Engineering Science and Technology, an International Journal 26 (2022) 101008

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Engineering Science and Technology,

an International Journal
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jestch

Full Length Article

An experimental study and sustainability assessment of plastic waste as

a binding material for producing economical cement-less paver blocks
Karma Tempa a,⇑, Nimesh Chettri a, Gautam Thapa b, Phurba a, Cheki Gyeltshen c, Dawa Norbu a,
Dikshika Gurung a, Ugyen Wangchuk d
a
Civil Engineering Department, College of Science and Technology, Royal University of Bhutan, Phuentsholing 21101, Bhutan
b
Gyaltshen Consultancy, Thimphu 11001, Bhutan
c
School Planning and Building Division, Ministry of Education, Trashigang 42001, Bhutan
d
School Planning and Building Division, Ministry of Education, Samdrup Jongkhar 41001, Bhutan

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Recycling of plastic waste (PW) is one alternate approach to reduce the adverse impact on environment
Received 24 December 2020 despite many control measures adopted around the world. Current study introduces various types of PW
Revised 3 May 2021 as a binding material to completely substitute cement to produce cement-less paver blocks. The con-
Accepted 18 May 2021
stituent of paver block comprises of mixture of different types of PW in different proportion mixed with
Available online 05 June 2021
natural fine aggregate. PW in varying proportions of 40%, 50%, 60% and 70% were used to replace cement
and investigated to ascertain achieving satisfactory physical and mechanical properties considering tem-
Keywords:
perature effects. The compressive strength increases with increase in the proportion of plastic content.
Plastic waste
Binding material
However, when exposed to very high temperature, its strength is reduced by 31.17%. According to the test
Cement-less paver block results, the plastic paver block has a low water absorption potential. The average initial and final setting
Economic assessment time of the binder was 19 and 24 minutes respectively. Abrasion test indicated low surface wear, display-
Environmental suitability index ing high durability with maximum of 2.56% wear. A trial foot path pavement was constructed using
Sustainability ranking cement-less paver blocks and evaluation of its performance are discussed. The production of one
cement-less paver block utilizes 1.8 kg PW. As per the economic assessment, an average unit cost of
cement-less block is evaluated to be 35.39% less than concrete paver block. The findings indicate cost
benefit of 29.39 to 32.15% when PW is utilised in construction. To evaluate the sustainability, an
‘‘Environmental Suitability Index” (ESI) is developed based on three parameters: embodied energy,
life-cycle costs (LCC) and re-usability based on literature review. Three additional parameters: fire resis-
tance, social impact and labour efficiency are introduced to further enhance the ESI in the current study.
Ó 2021 Karabuk University. Publishing services by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC
BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

1. Introduction
Bhutan like any other countries is prioritizing on waste man-
agement issues according to National Waste Management System
(NWMS) 2019, however, it’s highly weighted towards landfills
[1]. As per waste composition, capital city Thimphu itself generates
PW amounting to 12.73% per day [1]. Plastic being non-
biodegradable, remains unaffected for a long time unless removed
[2]. The disposal and accumulation in the landfill cause deteriora-
tion of land fertility, disturbances to the ecosystem and risk for
public health derived from surface or ground water contamination
by leachate [2–4]. Plastic usage is one of the serious concerns [5]
⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: karmatempa.cst@rub.edu.bt (K. Tempa).
Peer review under responsibility of Karabuk University.
arising through packaging products [2,6] and has led to exponen-
tial increase of plastic derived waste [7]. Situmorang et al. [8] also
reported 36% of plastic material is of packaging, stating direct
impact on the environment. Since, the use of plastic associates is
evident, recycling of PW in construction industry is an alternate
solution [2,9]. The use of plastic wastes improves sustainability
of the environment and is considered a reliable construction mate-
rial [3]. Globally, the accumulation of waste and depletion of nat-
ural resources are increasing. Cement manufacturing process
involves one of the biggest mining activities in Bhutan leading to
greater environmental degradation. In the current study, an exper-
imental investigation was carried out to recycle PW as a substitute
to cement as a binding constituent. Conventional paver block uti-
lizes 210 kg/m3 of cement contributing significant quantity of car-
bon dioxide (CO2) emissions [10]. Therefore, it is possible to use
PW as a substitute to cement as binding material and reduce plas-

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jestch.2021.05.012
2215-0986/Ó 2021 Karabuk University. Publishing services by Elsevier B.V.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
K. Tempa, N. Chettri, G. Thapa et al.
tic wastes to deplete the carbon footprint [10] and reduce the envi-
ronmental pollution and associated health hazards. In Bhutan, the
ban on plastics carry bags, wrappers and pouches were enforced
since 1999 and also reintroduced twice in 2005 and 2009. With
implementation of new regulation in 2012, the ban was reintro-
duced once again in 2019. However, the momentum to control
on use of plastic products nor alternate substitute to plastic did
not farewell.
Several recent studies and reviews conducted on the use of
plastic waste in construction industries shows progressive and
promising results in terms of recycling, replacement or substitu-
tions either as fine or coarse aggregate in concrete of various sizes
[3,5,7,9,11–25]. To explore possible alternatives, the present study
explores using various type of PW in producing cement-less paver
blocks. Through this study, an attempt is made to back effort of
municipal to minimize the PW issues. The study considers three
different types of plastics- Polypropylene and Polystyrene (PP/
PS), High Density Polyethylene (HDPE) and all mixed type. The cat-
egorization of PW was based on the modulus of elasticity and soft-
ening property. The percentage of PW considered as binding
material were 40%, 50%, 60% and 70% for PP/PS, all mixed and HDPE
PW. The ratios were denoted as P40, P50, P60 and P70 respectively
[19]. The experimental investigation on compressive strength,
water absorption, setting time, abrasion, hardness, effect due to
extreme temperatures was carried out to predict behavior under
loading conditions, durability and performance when applied as
construction material. A trial pavement was constructed using
cement-less paver blocks and the pavement performance was eval-
uated over the period of time. Considering the outcome of the trial,
cement-less paver blocks are effective enough to be used as paver
blocks made out of cement as binding material. This would effec-
tively help in reducing load on the landfill. Relevant stakeholders
can venture in producing cement-less paver blocks in larger scale
with innovative automated manufacturing process. The economic
assessment also indicate that such venture is economically viable.
Sustainability, in the domain of Gross National Happiness
(GNH) and the guiding principle of Bhutan is defined as the devel-
opmental activities involved such that the economic, social and
cultural needs are attained without depleting or degrading the nat-
ural resources to the point that they cannot meet these needs for
future generation. Modern construction typologies use a great deal
of cement, bricks, and steels which are non-renewable. This started
with the evolution of new building materials, the most common
one being cement which has exclusive high embodied energy as
compared to any other materials. Bhutan too crept into the highly
mechanized construction materials which in fact came at the cost
of its pristine environment. The traditional Dolep and other stones
blocks are now gradually replaced by various concrete blocks and
burnt clay bricks. Lately, Royal Government of Bhutan through its
leading agencies such as National Environment Commission
(NEC) has launched a program to encourage the pollution free
building materials with less embodied energy. In conjunction to
this, the current research aims to provide sustainable alternate
paving material to local concrete blocks, polished concrete blocks,
Dolep, burnt clay bricks and granite or marble.
2. Materials and method
2.1. Plastic waste
The consumption of plastics has been growing remarkably all
over the world. At the same time, the PW has become serious glo-
bal concern and the increase is exponential [7]. However, due to its
user-friendly characteristics, flexibility, lower manufacturing and
processing cost, plastic associates are widely used in packaging,
2
Engineering Science and Technology, an International Journal 26 (2022) 101008
automotive and industrial applications, housing appliances, elec-
tronic industry and healthcare sectors. According to Siddique
et al. [5], plastics are extremely versatile, light weight, high dura-
bility and longevity, resistance to chemicals, water and impact,
excellent thermal and electrical insulation properties, lesser pro-
duction cost, ability to combine with other materials, material of
choice and exist intelligent features [5]. Owing to these benefits,
recycling and reusing PW as construction material is an opportu-
nity to contest its opposing negative impacts. The type of PW waste
described in Table 1 is based on the situation in Bhutan. In current
study, the PW are grouped in three categories viz. PP/PS, HDPE and
all mixed type and introduced as binding material in different
ratios.
2.2. Natural fine aggregates
Natural river sand was used as a fine aggregate. The properties
of sand were determined by conducting tests as per Indian Stan-
dard (IS) codes as shown in Table 2. Specific gravity is one of the
key parameters that influence the density of composition. Fine
aggregates exist in three different categories -coarse, medium
and fine according to grain size distribution. IS code (IS: 2386-
Part I-1963) specifies fine aggregates confirming to four grading
zones for high strength concrete and durability. As per the sieve
analysis, the fine aggregate used in the study falls in grading
zone-I which is coarser than the rest of the zones with 3.18 as fine-
ness modulus. Bulking normally occurs when water is added. For
coarse sands, bulking is less compared to fine sand and falls rela-
tively within the requirements. In absence of water in the mix,
effect of bulking property of sand in the present research is
insignificant. The laboratory sieve analysis and results are indi-
cated in Fig. 1.
2.3. Sample preparation and molding
The application of PW to produce cement-less paver blocks does
not require any direct usage of water. Also, producing cement-less
paver blocks is simply easy process as it can be easily segregated,
shredded, melted and molded in a pre-fabricated steel molds. It
can be easily molded into a variety of shapes for the use in a wide
range of applications [6]. The process can be manually carried out
with basic tools and apparatus locally available. Mechanization can
be an option if produced in very large-scale. The shredding of the
PW can be of random sizes to work comfortably since the speci-
mens are melted and mixed with sand. The sides of each hexa-
unit are 60 mm of 60 mm thickness (Fig. 2). Three such units form
a single block (Tri-hex). It is termed as interlocking paver block
according to Building Schedule of Rates (BSR), 2020.
2.4. Experimental study
Polymer-based waste products when used as an alternate com-
posite material alters the physical, mechanical and durability prop-
erties in concrete [5,7,12,15,19–21]. The results are no exception in
the current study. All the laboratory tests as shown in Fig. 3 were
conducted in accordance to IS codes with recommended number of
samples for the tests. Key elements of the test conducted are
briefly described and presented in Table 3.
3. Experimental results and discussion
3.1. Compressive strength
In concrete technology, compressive strength is the most
important mechanical property. Any new concrete mix should sat-
K. Tempa, N. Chettri, G. Thapa et al. Engineering Science and Technology, an International Journal 26 (2022) 101008

Table 1
Properties of common forms of plastic materials and cement.

Polymer name Description [5] Some uses for virgin plastic [5] Softening Elastic modulus
point (°C) GPa [12]
Polyethylene Clear tough plastic, may be Soft drink and mineral water bottles, filling for sleeping bags and 80 2.1–3.1
Terephthalate (PET) used as a fiber pillows, textile fibers
High Density Very common plastic, usually Crinkly shopping bags, freezer bags, milk and cream bottles, bottles 75 0.6–1.4
Polyethylene(HDPE) white or colored for shampoo and cleaners, milk crates
Unplasticized Polyvinyl Hard rigid plastic, may be Clear cordial and juice bottles, blister packs, plumbing pipes and 80 2.7–3.0
Chloride (UPVC) clear fittings
Low Density Polyethylene Soft, flexible plastic Lids of ice-cream containers, garbage bags, garbage bins, black plastic 70 0.6–1.4
(LDPE) sheet
Polypropylene (PP) Hard, but flexible plastic- Ice-cream containers, potato crisp bags, drinking straws, hinged lunch 140 1.3–1.8
many uses boxes
Polystyrene (PS) Rigid, brittle plastic. May be Yoghurt containers, plastic cutlery, imitation crystal ‘‘glassware’’ 95 3.1–3.3
clear, glassy
Cement paste (w/c = 0.5) – – – 15–20

Table 2
Specification of fine aggregate used in current study.

Test Test results Specification

Sieve analysis Zone I IS: 2386 (Part I) – 1963
Specific gravity 2.46 IS: 2386 (Part III) – 1963
Water absorption 3.65% -do-
Fineness modulus 3.18 IS: 383–1970

isfy the minimum strength required for structural application [9].

The compressive strength of a concrete is usually measured in 3,
7 and 28 days as concrete attain its strength. At 28 days curing per-
iod, it is expected to gain full strength. For cement-less paver block,
the samples get hardened immediately after the final setting time
of ~ 30 minutes and the compression test can be conducted in few
hours. It does not require curing age. Since, the composition is dif-
ferent, basis to properties of concrete may not be applicable
directly. However, reference standard procedures are carried out
so that the cement-less block samples resemble as a new alternate
construction material.
In contrary, the complete replacement of cement in the form of
plastic mortar in the current study have indicated increase in com-
pressive strength with percentage increase in the waste plastic
content. Ghernouti and Rabehi [15] also reported 18–23% reduc-
tion in compressive strength of mortars containing 10 and 20%
plastic bag waste respectively. This attribution is mainly due to
development of homogeneous solid bonded block when mixed
with fine aggregate. The inherent elasticity and softening proper-
ties largely contributed initially due to quick setting. However,
the overall trend shows lower compressive strength compared to
conventional concrete paver blocks except for 60% HDPE waste
content.
The minimum compressive strength required for precast con-
crete paver block is 30 kN/m2 (IS 15658, 2006). The compressive
strength resulted as high as 32.6 N/mm2 for P60 HDPE waste inclu-
sion and P40 PP/PS resulted lowest value of 10.25 N/mm2 with
moderate values ranging between 18.99 to 20.74 N/mm2 for P40
and P70 respectively when all types of PW were mixed as shown
in Fig. 4.

3.2. Water absorption

Water absorption usually indicates degree of porosity of mate-

rials expressed in percentage under specific condition [26]. In most
cases, durability of a materials is largely dependent on water
absorption characteristics [12]. Higher water absorption property
results in poor structural performance due to presence of moisture
resulting in reduction in bond strength. Indian standard code rec-
ommends water absorption not more than 6% for precast concrete Fig. 1. Grain size analysis and distribution of natural fine aggregates.

3
K. Tempa, N. Chettri, G. Thapa et al.
Fig. 2. Cement-less paver block details (a) Dimension, (b) Molded block units.
paving blocks (IS 15658, 2006). Studies conducted on replacement
of recycled plastic in concrete indicated increase in water absorp-
tion characteristics [5,12,13,25].
However, according to Saika and De Brito [24], compared to ref-
erence concrete, concrete containing shredded PET-bottle when
used as a fine aggregate or binding material, water absorption rate
is lower. The current results presented in Figs. 5 and 6 show
decrease in water absorption as the percentage of plastic content
increases and the tendency are similar in both the cases (oven
and air dried). The major reason for the reduction was due to dense
bonding tendency of molten PW with the fine aggregates. For PP/PS
and all mixed samples, water absorption decreased from 1.20% to
0.35% and 0.47%to 0.19% for 40% to 70% plastic content when oven
and air dried respectively. Water absorbed by HDPE inclusion is
higher with maximum of 1.30% and 0.63% at 40% content when
oven and air dried respectively. The 60% HDPE content absorbed
minimum of 0.43% and 0.35% when oven and air dried respectively.
The water absorption results are approximately 50% less when the
samples are air dry tested.
3.3. Abrasion behavior
Normally, concrete with high compressive strength has high
abrasion resistance [27]. With increase in the plastic content, it
has attributed to an improvement of abrasion resistance although
there was a decrease in compressive strength of cement-less paver
blocks. Such increase in abrasion behavior was also concluded by
Siakia and De Brito [24] when plastic particles were incorporated.
Referring to the results in Fig. 7(a) and (b), PP/PS bears highest
mass loss during abrasive forces indicating higher percentage of
surface wear and trend decreases as the PW proportion increases.
For PP/PS, the highest and lowest mass loss is 70.33 g and 24 g
resulting 2.68% and 0.91% wear respectively. On contrary, HDPE
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Engineering Science and Technology, an International Journal 26 (2022) 101008
mix undergoes minimal surface wear of 0.70% and 0.38% corre-
sponding to 23.33 g and 8 g mass loss. All mixed PW exhibit mod-
erate resistance against abrasion when compared. The overall
trend show decrease in mass lost and percentage wear with the
increase in the plastic content as shown in the Fig. 7.
3.4. Bulk density
Fig. 8 provides unit weights of the cement-less paver block as a
function of different plastic content. The bulk density of PP/PS and
all mixed cement-less paver block ranges approximately between
11.38 to 13.95 kN/m3. Use of HDPE waste contributed to slightly
higher bulk density between 11.74 to 15.70 kN/m3. Conventional
concrete blocks usually have its unit weights between 29 to 32
kN/m3 which is 50% higher than the results obtained in current
study. Siakia and De Brito [23] has also stated reduction in density
or unit weight due to inclusion of the PW in cement mortar and
concrete. Similar results were reported by [17]. However, the lower
bulk density of the cement-less paver blocks is perhaps advanta-
geous as it makes easier for handling in construction and
transportation.
3.5. Setting time and hardness
In concrete, setting time play important role in achieving con-
crete hardness and it is a time-consuming process. It is the time
when the cement paste starts losing its plasticity. Usually in con-
crete, initial and final setting time are 30 minutes and 10 h respec-
tively. As per the test results (Table 4), an average initial and final
setting time were 19 and 25 minutes respectively. The cement-less
paver blocks gained its full strength approximately in 3-hour dura-
tion and did not require curing age.
Hardness of the specimen is characterized with the setting time
of the sample which in turn contribute to overall strength gained
during the process. Due to quick setting property of PW, the sam-
ples become in hardened state approximately in 30 minutes. Bri-
nell hardness test was conducted to study the resistance against
indentation under two different loading conditions and the results
indicate hardness value ranging between 38.75 to 148.6 with
higher percentage of PW revealing soft characteristics as shown
in Table 4.
3.6. Temperature effect
Due to low softening and modulus of elasticity of PW, prior to
test, it is envisaged that the samples exhibit brittle and ductile
properties under low and high temperatures respectively. Which
means, when only plastic is used as binding agent, the plastic con-
tent cannot be very low or very high due to which the mechanical
properties are substantially degraded beyond the required margin.
Essentially, thermal degradation occurs due to or processing of
polymers at high temperatures [2]. Saxena et al. [28] also pointed
out poor residual compressive strength on exposure to elevated
temperature.
P60 all mixed PW samples were exposed to
15 °C and 60 °C
temperatures and tested for compressive strength. The average
compressive strength of the sample decreased by 0.73 kN and
6.24 kN under cold and hot conditions respectively. The cement-
less paver blocks maintain less compressive strength capacity
under high temperature as resulted in Table 5. The temperature
variations are comparatively less in Bhutan as compared to test
temperatures considered in the study.
K. Tempa, N. Chettri, G. Thapa et al.
Fig. 3. Laboratory experimental investigation, (a) Test for setting time, (b) compression test, (c) Abrasion test, (d) Brinell hardness test.
3.7. Performance evaluation
Performance of construction materials are best recognized
when it endures actual applications. It verifies the level of durabil-
ity and functional requirements. The pavement was constructed
with the proposed P60 all mixed PW cement-less paver blocks. It
was placed adjacent to the conventional concrete block segment
along the sides of Primary National Highway (PNH) subjected to
mixed traffic loads as shown in Fig. 9.
The compressive strength corresponds to 20.02 kN/m2 and 35
kN/m2 for P60 cement-less and concrete paver blocks respectively.
Performance evaluation was conducted at the end of one and half
year after the construction. From Fig. 9, the evaluation indicated
remarkable resistance to compressive loads. The minor undulation
or sinking in individual block was observed which was contributed
due to base instability. Proper edging system (Kerb stone) need to
be installed to avoid instability at the edges as noticed requiring
better workmanship. The investigation also noted concern on sur-
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Engineering Science and Technology, an International Journal 26 (2022) 101008
face wear. It was learnt that the combination of continuous loading
and the effect of high temperature contributed to it (location max-
imum temperature = 39 °C).
3.8. Economic assessment
The weight calculation for sand and plastic required for differ-
ent mix ratios is determined based on material properties. As per
the experimental trials, addition of 88% dry volume of PW is
required to produce one cement-less paver block when melted.
The results in Table 6 show close equivalency in total weight of
each block in all the PW mix ranging between 3.11 to 3.20 kg. With
average density of PW, in Tables 7 and 8, we obtained rate of pro-
ducing cement-less paver blocks with Nu. 7.85 for P40 and Nu. 7.44
for P70 which is the highest as anticipated. The rate of production
is 192 number of blocks per day based on the labor and material
coefficient (LMC) 2020 [29].
Density of sand = 1680 kg/m3
K. Tempa, N. Chettri, G. Thapa et al. Engineering Science and Technology, an International Journal 26 (2022) 101008

Table 3
Method of testing for molded cement-less paver blocks.

Experiment Description No. of Specification

samples
Water absorption The molded samples are 12 IS 15658:
soaked in water for 24 h and 2006
dried in an oven and air dried
for another 24 h. In both the
cases, the water absorption is
determined. The percentage
difference in weights to the
dry weight is water
absorption.
Setting time Initial setting time is the time 12 IS 4031:
at which needle fails to (Part 5)-
penetrate the plastic paste, 1988
which is placed in Vicat
apparatus to a point 5.0 mm
measured from the bottom of
the mold. Final setting time is
the time required by the
needle to make an
impression on the top of the
plastic block
Compression The tri-hexagonal cement- 24 IS 15658:
less paver blocks were placed 2006
in compression testing
machine (CTM). The
compressive strength is
obtained corresponding to
the failure loads divided by
plane area for the respective
samples. Fig. 4. Comparison of compressive strength with various PW mix ratios.
Abrasion Los Angeles abrasion test is 12 IS 2386:
usually conducted to find the (Part IV) –
toughness and the abrasion 1963
character of the paver block,
by subjecting the sample
paver block to impact,
abrasion, rotating and
grinding in the steel rotating
drum with 6 numbers of
spherical weight balls.
Hardness Brinell hardness test was 12 IS 1500:
conducted to measure the 2005
indentation of the samples.
Temperature The samples were subjected 6 IS 15658:
effect to extreme temperatures of 2006

15 °C and 60 °C and
compression test was
conducted to check the
variation in compressive
strength.

Average density of plastic = 950 kg/m3

Volume of block = 1684 mm3
The rate analysis is carried out for producing a single block
manually using locally available tools and apparatus. The basic
rates of Phuentsholing city for manpower and sand are applied
Fig. 5. Water absorption variation with different PW %: Oven dried.
according to BSR (2020) [30], while transportation rates are based
on prevailing market rates during the time of carrying out this
study within 10 km radius.
The rate analysis results show decrease in the cost of producing and laying cement-less paver blocks for 1.0 m2 built-up area. The
single cement-less paver block with increase in the percentage of cost benefit for constructing the pavement using cement-less paver
plastic content. The maximum and minimum unit cost of Nu. blocks ranges between 29.39 to 32.25% when PW are used from 40
7.85 and Nu. 7.44 is incurred with the of use of 40% and 70% plastic to 70% over concrete paver blocks.
respectively which is approximately 35.39% less than the cost of a
concrete paver block. The basic rate per square meter for interlock-
ing tri-hex concrete block is Nu. 433.84 [30] and the unit cost 4. Sustainability assessment
equals to Nu. 12.15 per block. Due to quick setting time, the higher
rate of production is contributed. The unit rates thus obtained from In the past decades, Bhutan has been able to fulfil the constitu-
rate analysis are used to calculate the built-up rates for providing tional mandate of 60% forest cover for all times. However, accord-
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K. Tempa, N. Chettri, G. Thapa et al. Engineering Science and Technology, an International Journal 26 (2022) 101008

Fig. 6. Water absorption variation with different PW %: Air dried.

ing to Bhutan’s National Waste Management Strategy 2019 [1],

solid waste and effluents are considered to be a major environmen-
tal and health concern. The waste management currently faces
multiple barriers such as institutional, technical, financial, capacity
informational and public support barriers leading to very poor
waste management system. The increase in the waste generation
is significantly increased with readily accessible imported prod-
ucts, non-biodegradable goods and change in consumption pattern
of the society [1]. Plastic waste generation is a growing concern in
Bhutan and it is second largest contributing factor with 172.16
metric tons of solid waste per day out of which 29.44 metric tons
are PW (17.1%) as presented in Fig. 10.
As a case to project the sustainable environmental benefits
resulting from the reuse of PW, the assessment was carried out.
In view of P60 mix ratio, 192 numbers of cement-less paver blocks
can be produced manually with the locally available tools and
apparatus in a day. In a year, 124.4 metric tons of PW can be recy-
cled as a pavement construction material (Fig. 11).
Further, to substantiate the sustainability of cement-less paver
blocks, we quantify comparative analysis results of local concrete
block, polished concrete block, Dolep, burnt clay brick, granite
and marble. Sustainability assessment methods have emerged in
recent years as a means to evaluate the performance of construc-
tion materials across a broad range of sustainable parameters
being considered. Environmental suitability index (ESI) of each of
these materials are derived considering the parameters such as
embodied energy, LCC and re-usability alike the methodology
adopted in [32]. The authors ideas to enhance the novelty of the
research has felt vital to identify and incorporate additional param- Fig. 7. Abrasion behaviour of cement-less paver blocks, (a) Mass lost, (b) Percentage
eters such as service life, environmental impact, performance, of wear.
social impact, fire resistance and labor efficiency. This novelty
can be regarded to assist architects, planners and environmentalist
for sustainable developmental activities [1,33]. The current paper which also includes the logistics and transportation charges which
efforts to formulate and correlate empirical basis to demonstrate is associated to the emission of the carbon dioxide or the embodied
the impact on environment due to multifarious paver materials carbon to produce particular construction material [34–36] and
through sustainability scoring levels. The commonly used paver calculated on the basis of Tons of oil Equivalent (ToE) [32]. Current
materials in Bhutan are shown in Table 9. study re-projected the embodied carbon in Fig. 13 [35] for the
materials considered which was supplemented through quantita-
tive survey from various sectors and stakeholders in which 150
4.1. Embodied energy participants were interviewed which also included collection of
other sustainability indices. The configuration of the respondents
Embodied energy (EE) or ‘‘primary energy” according to Ham- is shown in Fig. 12. In Fig. 13, the analytical findings project higher
mond [34] is the energy required to produce the final product embodied carbon for materials such as for polished blocks and

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K. Tempa, N. Chettri, G. Thapa et al. Engineering Science and Technology, an International Journal 26 (2022) 101008

Fig. 9. Comparison of performance evaluation on constructed pavement.

These are further converted into mega joule (MJ) of energy for
the context of the analysis. Analytical results of embodied energy
of different paver material used in Bhutan is shown in Fig. 14, with
1,398 MJ EE and 19.10% VI, both at second position, depicting bet-
ter rating of cement-less paver block by far great margin in com-
parison to other building materials with exception to Dolep.
X
EE ¼ m i Mi þ E c ð1Þ

Where, mi = material quantity; Mi = energy content of material

per unit quantity; Ec = energy used at site for construction [39].
Fig. 8. Variation on bulk density with PW content.
4.2. Life-cycle cost (LCC)

locally produced concrete blocks which exhibit as high as 423 kg
CO2/ton. For complete and detailed life cycle analysis (LCA), the
embodied energy and embodied carbon analysis represent easy
and useful methods for a quick preliminary environmental evalua-
tion [37] and environmental performance [38]. Ideally there exist
four different methods to calculate energy required to produce
goods and services namely statistical analysis, input–output (I-O)
analysis, process analysis and eco-energetics [32]. The process
analysis method was employed to find the embodied energy for
different paver materials considered for study as given by Eq. (1).
The overall cost during the lifetime of structure amount initial
cost, maintenance costs, energy costs, cleaning costs, overhead
and management cost, utilization costs, less any residual value at
the end. LCC can be fundamentally represented by Eq. (2).
LCC ¼ Ic þ ðMc þ Ec þ Cc þ Oc Þ þ Uc - Rv ð2Þ
Where, Ic is the initial cost, Mc the maintenance cost, Ec the
energy cost, Cc the cleaning cost, Oc the overhead and management
cost, Uc the utilization cost, Rv the resale value. The three most
common LCC methods are simple payback, net present value

Table 4
Setting time and hardness test results.

Types of plastic Mix ratio (Plastic: Sand) Initial setting time (minutes) Final setting time (minutes) Applied load (N)
1471.5 2452.5
PP/PS 40:60 18 23 30.84 38.75
50:50 18 24 33.42 41.90
60:40 18 22 98.13 110.00
70:30 20 25 112.17 114.89
HDPE 40:60 18 24 110.27 111.61
50:50 19 23 118.3 124.57
60:40 18 24 131.3 141.58
70:30 18 24 134.5 148.60
All Mixed 40:60 19 23 65.87 93.65
50:50 17 24 69.94 96.84
60:40 16 23 104.80 113.20
70:30 18 24 124.56 127.40

Table 5
Variation of compressive strength due to temperature effect.

Mix design ratio Low temperature (
15 °C) High temperature (60 °C)
Load (kN) Compressive strength (N/mm2) Load (kN) Compressive strength (N/mm2)
P60 (All mixed) 540 19.41 380 13.66
535 19.23 390 14.02
535 19.23 380 13.66
Average – 19.29 – 13.78

8
K. Tempa, N. Chettri, G. Thapa et al. Engineering Science and Technology, an International Journal 26 (2022) 101008

Table 6
Proportion of plastic and sand required for producing single cement-less paver block.

Code Mix ratio (Plastic: Sand) All plastic types Proportion by Weight (kg) Weight of block (kg)
Plastic Sand
P40 40:60 Plastic: Sand 1.20 2.00 3.17
P50 50:50 1.50 1.67 3.14
P60 60:40 1.80 1.33 3.11
P70 70:30 2.11 1.00 3.20

Table 7
Rate analysis for producing single unit cement-less paver block.

Discription Activity N D Q U R A*
Plastic waste Nil 0 0 0 – 0 0
Water charges Nil 0 0 0 – 0 0
Sand (10,000 kg/truck) Inclusive of transportation 1 – 2.000000 kg 0.3730 0.75
Laborer Sorting, cleaning and shredding 2 1.5 0.003130 day 232.93 1.46
Laborer Melting, mixing and molding 2 0.5 0.001040 day 232.93 0.49
Mini truck Transportation 1 1.5 0.003125 day 700 2.19
Laborer Loading and unloading 2 1.5 0.003125 day 232.93 1.46
Work supervisor Supervision of works 1 1.3 0.002600 day 309.82 0.81
Amount (Nu.) – 7.14
Profit (10%) – 0.71
Rate per block (Nu.) P40 7.85
Similarly, P50 7.72
P60 7.58
P70 7.44
Production per day (Nos.) =1/ (0.003130 + 0.001040 + 0.001044)
=1/0.00521 = 192 blocks

* (N = Nos., D = duration in hour, Q = quantity in coefficient, U = units; R = rate in Nu., A = amount in Nu.; 1 USD = Nu. 74.08).

Table 8
Built-up rate per m2 for providing and laying 60 mm thick cement-less paver blocks and cost comparison with concrete paver block.

Description Quantity Unit Rate (Nu.) Amount (Nu.)

Mason Gd. 1 0.05000 day 309.82 15.49
Mason Gd. 2 0.05000 day 275.64 13.78
Laborer 0.15191 day 232.93 35.38
Sand 0.06500 m3 473.33 30.77
Interlocking paver block (Tri-Hex) 1.00000 m2 280.39 280.39
Total (Nu.): A 375.81
Contractor’s profit and overhead charges @16%: B 60.13
Grand Total (Nu.): A + B [P40] 435.94
P50 430.34
P60 424.56
P70 418.95
RW0303: Providing and laying cement paver blocks, Tri-Hex, Ash grey: 60 mm thick as per BSR 2020 617.42
Percentage cost benefit per m2 for P40, P50, P60 and P70 (%) 29.39, 30.30, 31.24 and 32.15

(NPV), internal rate of return (IRR). The most preferred LCC tech- with rest of the materials at 56.65% VI. It imperatively holds that
nique in the construction industry is the NPV method. NPV is cement-less paver blocks are low-cost, suitable and affordable for
defined as the sum of money that needs to be invested today to low-income population.
meet all future financial requirements as they arise throughout
the life of an investment. NPV is calculated using Eq. (3).
4.3. Re-usability

The potential of recycling the materials at the end of its life or

X
T
Ct
NPV ¼
t¼0 ð1 þ rÞt
Where, Ct is the estimated cost in year t, r is the discount rate
and T is the period of analysis in years. The LCC for burnt red bricks,
marbles, granite and polished concrete blocks are obtained from
the annual report of the government considering discounted rate
of 10% as of 2018. The analysis results of LCC for different paver
materials used in Bhutan is presented in Fig. 15 which conveys
convenience of cement-less paver blocks in overall maintenance
and serviceability with LCC of Nu. 1,200 per 10 m2 ranking second
when it becomes out of service is re-usability. The disposal of
ð3Þ building materials forms huge amount of waste to the environ-
ment which exacerbate the environmental pollution. Materials like
concrete, bricks, polythene products, etc. are some of the conse-
quences of the afterlife of built environment. The data were col-
lected through survey as discussed in Fig. 12. For example, if a
material can be used for same purpose, the re-usability factor of
1 (or value index of 100 percentage rating) is assigned and the val-
ues for other instances are reduced proportionally. The re-usability
matrix for different paver materials considered for current study is
shown in Fig. 16 indicating cement-less paver blocks with 30% re-
9
K. Tempa, N. Chettri, G. Thapa et al. Engineering Science and Technology, an International Journal 26 (2022) 101008

Fig. 12. Interview configuration for sustainability assessment.

Fig. 10. Waste composition in Bhutan [31].

Fig. 13. Embodied carbon in different construction paving materials.

Fig. 11. Quantity of cement-less paver block and plastics vs. duration chart.

Table 9
usability and VI of cement-less paver blocks remains equivalent
Paving materials commonly used in Bhutan.
to local concrete blocks.
Paving materials Raw materials Dimension (mm)
Local concrete bricks in Sand, cement, 240  115  74
4.4. Environmental suitability index
Phuentsholing aggregate
Bhutan concrete bricks private Cement, aggregate, 240  110  70
limited in Thimphu crushed dust The Bhutan schedules of rates (2020) [30] and labor and mate-
Polished concrete block Cement, sand, coarse 200  200  100 rial coefficient (2020) [29] is used to estimate the material quanti-
aggregate
ties and costs. 10 m2 of paver materials are considered to calculate
Dolep Stone Varies
Burnt clay bricks Baked alkaline clay 200  90  90
ESI. The analysis consists of two parts- first part comprises of cal-
Granite/ Marble Stone/rock Varies culation of value index (VI) using Eq. (4) in terms of embodied
Cement-less paver block Sand, plastic As presented in energy, LCC and re-usability. The sum of three VI gives the ESI
Fig. 2(a) and therefore, environmental suitability rank is thus established.
The ESI for different paver materials used in Bhutan is expressed
usability compared to 25% for burnt clay bricks. However, VI in Table 10.
remains at fourth rank with 46.15% compared to 30%, 38.46% for The research by [40] has also shown tremendous effort to cate-
polished concrete blocks and burnt clay bricks respectively. Re- gorize the sustainability of built environment which essentially
10
K. Tempa, N. Chettri, G. Thapa et al. Engineering Science and Technology, an International Journal 26 (2022) 101008

Fig. 14. Embodied energy for different paver materials.

Fig. 15. LCC for different paver materials.

Fig. 16. Re-usability matrix for different paver materials.

11
K. Tempa, N. Chettri, G. Thapa et al. Engineering Science and Technology, an International Journal 26 (2022) 101008

Table 10
Overall ESI scoring and SR ranking.

Paver materials ESI [32]* ESI [40] * ESI (Current study) Score of ESI SR
Local concrete blocks 92.47 145.00 155.00 392.47 5
Burnt clay bricks 80.83 145.00 145.00 370.83 6
Polished concrete blocks 97.35 165.00 150.00 412.35 4
Dolep 300.00 270.00 250.00 820.00 1
Granite/Marble 154.27 235.00 175.00 564.27 2
Cement-less paver blocks 121.90 215.00 140.00 476.90 3

* Analyzed based on Emmanuel, 2004 and Mueller et. al., 2017.

considers parameters such as performance (safety against hazards,
climate comfortability, cost and social aspect), service life (design
life of the building) and environmental impacts [41]. Equation (6)
computes the building material sustainability potential (BMSP)
for different construction materials and sustainability projection
are rated in Fig. 17 based on survey and rated out of 100 points (%).
Lowest embeded energy ðMJÞ
VI ¼ x100
Embeded energy of material
Resuability of material
VI ¼ x100
Highest resuability
Service life x Performance
BMSP ¼
Emvironmental impact
Dolep scores highest points in Emmanuel and Mueller methods.
It is abundantly found in Bhutan and are used in almost all tradi-
tional and monastic courtyard. The transportation cost is minimal
as it is locally available. The analysis results shows that the
cement-less paver blocks win more points than concrete blocks
and burnt clay bricks. Cement-less paver block is produced out of
sand and PW which statistically indicate less environmental
impact although the process requires combustion. The fact that
sustainability of the cement-less paver block produced commensu-
rate better than dumping of PW. In absence of control combustion
system for the experiment, the embodied energy of firewood is uti-
lized for the cement-less paver blocks to balance the ambiguity in
ESI. The other sustainability indicator ignored by most researchers
is its fire resistance properties, social impact and labor efficiency.
To implement these new parameters, engineers, contractors, local
carpenters, labors and users or occupants were interviewed to
evaluate their perspectives on comfortability, social aspects and
easiness to work on multifarious paver materials in consideration
as discussed in Section 4.1. The information thus obtained are con-
verted in percentage and represented in Fig. 18 as new suitability
ð4Þ
indicators.
The prolific statistical analysis and questionnaires exclusively
indicated the ideal results to quantify the research objectives. Envi-
ð5Þ ronmental suitability indexes as obtained for all the paver materi-
als considered are summed up to get the ESI score. This is given by
Eq. (7).
ð6Þ
X
ESIScore ¼ ESIEmmanuel þ ESIMueller þ ESIcurrent study ð7Þ
Table 10 supplies overall ESI scoring and SR ranking. The quan-
tification of sustainability of various paver materials shows that
Dolep wins maximum ESI score of 820.00 points and therefore, sus-
tainability rank (SR) of 1 is assigned followed by granite and mar-
ble (564.27 points, SR = 2). Both the paver materials i.e., granite and
marble undergo same operating and extraction procedures and
they are given common ESI values.
Burnt clay bricks indicate least overall sustainability (370.83
points, SR = 6). The material under spotlight of study i.e.,
cement-less paver block holds SR 3 with ESI of 476.90. The higher
value of ESI indicate higher environmental sustainability and thus

Fig. 17. BMSP sustainability indicators analysed based on parameters considered by Mueller, 2017.

12
K. Tempa, N. Chettri, G. Thapa et al.
Fig. 18. Enhanced environmental suitability index (ESI) rating for additional parameter considered in the current study.
the SR. Therefore, the most suitable paver material is found out to
be locally extracted stone Dolep. Cement less paver block, which
basically comprises of sand and PW substantially reduces environ-
mental degradation as dumped plastic forms key ingredient of its
composition. Out of six, sustainability rank (3) is conscientiously
better than other materials under study.
5. Conclusions
Based on the current study, following conclusions are drawn:
Experimental study resulted water absorption within limits
(<6%) with 25 minutes as final setting time. The maximum mass
loss of 70.33 g was observed corresponding to 2.56% wear for PP/
PS P50 samples. Other mix ratios show lower loss in mass and per-
centage wear.
All mixed and HDPE PW samples shows compressive strength
equivalent to M20 and M30 concrete respectively with lower val-
ues for PP/PS. The lower compressive strength is contributed due
to low density. The density when compared to concrete blocks is
50% less. To this end, the higher density PW composition resulted
higher structural ability due to homogeneous solid bonding which
largely characterized the overall behavior of the cement-less paver
blocks.
A cement-less paver block can consume 1.8 kg of PW without
cement and direct use of water. In a year, 124.4 metric tons of plas-
tics can be recycled as pavement constriction material. In line to
this, economic assessment resulted much anticipated cost benefits.
The cost of construction using P40 to P70 per square meter for
cement-less paver block resulted 29.39 to 32.15% lower than the
conventional concrete paver blocks respectively. These outcomes
indicate cement-less paver blocks credibly suitable and affordable
in low-income population.
In sustainability assessment, current study introduced fire
resistance, social impact and labor efficiency as an additional
parameter to enhance ESI. Cement-less paver blocks ranked third
sustainability score, indicating environmental performance better
than concrete blocks and burnt clay bricks.
The results dictate high potential of recycling PW as construc-
tion material in non-traffic area such as around building premises,
public gardens/parks, paths and patios and embankment slopes.
13
Engineering Science and Technology, an International Journal 26 (2022) 101008
Since, PW is growing issue globally, the experimental results from
this study are applicable under respective PW domains, however,
reconsideration to local sustainability indicators is necessary.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing finan-
cial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared
to influence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank College of Science and Technol-
ogy, Royal University of Bhutan for providing the laboratory test
facilities. Special thanks to Mayor of Phuentsholing Municipal
office for the motivation and supports. The authors greatly appre-
ciate the reviewers and editors for their critical comments that
helped in improving the quality of this manuscript.
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