By:

Saiwan Majeed

FINITE MATHEMATICS 1
 Section One:
Introduction to Polynomials
Definition :
An expression of the form 𝑎0 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 + 𝑎𝑛 in which
𝑎𝑛 , 𝑎𝑛−1 , ⋯ , 𝑎0 are given number (real or complex), 𝑛 is positive integer number
and 𝑥 as the variable is called a polynomial in 𝑥. The constant𝑎𝑛 , 𝑎𝑛−1 , ⋯ , 𝑎0 are
called coefficients, and the single monomials 𝑎0 𝑥 𝑛 , 𝑎1 𝑥 𝑛−1 , ⋯ , 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥, 𝑎𝑛 are
called the terms of the polynomial. If 𝑎0 ≠ 0 then the polynomial is degree 𝑛 and
𝑎0 𝑥 𝑛 is the leading term, 𝑎0 is called the leading coefficient.

FINITE MATHEMATICS 2
Remark :
A polynomial all of whose coefficients are equal to 0 is called an identically
vanishing polynomial and is replaced by 0.
Properties of Polynomials:
1) Two polynomials are called equal if the coefficients are equal for corresponding
variables.
𝑎0 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 + 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑏0 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑏1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑏𝑛−1 𝑥 + 𝑏𝑛
→ 𝑎0 = 𝑏0 , 𝑎1 = 𝑏1 , ⋯ , 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑏𝑛

FINITE MATHEMATICS 3
Or
𝑎0 𝑥 3 + 𝑎1 𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 𝑥 + 𝑎3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏1 𝑥 2 + 𝑏2 𝑥 + 𝑏3 are equal if
𝑎0 𝑥 3 + 𝑎1 − 𝑏1 𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 − 𝑏2 𝑥 + 𝑎3 − 𝑏3 = 0
→ 𝑎0 = 0, 𝑎1 = 𝑏1 , 𝑎2 = 𝑏2 , 𝑎3 = 𝑏3

2) If 𝑃1 (𝑥) = 𝑎0 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 + 𝑎𝑛 and

𝑃2 (𝑥) = 𝑏0 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑏1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑏𝑛−1 𝑥 + 𝑏𝑛
Then 𝑃1 ± 𝑃2 = 𝑎0 ± 𝑏0 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎1 ± 𝑏1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 − 𝑏𝑛

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3) Two polynomials can be multiplied and the result is also a polynomial of
degree equal to the degree of first +degree of second.
If 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑎0 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 + 𝑎𝑛 is a polynomial degree 𝑛 and
𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑏0 𝑥 𝑚 + 𝑏1 𝑥 𝑚−1 + ⋯ + 𝑏𝑛−1 𝑥 + 𝑏𝑛 is a polynomial degree 𝑚
𝑓 𝑥 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑎0 𝑏0 𝑥 𝑛+𝑚 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑚
Example : 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 + 3 and 𝑔 𝑥 = 2𝑥 3 − 4𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 2
𝑓 𝑥 𝑔 𝑥 = 2𝑥 6 − 4𝑥 5 − 𝑥 4 + 2𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 4 − 8𝑥 3 −2𝑥 2 +4𝑥 + 6𝑥 3 − 12𝑥 4 − 3𝑥 + 6
= 2𝑥 6 − 4𝑥 5 − 11𝑥 4 − 2𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 6.

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4) Division: If 𝑓 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔(𝑥) are two polynomials of degree 𝑛 and 𝑚
respectively so that 𝑎0 ≠ 0 , 𝑏0 ≠ 0 and assume that 𝑛 ≥ 𝑚. There exists two
polynomials 𝑞 𝑥 , 𝑟(𝑥) in which 𝑟(𝑥) has a degree≤ 𝑚 or 𝑟 𝑥 = 0, such that
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑔 𝑥 𝑞 𝑥 + 𝑟(𝑥)
The polynomial 𝑞(𝑥) and 𝑟(𝑥) are called the quotient and remainder in the
division of 𝑓 𝑥 by 𝑔(𝑥).
𝑞(𝑥) 𝑟(𝑥)
= 𝑞(𝑥) +
𝑔(𝑥) 𝑔(𝑥)

FINITE MATHEMATICS 6
Example :
1
1)3𝑥 3 − 6𝑥 2 − 𝑥+1 is a polynomial degree 3
2
2) 2 − 3𝑖 𝑥 6 + 2𝑥 2 + 3 is a polynomial degree 6
3 1
3) 𝑥 + + 𝑥 − 7 is not polynomial
𝑥2
4) 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 1 is not polynomial
5) 𝑥 6 + 𝑥 −4 + 2𝑥 2 + 3 is not polynomial.

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Synthetic Division:
Definition : Given polynomials p(x)=𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎0
And 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑥 − 𝑘, the short-cut division of p(x) by 𝑔 𝑥 given by the
following table is called Synthetic Division

Coefficients 𝑎𝑛 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑎𝑛−2 … 𝑎1 𝑎0

Times 𝑘 k𝑐𝑛−1 𝑘𝑐𝑛−2 𝑘𝑐1 𝑘𝑐0

Sum 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑐𝑛−1 𝑐𝑛−2 𝑐𝑛−3 𝑐0 𝑅(𝑥)

FINITE MATHEMATICS 8
Example :

4 2 𝑓(𝑥)
If 𝑓 𝑥 = −𝑥 + 3𝑥 − 4𝑥 − 5 and 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑥 + 3 then find
𝑔(𝑥)

−1 0 3 −4 −5
−3 3 −9 18 − 42
−1 3 −6 14 − 47

𝑓(𝑥) 3 2
47
= −𝑥 + 3𝑥 − 6𝑥 + 14 −
𝑔(𝑥) 𝑥+3

FINITE MATHEMATICS 9
Remark :
𝑓(𝑥)
1. If degree 𝑓 𝑥 <degree 𝑔(𝑥), then 𝑞 𝑥 = 0 and 𝑟 𝑥 =
𝑔(𝑥)
2. If 𝑟 𝑥 = 0, we say that 𝑓(𝑥) id divisible by 𝑔(𝑥).

Theorem : [Remainder theorem]

The remainder obtained in dividing 𝑓(𝑥) by 𝑥 − 𝑐 is the value of the polynomial
𝑓(𝑥) at 𝑥 = 𝑐 that is (𝑐).

FINITE MATHEMATICS 10
Example :
𝑓 𝑥 = 3𝑥 4 + 0𝑥 3 − 12𝑥 2 − 18𝑥 + 36 and 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑥 − 2

3 0 − 12 − 18 36
2 6 12 0 − 36
3 6 0 − 18 0

𝑓(𝑥)
= 3𝑥 3 + 6𝑥 2 − 18 + 0 .
𝑔(𝑥)
∴ 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑔 𝑥 𝑞 𝑥 + 𝑓(𝑐).

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Remark :If 𝑓 𝑐 = 0 → 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑞(𝑥)(𝑥 − 𝑐)
That is, 𝑥 − 𝑐 is a factor of 𝑓(𝑥) and c is a zero of 𝑓(𝑥).
Definition :
The number c is a zero of the function 𝑓(𝑥) iff 𝑓 𝑐 = 0.
Also c is a root of the equation 𝑓 𝑥 = 0 iff c satisfies the equation, i.e 𝑓 𝑐 = 0
Theorem : [Factor theorem]
c is a zero of 𝑓(𝑥) iff (𝑥 − 𝑐) is a factor of 𝑓(𝑥), mean that 𝑓 𝑐 = 0 implies that
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 − 𝑐 𝑞(𝑥), and the converse also true.
That is, if 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 − 𝑐 𝑞(𝑥) then 𝑓 𝑐 = 𝑐 − 𝑐 𝑞 𝑐 = 0 and 𝑓 𝑐 = 0
implies that 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 − 𝑐 𝑞 𝑥 .

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Example: 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 5 + 2𝑥 4 − 𝑥 3 − 9𝑥 2 − 9𝑥 − 2 = 0
𝑓 2 = 𝑓 −1 = 0

1 1 −1 −9 −9 −2
−1 −1 −1 2 7 −2
1 1 −2 −7 2 0
↑
𝑓(−1)

𝑓 𝑥 = (𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 4 + 𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 + 2)

= (𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 1)

FINITE MATHEMATICS 13
 −1
Example : From a polynomial whose zeros are, , 3 , −2
3

1
∴𝑝 𝑥 = 𝑥+ (𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 − 3)
3
3
And from a polynomial whose zeros are, , −1 , −1, 1
4

3
𝑝 𝑥 = 𝑥− (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 1)2
4

FINITE MATHEMATICS 14
 Section Two:
The roots for a polynomial
Definition :
A number c is called a root for a polynomial 𝑝 𝑥 = 𝑎0 𝑥 𝑛 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 iff 𝑝 𝑐 = 0.
Example :
𝑝 𝑥 = 𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 have three roots 0, −1 and 3
Example :
Find all possible roots of 𝑝 𝑥 = 𝑥 3 − 8 or 𝑥 3 − 8 = 0
𝑥 3 − 8 = 𝑥 − 2 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 4 = 0
𝑥 − 2 = 0 → 𝑥1 = 2
FINITE MATHEMATICS 15
 −2± 4−16 −2± −12 −2±𝑖 12
Or, 𝑥2 + 2𝑥 + 4 = 0 → 𝑥 = = =
2 2 2

−2 + 𝑖 12 −2 − 𝑖 12
𝑥2 = , 𝑥3 =
2 2

1) Every polynomial of degree one has one root.

−𝑏 −𝑏
That is, 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 = 0 → 𝑥 = , because, 𝑎 +𝑏 =0
𝑎 𝑎

2) Any polynomial of second degree has two roots

Where 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 𝑎 𝑥 − 𝑟1 𝑥 − 𝑟2 = 𝑎[𝑥 2 − 𝑟1 + 𝑟2 𝑥 + 𝑟1 𝑟2 ]

FINITE MATHEMATICS 16
 −𝑏 ± 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐
𝑟1,2 =
2𝑎

−𝑏 + 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 −𝑏 − 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 −𝑏
𝑟1 + 𝑟2 = + =
2𝑎 2𝑎 𝑎
−𝑏 + 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 −𝑏 − 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 𝑐
𝑟1 𝑟2 = ( )( )=
2𝑎 2𝑎 𝑎

Theorem 2.2.5: [The fundamental theorem of algebra]

Every polynomial of degree 𝑛 ≥ 1 has at least one zero (one root) real or complex.

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Theorem : Every polynomial of degree 𝑛 ≥ 1 has exactly 𝑛 roots.
Proof: Assume that 𝑝 𝑥 = 𝑎0 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 + 𝑎𝑛
From fundamental theorem 𝑝(𝑥) has at least one toot say 𝑟1
∴ 𝑝 𝑥 = 𝑞1 (𝑥)(𝑥 − 𝑟1 ) “By the factor theorem”
𝑞1 (𝑥) is a polynomial of degree 𝑛 − 1 ≥ 0
𝑞1 𝑥 = 𝑞2 (𝑥)(𝑥 − 𝑟2 )
𝑞2 (𝑥) is a polynomial of degree 𝑛 − 2 ≥ 0
⋮
𝑝 𝑥 = (𝑥 − 𝑟1 )(𝑥 − 𝑟2 ) ⋯ (𝑥 − 𝑟𝑛 ).

FINITE MATHEMATICS 18
Definition :
We say that c is a zero of multiplicity 𝑚 of the polynomial 𝑝(𝑥) iff (𝑥 − 𝑐) is a
factor of 𝑝(𝑥) occurring 𝑚 times.
Example : 𝑝 𝑥 = 𝑥 4 − 9𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 12
2
= 𝑥−2 𝑥+1 𝑥+3
𝑝(𝑥) has four roots
2 is a zero of multiplicity 2
−1 is a zero of multiplicity 1

−3 is a zero of multiplicity 1

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Theorem : If 𝑧 = (𝑎, 𝑏) is a complex root for 𝑝 𝑥 = 0 then the conjugate
𝑧ҧ = (𝑎, −𝑏) is also a root
Proof:
If 𝑧 = (𝑎, 𝑏) is a root of 𝑝 𝑥 = 𝑎0 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 + 𝑎𝑛 then
𝑝 𝑧 = 𝑎0 𝑧 𝑛 + 𝑎1 𝑧 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑧 + 𝑎𝑛 =0
and 𝑝 𝑧ҧ = 𝑎0 (𝑧)ҧ 𝑛 +𝑎1 (𝑧)ҧ 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑧ҧ + 𝑎𝑛 = 0ത = 0
⟹ 𝑧ҧ = (𝑎, −𝑏) is also a root of 𝑝(𝑥)

FINITE MATHEMATICS 20
Example :
1 1
Find a polynomial whose roots are 1, + 3𝑖, − 3𝑖 such that the coefficients are
2 2
real.
1 1
Solution: 𝑥 − 1 𝑥− + 3𝑖 𝑥− − 3𝑖
2 2

1 1 1
= 𝑥2 − + 3𝑖 𝑥 − 𝑥 + + 3𝑖 𝑥− − 3𝑖
2 2 2
3 2 37
= 𝑥 − 2𝑥 + 10𝑥 −
4

FINITE MATHEMATICS 21
Upper and lower bounds for real roots
Let 𝑝 𝑥 = 𝑎0 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 + 𝑎𝑛 be a polynomial of degree 𝑛, and
𝑓0 𝑥 = 𝑎0 > 0, 𝑓1 𝑥 = 𝑥𝑓0 𝑥 + 𝑎1 , 𝑓2 𝑥 = 𝑥𝑓1 𝑥 + 𝑎2 , ⋯ ,
𝑓𝑛 𝑥 = 𝑥𝑓𝑛−1 (𝑥) + 𝑎𝑛 . If for some positive number 𝑥 = 𝑐 the number
𝑓1 , 𝑓2 , ⋯ , 𝑓𝑛 are non-negative, then 𝑐 can be taken as the requested upper bounds
of the roots.
Example :
Find an upper bound of the positive roots of the equation
𝑥 5 + 𝑥 4 + 𝑥 3 − 16𝑥 2 − 10𝑥 + 2 = 0.

FINITE MATHEMATICS 22
Solution:
1 1 1 -16 -10 2

1 1 2 3

1 2 3 -13
⋮
1 1 1 -16 -10 2

3 3 12 39 69 177

1 4 13 23 59 179
Hence 3 can be taken as an upper bound of the positive roots.
FINITE MATHEMATICS 23
Example :
Find an upper bound of the positive roots of the equation 4𝑥 4 − 35𝑥 2 − 9 = 0
4 0 -35 0 -9
1 4 4 -31 -31
4 4 -31 -31 -40
⋮
4 0 -35 0 -9
3 12 36 3 9
4 12 1 3 0
Hence 3 is upper bound.
FINITE MATHEMATICS 24
Remark :
We get the lower bound for real roots of the polynomial 𝑝(𝑥) by putting 𝑥 = −𝑥 in
𝑝(𝑥), then find the upper bound for 𝑝(−𝑥), say 𝑐, then −𝑐 is a lower bound for
𝑝(𝑥).
Example :
Find lower bound for 2𝑥 5 + 10𝑥 4 − 3𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 3 = 0 ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ (1)
Solution:
Putting 𝑥 = −𝑥 in (1)
−2𝑥 5 + 10𝑥 4 + 3𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 − 3 = 0 → 2𝑥 5 − 10𝑥 4 − 3𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 3 = 0

FINITE MATHEMATICS 25
 2 -10 -3 1 5 3
1 2
2 -8

2 -10 -3 1 5 3
5 10 0 15 80 425

2 0 -3 16 85 428

6 is upper bound.
Hence -6 is lower bound for 2𝑥 5 + 10𝑥 4 − 3𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 3 = 0
FINITE MATHEMATICS 26
Highest (Greatest) common divisor of two polynomials (g.c.d)
To find greatest common divisor between two polynomial 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑔(𝑥)
1) We divide 𝑓(𝑥) by 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑞1 𝑥 𝑔 𝑥 + 𝑓1 (𝑥) if 𝑓1 𝑥 = 0 then 𝑔(𝑥) is the g.c.d. if 𝑓1 𝑥 ≠ 0, then
go to 2.
2) We divide 𝑔 𝑥 by 𝑓1 (𝑥)
𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑞2 𝑥 𝑓1 (𝑥) + 𝑓2 (𝑥) if 𝑓2 𝑥 = 0 then 𝑓1 (𝑥) is the g.c.d for 𝑓 and 𝑔
if 𝑓2 𝑥 ≠ 0, then go to 3
3) We divide 𝑓1 𝑥 𝑏𝑦 𝑓2 (𝑥) we get 𝑓1 𝑥 = 𝑞3 𝑥 𝑓2 𝑥 + 𝑓3 𝑥
and so on
⋮
FINITE MATHEMATICS 27
 𝑓𝑟−1 (𝑥) = 𝑞𝑟−1 𝑥 𝑓𝑟 (𝑥) + 𝑓𝑟+1 (𝑥) if 𝑓𝑟+1 𝑥 = 0 then 𝑓𝑟 (𝑥) is the g.c.d for
𝑓 and 𝑔 .
Example : Find greatest common divisor of 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 4 + 3𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 1
and 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 1.

FINITE MATHEMATICS 28
FINITE MATHEMATICS 29
Example : Find g.c.d of 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 3 − 9𝑥 2 + 23𝑥 − 15 and
𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 3

FINITE MATHEMATICS 30
FINITE MATHEMATICS 31
 Section Three:
Relation between the roots and the coefficients
Let 𝑝𝑛 𝑥 = 𝑎0 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 + 𝑎𝑛 be a polynomial of
degree 𝑛, and let 𝛼1 , 𝛼2 , ⋯ , 𝛼𝑛 be 𝑛-roots for 𝑝(𝑥), then the relation
between coefficients 𝑎𝑖 and the roots as follows:
𝑝𝑛 𝑥 = 𝑎0 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 + 𝑎𝑛
= 𝑎0 𝑥 − 𝛼1 𝑥 − 𝛼2 ⋯ 𝑥 − 𝛼𝑛 ,𝑎0 ≠ 0

FINITE MATHEMATICS 32
for 𝑛 = 2
𝑝2 𝑥 = 𝑎0 𝑥 2 + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎2 = 𝑎0 𝑥 − 𝛼1 𝑥 − 𝛼2
= 𝑎0 𝑥 2 − 𝛼1 +𝛼2 𝑥 + 𝛼1 𝛼2
−𝑎1
−𝑎0 𝛼1 +𝛼2 = 𝑎1 → 𝛼1 +𝛼2 =
𝑎0
𝑎2
𝑎0 (𝛼1 𝛼2 ) = 𝑎2 → 𝛼1 𝛼2 =
𝑎0

FINITE MATHEMATICS 33
for 𝑛 = 3
𝑝3 𝑥 = 𝑎0 𝑥 3 + 𝑎1 𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 𝑥 + 𝑎3 = 𝑎0 𝑥 − 𝛼1 𝑥 − 𝛼2 𝑥 − 𝛼3
= 𝑎0 [𝑥 3 − 𝛼1 +𝛼2 +𝛼3 𝑥 2 + 𝛼1 𝛼2 + 𝛼1 𝛼3 + 𝛼2 𝛼3 𝑥 − 𝛼1 𝛼2 𝛼3 ]
−𝑎1
𝑎0 𝛼1 +𝛼2 +𝛼3 = 𝑎1 → 𝛼1 +𝛼2 +𝛼3 =
𝑎0
𝑎2
𝑎0 𝛼1 𝛼2 + 𝛼1 𝛼3 + 𝛼2 𝛼3 = 𝑎2 → 𝛼1 𝛼2 + 𝛼1 𝛼3 + 𝛼2 𝛼3 =
𝑎0
−𝑎3
−𝑎0 (𝛼1 𝛼2 𝛼3 ) = 𝑎3 → 𝛼1 𝛼2 𝛼3 =
𝑎0
⋮
and so on
FINITE MATHEMATICS 34
 𝒏
−𝒂𝟏
෍ 𝜶𝒊 =
𝒂𝟎
𝒊=𝟏

𝒂𝟐
෍ 𝜶𝒊 𝜶𝒋 =
𝒂𝟎
𝒊≠𝒋

𝒏
𝒂𝒏
𝜶𝟏 𝜶𝟐 ⋯ 𝜶𝒏 = (−𝟏)
𝒂𝟎

FINITE MATHEMATICS 35
Example :
Find all roots of 9𝑥 3 − 30𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 if one of the roots is 2 and other roots
differ by 2.
Solution:
Let one root be 2
Let the second root be 𝑎.
Then third root should be 𝑎 − 2
30 30 5
2+𝑎+ 𝑎−2 = → 2𝑎 = →𝑎=
9 9 3
5 1
Then roots are 2 , , −
3 3

FINITE MATHEMATICS 36
Example :
Solve the equation 2𝑥 3 − 6𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 𝑘 = 0 whose roots are 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 where
𝑎 = 2𝑏 + 2𝑐 and determine 𝑘.
Solution: 𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 = 3
Since 𝑎 = 2𝑏 + 2𝑐 → 𝑏 + 𝑐 = 1 → 𝑎 = 2
3 3
𝑎𝑏 + 𝑎𝑐 + 𝑏𝑐 = → 2𝑏 + 2𝑐 + 𝑏𝑐 =
2 2
𝑘
𝑎𝑏𝑐 = − , Since 2𝑏 + 2𝑐 = 𝑎 = 2 → 𝑏 + 𝑐 = 1 → 𝑏 = 1 − 𝑐
2
3 2 3
So, 2 1 − 𝑐 + 2𝑐 + 1 − 𝑐 𝑐 = → 2 − 2𝑐 + 2𝑐 + 𝑐 − 𝑐 =
2 2

FINITE MATHEMATICS 37
 1
→ −𝑐 2 + 𝑐 = − → 2𝑐 2 − 2𝑐 − 1 = 0
2
2± 4+8 1± 3
→ 𝑐1,2 = =
4 2
1+ 3 1− 3
The roots are 2, ,
2 2

1+ 3 1− 3 −𝑘
∴ 2 = → 𝑘=2
2 2 2

FINITE MATHEMATICS 38
Example :Solve the equation 9𝑥 3 − 36𝑥 2 + 44𝑥 − 16 = 0 if the roots from an
arithmetic progression.
Solution:
Let the roots are 𝑎 − 𝑏, 𝑎, 𝑎 + 𝑏
4
𝑎 − 𝑏 + 𝑎 + 𝑎 + 𝑏 = 4 → 3𝑎 = 4 → 𝑎 =
3

44
𝑎−𝑏 𝑎+ 𝑎−𝑏 𝑎+𝑏 +𝑎 𝑎+𝑏 =
9

16
𝑎−𝑏 𝑎 𝑎+𝑏 =
9
44
From the second equation 𝑎2 + 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑎2 − 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑎𝑏 − 𝑏2 + 𝑎2 + 𝑎𝑏 =
9

FINITE MATHEMATICS 39
 44 44 16 44 4
3𝑎2 − 𝑏2 = 2 2
→ 𝑏 = 3𝑎 − =3 − =
9 9 9 9 9

2
→ 𝑏=±
3

2 4
∴ , , 2 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠
3 3

FINITE MATHEMATICS 40
Example : Solve the equation 3𝑥 3 − 26𝑥 2 + 52𝑥 − 24 = 0 if the roots from
geometric progression.
Solution: Let the roots are 𝑎𝑏 −1 , 𝑎, 𝑎𝑏
26
𝑎𝑏 −1 + 𝑎 + 𝑎𝑏 =
3
52 52
𝑎𝑏 −1 𝑎+ 𝑎𝑏 −1
𝑎𝑏 + 𝑎 𝑎𝑏 = 2 −1 2 2
→ 𝑎 𝑏 +𝑎 +𝑎 𝑏 =
3 3
𝑎𝑏 −1 𝑎𝑎𝑏 = 8 → 𝑎3 = 8 → 𝑎 = 2
Put in first equation

−1
26 −1
13 10
2𝑏 + 2 + 2𝑏 = → 𝑏 +𝑏 = −1=
3 3 3
FINITE MATHEMATICS 41
 10
𝑏 − 𝑏 + 1 = 0 → 3𝑏 2 − 10𝑏 + 3 = 0
2
3
10 ± 100 − 36 10 ± 8 1
𝑏= = → 𝑏 = 3 𝑜𝑟 𝑏 =
5 6 3
If 𝑏 = 3
2
The roots are , 2, 6
3
1
If 𝑏 =
3
2
The roots are 6, 2
3

FINITE MATHEMATICS 42
 Section Four:
Solving Third and Fourth Degree Equation
Solving Cubic functions can be done using Cardano’s method, which transforms the general
cubic equation into a depressed cubic without the 𝑥 2 term. The method is as follows.

We begin with the general form of a polynomial of degree three.

𝑎𝑥 3 + 𝑏𝑥 2 + 𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑 = 0 (1)
Since it is easier to work with a polynomial of leading coefficient one, we can divide 𝑎 out of the

3 𝑏 2 𝑐 𝑑
entire equation to obtain 𝑥 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 + = 0 2
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎
Substitute the following equation into (2)
𝑏
𝑥 = 𝑦 − 3𝑎
The polynomial becomes

FINITE MATHEMATICS 43
Thus we are reduced to the cubic polynomial of the form (3)

Here

and observe that

FINITE MATHEMATICS 44
FINITE MATHEMATICS 45
Note:

FINITE MATHEMATICS 46
Example : Solve the equation 𝑥 3 − 15𝑥 − 126 = 0 by Cardano’s method.
Solution:

FINITE MATHEMATICS 47
Example : Solve the equation 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 − 16 𝑥 + 20 = 0 by Cardano’s method

FINITE MATHEMATICS 48
 Solution of biquadratic equation (solving fourth degree equations)
(Ferrari method)
The general form of fourth degree equation is 𝑥 4 + 𝑎𝑥 3 + 𝑏𝑥 2 + 𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑 = 0
Write above equation in the form 𝑥 4 + 𝑎𝑥 3 = −𝑏𝑥 2 − 𝑐𝑥 − 𝑑
𝑎2 2
and add 𝑥 for both sides then
4

𝑎 2 𝑎2
𝑥2 + 𝑥 = − 𝑏 𝑥 2 − 𝑐𝑥 − 𝑑 ………… (1)
2 4

If the right-hand side of (1) were a perfect (complete) square.

𝑎2
That is, − 𝑏 𝑥 2 − 𝑐𝑥 − 𝑑 = 𝑒1 𝑥 + 𝑓1 2
4

FINITE MATHEMATICS 49
 𝑎 2 𝑎
Then, 𝑥2 + 𝑥 = 𝑒1 𝑥 + 𝑓1 2 → 𝑥2 + 𝑥 = ± 𝑒1 𝑥 + 𝑓1
2 2
𝑎
∴ 𝑥2 + − 𝑒1 𝑥 − 𝑓1 = 0 → we get two roots.
2

2 𝑎
𝑥 + + 𝑒1 𝑥 + 𝑓1 = 0 → we get two roots.
2

2 𝑎 𝑦2
If right hand side of (1) is not a perfect square, we add 𝑦(𝑥 + 𝑥) + for both
2 4
side of (1), we get

2 𝑎 𝑦 2 𝑎2 2 1 1 2
𝑥 + 𝑥 + = − 𝑏 + 𝑦 𝑥 + −𝑐 + 𝑎𝑦 𝑥 + −𝑑 + 𝑦 ………… (2)
2 2 4 2 4

Now we can seek to determine 𝑦 so that

FINITE MATHEMATICS 50
 𝑎2 1 1 2
−𝑏+𝑦 𝑥2 + −𝑐 + 𝑎𝑦 𝑥 + −𝑑 + 𝑦 ……………. (3) becomes the
4 2 4
square of a linear expression 𝑒2 𝑥 + 𝑓2 2

In general 𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐵𝑥 + 𝑐 = 𝑒2 𝑥 + 𝑓2 2
……………….. (4)
Then 𝐵2 − 4𝐴𝐶 = 0 …………….. (5) and conversely.
The equation (4) is equivalent to the three relations
𝐴 = 𝑒22 , 𝐵 = 2𝑒2 𝑓2 , 𝐶 = 𝑓22 …………….. (6)
The right hand side of (2) will be the square of a linear expression 𝑒2 𝑥 + 𝑓2 if 𝑦
satisfies the equation (1)
1 2 𝑎2 𝑦2
𝑎𝑦 −𝑐 = 4(𝑦 + − 𝑏)( − 𝑑)
2 4 4

FINITE MATHEMATICS 51
Or, in expanded from
𝑦 3 − 𝑏𝑦 2 + 𝑎𝑐 − 4𝑑 𝑦 + 4𝑑𝑏 − 𝑎2 𝑑 − 𝑐 2 = 0 ……………. (7)
If suffices to take for 𝑦 any root of this cubic equation, called (denoted by) the
resolving of the biquadratic equation, in order to have
𝑎2 1 1 2
− 𝑏 + 𝑦1 𝑥2 + 𝑎𝑦 −𝑐 𝑥+ 𝑦 − 𝑑 = 𝑒2 𝑥 + 𝑓2 2
4 2 4

With properly chosen 𝑒2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓2

𝑎 𝑦1 2 𝑎 𝑦1
∴ 𝑥2 + 𝑥 + = 𝑒2 𝑥 + 𝑓2 2 → 𝑥2 + 𝑥 + = ±(𝑒2 𝑥 + 𝑓2 )
2 2 2 2

2
𝑎 𝑦1 2
𝑎 𝑦1
→ 𝑥 + 𝑥 + = 𝑒2 𝑥 + 𝑓2 , 𝑥 + 𝑥 + = −(𝑒2 𝑥 + 𝑓2 )
2 2 2 2
Solve these two equations, we get the four requested roots.
FINITE MATHEMATICS 52
Example : Solve the equation 𝑥 4 + 6𝑥 2 + 8𝑥 + 21 = 0 by Ferraries method
Solution:

FINITE MATHEMATICS 53
FINITE MATHEMATICS 54
FINITE MATHEMATICS 55
Example : Solve x 4 − x 2 − 2x − 1 = 0
Solution: x 4 = x 2 + 2x + 1 = 0
𝑥2 2 = 𝑥 + 1 2
𝑥2 = ± 𝑥 + 1 → 𝑥2 = 𝑥 + 1 → 𝑥2 − 𝑥 − 1 = 0
1± 1+4 1± 5
→ 𝑥1,2 = =
2 2
𝑥2 = − 𝑥 + 1 → 𝑥2 + 𝑥 + 1 = 0
−1 ± 1 − 4 −1 ± 𝑖 3
𝑥3,4 = =
2 2

FINITE MATHEMATICS 56