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 The solid state
It is that stale of matter which have definite shape,
definite mass and definite volume .

Solids
#
Crystalline solid Amorphous solid

is Definite
shape is irregular shape
iil Melt ast sharp and in Indefinite meting point .

Characteristic temp .

iii ) iii ) They may be compressed

They are
rigid and
.

incompressible
isotropical
.

iv ) These are
in These are and so tropical
in nature
in nature
v )
. Also called True Solids v ) These are pseudo solids
or super cooled liquids .

e.g Diamond, cu, NaCl et

e.g Glass plastic Rubber eh
,
,

Isotropy Anisotropy
Those substance
Those substance
which show same properties
which show different
em different direction
properties em different
direction .
Classification of crystalline solid

Space lattice : 3-D

arrangement of const .

particles
is known as space lattice
.

UNIT CELL : smallest

repeating portion which
repeat over and

again to make space lattice .

Lattice Point
The atoms ,

ions or molecules
which are present in
unit cell .

Crystal parameters
There are six parameters of
unit cell .

edge length → 9. b. a

axial angle →
d. BM
 Seven type of crystal system

cubic a --b=c
4=p=q=9o
.

Tetragonal b# d Boy → o
'

a -
- c
-
-

Orthorhombic at btc a- p -
-
M -
-
go
.

Monoclinic atb # C 9--9=90 :B -490

'

Hexagonal btc a :p go 9--120

.

a- -
-
,

Rhombohedral a=b=c 9=0--9 # go

.

Triclinic attic at ptg# go

.

Unit
fell
I do

Primitive Unit Non Primitive

cell unit cell .

In which const particles which const

In particles
.
.

at
are present only corners are present at corners
•
@
•

k$ as well as at some

06,490
of
.

• • ⇐

ooo
•
•
other position
•
•

• •
00-0

→ Simple cubic → B. C. c → f. C. c → E. C. c

Particles only Particles at particles at Particles at

at Corners corner as well corner as well Cosner as
as face centre well
as
body centre
end
as
centre
2=8
Xtgn .
I
8Xtg -11×4=2 8Xtg -16×12=4 sextgtzxlz = I
PACKING EFFICIENCY : It is the percentage of total
space occupied by the sphere
in a unit cell .

Packing percentage : llotumeofsphere xloo

Volume of Unit cell

SIMPLE CUBIC :
a- Ls -

Packing Y

-8×18=1
No of atoms ins .c
.

VIX too
V. O U -

Vol oft sphere

G- ITP Xloo
.
c
,
guys 8%
Vol Unit cell =a3=8o3
of
.

52.4%

FACE CENTERED CUBIC :

9=41 Packing 't .
-
-
V
Hoo
VI v. O.O

No of atoms in F C C
1631483
-
-
-
=

Xloo
8×8-+6×1=4 -

64N
Yo 't 94 spheres '
-

4X§sTr ] 2712
void Unit cell -
-

a3=⇐z)3 74T .

BODY CENTERED CUBIC !

In which const .

particles ,
are present art corner as

well as body centre

9=41 Packing Y
-53
.

4.0€ xloo
V. O U
No -

of atoms in B.cc -

8Xtg +
1×4=2 G- Hrs
2 spheres → 100
Vol of
6483=2×511483
.

uol.cfunitcellI-agqy.gs
68T .
 Packing efficiency of Unit cell

ya
of atoms
go ?Iowa
.

& 9=4%5
I 9=28

CLOSE PACKED STRUCTURE : .

Packing of const .
particles
should be done in such a way that maximum space
has been occupied and minimum space remains
vacant

(i ) close
packing in L D - : when every sphere touches
two other spheres , $
making a linear type Str -

C. N → 2

cii , CLOSE PACKING IN TWO DIMENSION :

I
do to

square close
Hexagonal close

packing Packing

Every sphere touches four Every sphere touches

other sphere and
making six other sphere and
a
square type Slr .

making a
hexagonal type
Str .

c. N = 4 C. N = 6

Packing 4 . = 52.47 .

Packing 4 .
= 60.44 .
 7

CLOSE PACKING IN THREE DIMENSION :

Hexagonal close cubic Close

Packing chop ) packing Cccp)

•
layer is vertically aligned
I •
I
layer is vertically
with II layer and II layer aligned with TI layer
is
vertically with
aligned
II layer is vertically
II layer aligned with II layer
and ITI layer is vertically
aligned with VI layer

Packing y 7ft packing to 744

-
• - =
-
. . .

Mo Ay etc
•
Zn ,
Mg , etc .
.

Ag , ,
Pt .

•
C. N = 12 e
Con =
12

VOID OR INTERSTITIAL SITE :

empty space remains
between sphere after the
packing of the sphere
is called void interstitial
or site .

*
Trigonal void

# Tetrahedral void
... .
*

# Octahedral Void
TETRAHEDRAL VOID : These are the holes surrounded
by four spheres .

c. N t

no
of particles N =
.

no .
of tetrahedral void = IN

OCTAHEDRAL VOID '

. These are holes surrounded by

six spheres
c. N 6

no .
of particles = N

void
no
of octahedral 2N
-
- -

(O ORDINATION NUMBER : Number of nearest

neighbors
-

of any constituent particle

is known as co ordination
-

number
le C. N =L .
.

RADIUS RATIO RULE :

It is the ratio of radius of cation
to the radius of anion .

Radius Ratio = Radius of cation ( rt )

Radius of Anion co )
-
DENSITY OF THE UNIT CELL

D= ZXM -

NA XA 's

2- Number of atoms per unit cell

S.c → I B C C -72
- - f. c. c -74
g ,

M - Molar Mass or atomic mass

a =
edge length
MA -
-
Avogadro 's constant ( 6022×1023,

Q .
A copper crystal has F- CC Str Atomic .

radius of
copper atom is 128pm Calculate the .

density
of copper ( At .

mass of copper = 63.5 )

pyo
.

- so , ,

AWE for fcc 2=40

z -
-
A- or a = IITs
gig
-
"
a- 2×1.614 X 128pm
-
= 362 pm 9=362×10 cm

D= Z XM
4×63.5
8 -991GB
-
- =
" A XA
c. m)3× 6.02×1023
'
( 362×10 "
-

Q .
An element with
density II.
2glc.ms forms a fcc
lattice with 4×10 8am
edge length of calculate
-

the atomic mass of element

the .

pyd-2oiT
Aug Given
, D= II. I glc.ms 2=4
A =
4×10 -
8 c. m NA -
-
G 022 XCO
.
mot
-
I

M= ?
M = dXa3_XNA
Z

= 11.2 X (4×10 -
8) 3×6022×102 ?
108g Imo L
4
9. chromium tryst allies in bcc Str If its .

edge length
is 300pm find density Atomic mass
, its .

of Cris 524
PYQ -2019
ARE Density (d) =
ZXM_
a3X Na
= 2×52
}
(300×10-10) ✗ (6.022×1023)
=
2×522 = 6 '

3991cm]
27×10-24 ✗ 1023×6.022

9 Silver crystallites in a f.CC lattice The length of the .

edge of the unit cell as determined by X-ray distractions

studied is found to be 4.077 ✗ 108cm The
is
density .

of Ag 10.5g / c. m3 Calculate the atomic

.
mass

of silver NCERT
solution
Zn¥%→
D=

M=dXazXNn
for FCC 2--4

c- -

10.5g / c. m3
D= 9.077×10-8 c- M
NA = 6-022×1023 Mol - I

>

M= 105 ✗ (4.077×10-8) ✗ 6.022×1023

4

= 105114.077×4.077×4.077×10 -24×6^022×1023
A

= 105114.077×4.077×4.077×6.022
4×10

107 -09g 1m01

=
Imperfections in solids :

IDEAL CRYSTAL :

An ideal Crystal has zero

entropy
at absolute zero temp COK)
or

If all the lattice point are at their own position in

a solid Such solid are called ideal or perfect solid
.
.

NON IDEAL
-

CRYSTAL OR IMPERPECT SOLID :

It all the
lattice points are not present at their own position

LINE DEFECT POINT DEFECT

when there is irregularity or when some atoms ,
ions or

molecules
deviation in whole of the line are
missing or

of lattice point displaced from their lattice

POINT DEFECT ARE OF 3 TYPES :

✓ stoichiometric defect
✓ Non Stoichiometric defect
-

✓
Impurity defect .

STOICHIOMETRIC CRYSTAL :

The crystal in which

ratio cations and anions
of is same
e.g rock salt has Nau
formula $ Naia is 1 :L ratio

Types of STOCH 10 METRIC DEFECT :

it vacancy defect in Interstitial defect

Ciii ) Schottky defect Civ ) Frenkel defect .

VACANCY DEFECT when some atoms are

missing from their
lattice sites and hole is formed at
their positions .

→ Density of crystal decreases

→
stability of crystal decreases
because the bonds around hole
becomes weak .
 Effect Of Temperature As temperature increases .
this defect
increases due to the formation of more holes .

INTERSTITIAL DEFECT :
when some extra particles come
in the interstitial site solid , then it is called
interstitial defect .
of a

e) Density of crystal increases due to

the increase in no .

of particles .

till such solids becomes harder because

of
filling of some voids .

MIMI
Difference between Schottky defect $ Frenkel defect .

SCHOTTKY FRENKEL

Same no of cations and anions

.
when some cations are missing
and
are
missing from their lattice site from their lattice site
and holes are formed at these are displaced to nearby
positions .
interstitial site .

The size of cation and anion

•
Size of anion should be much
should be almost same larger than size of cation .

•
Co-ordination no .
should be •
Co ordination
-
number should

high .
be low .

eg NaCl KU KBR CSU

, , ,
$ Ag Br e
g
-

AGU AGI, ,
2ns $
Agbr
•
Density of crystal decreases •
Density of crystal remain
same .

Both of these defects increases with increase

of
temperature .
E) NON -

STOICHIOMETRIC DEFECT :

non stoichiometric crystals are those solids in which ratio

-

of cation and anion is different than the ratio present in their

formula
C In this Zinc is more than
.

2 no ,
e.g oxygen
oxide ion )
Feo C In this ions are more than ferrous
→ METAL EXCESS DEFECT
→ due to Anion vacancy
cation > Anion
→ due to extra cation occupying interstitial site
→ METAL DEFICIENCY DEFECT

Anion > cation

→ Due to cation vacancy .

→ Due to Extra Anion occupying interstitial

site
→ METAL EXCESS DEFECT :( Due to anion vacancy ]
The solids in which some anions
are missing from their lattice points
e- F- center and eo occupy their hole
to maintain electrical neutrality .

The anion vacancies In which eo are

entrapped are called f- center . F means

fame which means colour .

→ Due to f- centres , Crystal acquire colour

NaCl becomes yellow Kel becomes violet , lid becomes
, pink

→ METAL EXCESS DEFECT ( Due to extra cation occupying

interstitial site?

When some cations come in the

interstitial sites and some eo
come in nearby interstitial and some

eo in nearby interstitial site

come
to maintain electrical neutrality .

c×amp1e- :
when zinc
,
oxide
heated it loses oxygen
is
The extra zinc ions come in interstitial
gas .

sites whereas eo released go to near by interstitial

site The white salt Zuo becomes
of yellow
.

.
•
METAL DEFICIENCY DEFECT :
( Due to cation vacancies )
In such
defect, some cations are missing
from their lattice sites and electrical
maintained by
neutrality is increasing
the tire
charge of a nearby cation .

In this cation vacancies

way , some
are formed and then such defect
is called metal deficiency defect
due to cation vacancies .

This type of defect mainly takes place in solids in which

metal ions have variable oxidation state e.g Feo
→ Iron Pyrite crest is also called fool 's gold because it shines
like gold and also has yellow colour . In this two third
fe2t ions are changed in rest ions .

: when
In solid impurities
IMPURITY DEFECT
a some are
,
mixed and its conductance increases ,

then it is called impunity defect .

Due
to of impurities some holes
mixing ,

are formed due to which p-type

conductance increases .

Srcl Ps mixed in molten NaCl

e.g when ,

then sit ion replaces two Nat .

ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF SOLID :

Good Conductors : The solids through which electricity passes

easily of conductance 106 -108ohm-1cm"
ire
cfrder
METALLIC ELETROLYTIC
The conductance is because of The molten stale or their
motion of free eo .

They aqueous solutions are good

conductors of electricity
are
good conductors
in
of due the
electricity solid as
to
presence of
well as molten stale free mobile ions . such
solids are called electrolytic
Cu Ag , Fe Ae ete
e.g
.

, ,
conductors .

•
These are bad conductors
in solid state .
•

Tempt ,
metallic conductance te

Tempt , , electrolytic conductance T .

INSULATOR OR BAD CONDUCTORS : The substance

through
which
the conductance In them is
no
electricity passes
order
or
of to -12ohm -1 em-1

g Plastic, wood , rubber, glass diamond et

e.
,
.

SEMI CONDUCTORS : The Solids whose conductance is

-

between good conductors and insulators

of the order of 102 to 10-9 0hm -1 C- m-1

e.g Si, Cee , 2ns Cds etc ,
.

INTRINSIC SEMI EXTRINSIC SEMI

CONDUCTORS CONDUCTORS
Pure semiconductors in Impure semiconductors in
holes
which no
of e •
hoof holes which no -0--1
.ge hoof
- = .

DOPING The
mixing of impurities element or a compound
to an
increase its semi conductance is called
to
doping
-

th -

type b-type
CONDUCTORS CONDUCTORS

The conductance due to • The conductance due to

negatively charged free eo positively charged holes

•
Group -15 Impurities •
Group -13 impurities are
are added added
e conductance due to • Conductance due to
in + Ye holes is in
free eo is back -

ward direction forward direction

BAND THEORY :

each element has some magnetic

MAGNETIC PROPERTIES properties due to the
presence
of electrons electrons
. are called
tiny magnets .
The magnetic moment due to e -0
is of two types

1.) ORBITAL MAGNETIC 2.) SPIN MAGNETIC

MOMENT MOMENT
due to motion of eo due to spinning of
around nucleus eo on its own axis .

a) Paramagnetic :
These are the
substance which are
weakly
attracted by magnetic field .

This property is due to

unpaired eo

e. fe cost etc
g Oz
.

, ,

b) Diamagnetic : -

The substance which are

repelled by magnetic field This

.

property is due to all paired electrons .

2n, Cd Cu
e.g ,

c) ferromagnetic :
substance
-

The which are

attracted by magnetic
field
strongly
and
get permanently magnetised
by magnetic field .
This property is due toparallel alignment
of all
magnetic domains TTT 1^99
.

ANTIFERROMAGNETIC :
These are the substance
which have large no of
domains
.

magnetic aligned
So
in direction opposite
to each other that , net
magnet
moment
.

becomes Mno
e.g
zero
1^1,1^1,1^4
FERRI MAGNETIC :
These are the
substance in which
domains are in
parallel
magnetic in aligned
and anti -

parallel unequal number

so that net
magnetic moment decreases 1^1^1,1^+4 .

g magnetite crest ) and ferrites ( MgFez0&)

e.