigger land area
93
FORM 5: CHAPTER 13
• The criminal is a suspect 2
• DNA is extracted from blood samples
• The use of restriction enzymes to cut DNA into fragments of different sizes
• Separated by electrophoresis gel
• DNA fragments are transferred from electrophoresis gel to the nylon membrane
• An x-ray film is placed over a nylon membrane
• X-ray film are processed and DNA profiling are generated
• The strip arrangement of the suspect’s DNA fragments is corresponds to the DNA found at
crime scene
94
FORM 5: CHAPTER 13
• DNA profiling techniques are accurate because each individual has their own set of DNA
• Since the criminal suspects are among identical twins, DNA profiling techniques should not
be used.
• It is because they have the same DNA nucleotide sequences
• Forensic experts need to get other evidence to distinguish them such as fingerprint pattern
95
FORM 5: CHAPTER 13
Advantages:
• Overcome worldwide food shortage by producing high quality of organism P
• Reduce cost of food production
• Increase nutritional value
• Food price is cheaper and easily available due to increase production of organism P
Disadvantages:
• Endangered natural species

• Argument on the issue of halal/religious/vegetarian
• Resistance to the same type of disease /pathogen
• If a new disease appears, all will be affected / destroy
96
FORM 5: CHAPTER 13
• Treatment by gene therapy

• Normal gene is inserted into patient gene
• To replace the abnormal gene
• Using virus
• (Brain) cell that contain normal gene /transgene can function normally
• By bioremediation
• Using bacteria/example of bacteria/Alcanivorax borkumensis
• Clean oil spillage/environmental pollution
• Bacteria degrade oil/petroleum biologically
• Able to clean widespread oil spillage and effectively
97
FORM 5: CHAPTER 13
• By using DNA profiling technique
• Blood sample contain DNA
• DNA can be used to identify individuals/criminal
• Because DNA is unique for everyone (except for identical twins)
• Human DNA set is different from animal DNA
• DNA can be extracted from various samples

98

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TEACHER CHIA : 012-9848477

● At zones 1 and 2, meristem cells divide mitotically to produce new cells.

a) ● gives stability to plants

b) ● Secondary growth occurs at different rates according to the seasons.

c) ● Able to produce high quality timber

b) ● vegetables production is reduced

c) ● area B/desert has very high light intensity

● Controlled by guard cells that exist in pairs

Stoma opens Stoma closes

● Photosynthesis is carried out/ sucrose ● Photosynthesis is not carried out by

● Heat from the sunlight is absorbed by the leaves

● has a hollow stem

● high temperatures cause plants to experience high transpiration rates

● Contain sufficient nitrogen for the formation of chlorophyll.

● Orchids are living epiphytic/ grows on other plants (hosts)

● Adding fertilizer to the soil

● uptake of mineral ions by root hair cells via active transport

● involved cohesion force and adhesion force

● loss of water in the form of water vapour through leaves

B (i) ● Treatment method uses plants for degradation, extraction or elimination of

B (ii) ● Rapid growth rate

● Use phytoremediation method

A (i) ● During a cool day, the plant is firm/ upright.

A (ii) ● During a cool day, all leaves open

● Both responses the action of auxin

c) ● auxin used to promote growth of watermelon

d) ● -Inhibit the production of ethylene

● In the morning, the leaves of the tree shrink

● At noon the leaves of the semalu tree expand

● The leaves of the semalu tree perform a thermos nasty reaction

● /In the morning, low temperatures cause the leaves to shrink

● At noon, high temperatures cause the leaves to expand

● High concentrations of auxin at the bottom of shoots

● causing the cells at the bottom to elongate faster

● in turn causing the shoots to bend upwards

● Higher auxin concentrations at the base of the roots

● inhibits root cell elongation

● causing the roots to bend downwards

● The hormone involved is ethylene

● used commercially to stimulate fruit ripening quickly and evenly

● so as to be able to market more fruit at one time

● Can improve the economy

● stimulates simultaneous flowering on plants

A (i) ● The phenomenon is called parthenocarpy

A (ii) ● Auxin encourages growth in crops.

b) ● Due to presence of ethylene hormone

● This process known as double fertilization

● Triploid nucleus develop into endosperm

● Integument develop into testa /seed coat

● Ovule develops into seeds

● Ovary develops into fruit

● Seeds contain X/embryo that germinate to form seedlings

when germination occurs.

● to prevent the seeds from spoiling

● form a dormant structure

● which enables the seeds to be stored for a long time

● Anther produces pollen grains/male gametes.

c) ● Pollination can be done using a pollination agent

● stems is smaller than Q ● Stem is larger than P

● Leaves with no cuticles ● Leaves with (thick waxy) cuticles

● Easy / increase the diffusion rate of ● reducing water loss.

● do not have stomata ● The stomata are embedded

● Has aerenchyma tissues