Scanning Electron Microscopy

Introduction
Many scientific disciplines rely on microscopy as a technological tool. Microscopy
exposes details that were previously invisible when scientists examine samples of
different materials at magnified magnification. In addition to many other discoveries,
microscopes have led to the discovery of the cell and its organelles, which are crucial
understandings in the field of biology [1].

Microscopy generally includes optical microscopy, electron microscopy, and scanning

probe microscopy. A conventional optical microscope with accelerated magnification can
have a maximum useful magnification of approximately 1000x. Reducing the wavelength
of the imaging radiation increases the useful magnification. When using electron
microscopy, electrons are typically accelerated between 2 and 1000 KeV (corresponding
to wavelengths of 0.027 to 0.0009 nm) [2].

The development of modern optical microscopes dates back to the mid-19th century.
Microscopes use transparent lenses and visible light to observe objects on a micrometer
scale, such as red blood cells and human hair. In 1931, the electron microscope was
invented to overcome the limitations of light microscopy, such as its low resolution.
Electron microscopes use charged particles (instead of light) to view nanometer-sized
particles, such as atoms. By magnifying objects more than 500,000 times, they are able
to visualize DNA and microbes at very high resolution. Nanoscale surfaces were studied
with scanning probe microscopy in the 1980s. These microscopes are not equipped with
lenses. A sharp needle is used to interact with the sample's surface and map the
interactions. Through this invention, nanotechnology was revolutionized and atoms could
be manipulated and studied to create different structures [3].

Scanning Electron Microscopy

Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) generates signals from solid specimens by
using focused beams of high-energy electrons. By analyzing the signals generated by
electron-sample interactions, information can be obtained about the sample's external
morphology (texture), chemical composition, and crystalline structure and orientation. A
2-dimensional image of these properties is generated by collecting data over a selected
area of the sample's surface. The scanning mode of conventional SEM can be used to
image areas with a width of approximately 1 cm to 5 microns (magnification ranging from
20X to approximately 30,000X, spatial resolution 50 to 100 nm). In addition to performing
analyses of selected point locations on the sample, the SEM is capable of determining
chemical compositions (via EDS), crystalline structure, and crystal orientations (via
EBSD). SEMs are very similar to EPMAs in design and function, and their capabilities
overlap considerably.
Principles of Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM)

SEM images are formed by acquiring signals produced by the electron beam and
specimen interactions [4]. SEMs produce a variety of signals due to electron-sample
interactions when electrons are decelerated in a solid sample after being accelerated.
The signals include secondary electrons (used to produce SEM images), backscattered
electrons (BSE), diffracted backscattered electrons (EBSD) that determine mineral crystal
structures and orientations, photons (characteristic X-rays used for elemental analysis
and continuum X-rays), visible light (cathodoluminescence--CL), and heat [5].

 Secondary Electrons
A secondary electron emission signal is the most widely used signal produced by the
interaction of the primary electron beam with the specimen. Primary beams cause the
ionization of specimen atoms, resulting in the emission of loosely bound electrons, known
as secondary electrons. Due to their low energy, typically 3–5 eV, they can only escape
from a few nanometers of the material surface. Thus, secondary electrons provide
accurate topographic information and mark the beam's position. The SEM uses
secondary electrons for topographic contrast, i.e., to visualize surface texture and
roughness. How many secondary electrons reach the detector determines the
topographical image. Surface structures can be resolved down to 10 nm or better with a
secondary electron signal.
 Backscattered Electrons
SEM images can also be produced by detecting BSEs, which provide both compositional
and topographic information. Generally, a BSE is defined as one that escapes from a
surface with an energy of greater than 50 eV after undergoing a single or multiple
scattering events.
 Characteristic X-rays
X-rays are also produced by the interaction of the primary electron beam with the
specimen. Chemical information is provided by x-ray analysis, the most widely used
microanalysis technique in SEMs.
 Auger Electrons
Auger electrons are created when an outer shell electron falls back into an inner shell
vacancy when an electron beam ionizes an atom. The excess energy released during this
process may be carried away by an Auger electron. Due to its characteristic energy, this
electron can provide chemical information [4].

SEM Components
Scanning electron microscopes are complex instruments. In order to create
these incredibly detailed magnified images, a beam of electrons must be manipulated
with a high degree of precision. Even though the microscope is complicated, it can be
broken down into several distinct sections. Figure 1. Shows the different parts of the
SEM.
 Figure 1: Scanning Electron setup [4]

 Electron Gun
The electron gun is the first part of the SEM. In an electron gun, electrons are fired at the
sample being magnified. It is possible to produce electrons in a variety of ways, but the
most common method is to heat a tungsten wire.
 Condenser Lens
A condenser lens is the second part of an SEM. The electron gun uses this to narrow its
electron beam. There is no glass in this lens. As electrons pass through the lens, they are
compressed by an electromagnetic field created by coils of wire.

 Apertures
Next, we have the apertures. Through these, we can control the diameter of the electron
beam. An aperture is made up of a metal rod with holes of different sizes drilled into it. By
changing the hole through which the electron beam travels, the diameter of the beam can
be controlled. In addition, the aperture prevents any extra electrons from hitting the
sample if they weren't fully condensed into the beam.
 Objective Lens and Sample Chamber
In addition to the apertures, there is another electromagnetic lens called the objective
lens. This is the final lens that focuses the electron beam on the sample. After passing
through the objective lens, the electron beam enters the sample chamber. Under a
vacuum, this chamber holds the sample to eliminate interference from unwanted particles.
In order to prevent charging and improve image quality, the target itself must be
conductive. Alternatively, the target can be coated in a naturally-conductive material, such
as gold, if it is not made of one.
  Detectors
Finally, we have the detectors. These are used to magnify images and collect other data.
While the beam scans over the sample, they detect various signals it gives off while being
struck by electrons. Among these signals are secondary electrons, backscattered
electrons and X-ray electrons [5].

An example of the Scanning Electron Microscope image

Matilda et al. when studying Water droplet friction and rolling dynamics
on superhydrophobic surfaces, used scanning electron microscopy to measure the
friction force on superhydrophobic etched silicon substrates [6].

Figure 2: SEM images of the friction force on superhydrophobic etched silicon substrates

References

[1] G. a. Y. A. S. Sines, "Lenses in Antiquity," American Journal of Archaeology, vol. 91, pp. 191-196,
1987.

[2] K.D.Vernon-Parry, "Scanning electron microscopy: an introduction," III-Vs Review, vol. 13, no. 44,
pp. 40-44, 2000.

[3] S. Cheriyedath, "Optical, Electron and Scanning Probe Microscopy," News-Medical, 2019. [Online].
Available: https://www.news-medical.net/life-sciences/Optical-Electron-and-Scanning-Probe-
Microscopy.aspx.. [Accessed 12 12 2019].

[4] R. A. Z. L. W. &. D. J. Weilie Zhou, "Fundamentals of Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM)," in

Scanning Microscopy for Nanotechnology, 2007, pp. 1-40.

[5] S. Swapp, "Geochemical Instrumentation and Analysis," The Science Education Resource Center,
[Online]. Available:
https://serc.carleton.edu/research_education/geochemsheets/techniques/SEM.html.
[6] D. M. M. V. ,. H. N. ,. M. J. H. V. J. ,. J. V. I. T. &. R. H. A. R. Matilda Backholm, "Water droplet friction
and rolling dynamics on superhydrophobic surfaces," communications materials, 2020.

[7] A. D., "The Study.com Blog," [Online]. Available: https://study.com/academy/lesson/scanning-

electron-microscopy-instrumentation-analysis.html.