HIGHWAY ENGINEERING II ASSIGNMENT

NAME- TAREKEGN TEKLEMARIAM

ID No- UGR/5725/12
SECTION- B

BASIC PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL

 MOISTURE CONTENT

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The moisture content of soil also referred to as water content, is an indicator of the amount of
water present in soil. Moisture content is the ratio of the mass of water contained in the pore
spaces of soil to the solid mass of particles in that material, expressed as a percentage. A
standard temperature of 110 ± 5°C is used to determine the mass of the sample.
Equipments For Moisture Content of Soil Test
1. Moisture can
Moisture cans are available in various.
2. Oven with Temperature Control
For drying of soil, the temperature of the oven is kept between 105°C to 110°C. A higher
temperature of the oven should be avoided by the burning of organic matter in the soil.
3. Balance
The weight balance should have an accuracy of 0.01 gm for specimens having a mass of 200 g or
less.
M.C = (Wwet soil – Wdry soil) x 100 / Wdry soil

UNIT WEIGHT
Unit Weight is the weight per unit volume of a material.  
Unit Weight = Weight of Material/ Volume of Material
Significance and Use
• Often used to determine bulk density values used in selecting proportions for concrete mixes
• Also used for mass/volume relationships for conversions in purchase agreements
• Also used annually for inventory control and verification
Test Procedure: (1) Extrude the soil sample from the cylinder using the extruder. (2) Cut a
representative soil specimen from the extruded sample. (3) Determine and record the length (L),
diameter (D) and mass (Mt) of the soil specimen. (4) Determine and record the moisture content
of the soil (w).
1. BULK UNIT WEIGHT

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The bulk weight or moist unit weight is the total weight W of a soil mass per unit of its total
volume V.   γ=W/V

2. DRY UNIT WEIGHT

The dry unit weight is the weight of solids per unit of its total volume (prior to drying) of the soil
mass: γd=W/Vd
 SHEARING RESISTANCE
Shear strength is defined as the maximum shear stress that the soil may sustain without
experiencing failure. Shear strength is a critical parameter in geotechnical projects. It is needed
to derive the bearing capacity, design retaining walls, evaluate the stability of slopes and
embankments, etc.
According to the Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion, the shear strength of soils consists of two
components, cohesion (c) and frictional angle (φ) and is also dependent on the normal effective
stress (σ').
τ=c+σ’tanφ                                                                     
Strength parameters (cohesion and friction angle) are derived both from in situ and laboratory
testing.
The most common in-situ tests are the following:
 Vane Shear Test.
 Standard Penetration Test (SPT)
 Cone Penetrometer Test (CPT)
 Pressuremeter
The most common laboratory tests are the following:
 Direct Shear Test
 Unconfined Compression (UCC) Test
 Simple Shear Test
 Triaxial Compression Test
The procedure in a direct shear test consists of;
1) placing a soil specimen in the direct shear device (shear box apparatus)
2) applying a predetermined normal stress,
3) providing the necessary conditions for wetting and/or draining of the specimen,
4) consolidating the specimen under the normal stress,
5) removing the pins that lock the shear box halves holding the test specimen, and shearing the
specimen by displacing one shear box half laterally with respect to the other at a constant rate of
shearing deformation while measuring the shearing force, relative lateral displacement, and
normal displacement. The shearing rate must be slow enough to allow nearly complete
dissipation of excess pore pressure.
 SPECIFIC GRAVITY
The specific gravity of soil may be defined as the ratio of the mass of solids to the mass of an
equivalent volume of water at 4ºC.
The value of specific gravity (soil) varies between 2.65-2.80. 
Mathematically, 
G = Ms / Mw = ρs / ρw = γs / γw
Where, 
ρs = Density of Solid

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ρw = Density of Water 
γs = Unit Weight of Solid
γw = Unit Weight of Water
A specific gravity test is necessary to get an idea of various soil properties such as void ratio,
degree of saturation, etc.
The followings are test procedures:
1. Weigh the empty and clean volumetric flask (W1).
2. Fill the flask with distilled water up to the graduation mark.
3. Clean and dry the inside (above the water level) and the outer part of the flask and weigh
it (W2).
4. Empty and dry the Flask
5. Weigh around 50 grams of soil material.
6. Use the funnel to carefully place the soil into the flask and weigh it (W3).
7. Fill around 2/3 of the flask with distilled water.
8. Use a vacuum pump to gradually apply vacuum and remove the entrapped air while
spinning the flask to remove the air bubbles. The procedure should last for about 2-3
minutes for sands and 10-15 minutes for clays.
9. Remove the vacuum, clean and dry the flask and add distilled water up to the mark.
10. Weigh the flask (W4).
11. Use the thermometer to derive the temperature of the water.
 PERMEABILITY
It is defined as the property of a porous material which permits the passage or seepage of water
(or other fluids) through its interconnecting voids.
A material having continuous voids is called permeable. Gravels are highly permeable while stiff
clay is the least permeable, and hence such a clay may be termed impermeable for all practical
purpose.
Soil Permeability Test Equipment
 Soil Permeameters:  Can be used for both constant head and falling head test
methods.
 Permeability Test Cell:  Holds soil samples during testing.
 Perforated Plates:  Sit beneath soil specimens to support the samples and
allow permeant liquid to flow through.
 Add-On Master Panel:  Used for the simultaneous control and testing of more
than one sample.
 Permeability Compaction Hammer:  Used to compact soil samples into
permeameters.
 SHRINKAGE
Shrinkage takes place due to decrease in water content in the Soils. When a saturated soil is
allowed to dry, a meniscus develops in each void at the soil surface. Formation of such
a meniscus causes tension in the soil water leading to a compression in the soil structure and
consequent reduction in the volume. 
The shrinkage limit (SL) is defined as the water content at which the soil changes from a semi-
solid to a solid state. At this moisture content the volume of the soil mass ceases to change with

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further drying of the material. The shrinkage limit is less frequently used than the liquid and
plastic limits.
The shrinkage limit is to be calculated by using the following formula

Where W = Moisture content of wet soil pat

 COMPRESSIBILITY
Soil compressibility is the ease with which a soil decreases in volume when subjected to a
mechanical load. The process that describes the decrease in soil volume (soil densification) under
an externally applied load is defined as compression.
Compressibility is lowest in coarse-grained soils where particles are in contact with each other. It
increases as the proportion of small particles increases and becomes highest in fine-grained
soils which contain organic matter. The following are some examples of compressibility for
various soils:
 Gravels and sands are practically incompressible. If a moist mass of these materials is
subjected to compression, there is no significant change in their volume;
 Clays are compressible. If a moist mass of clay is subjected to compression, moisture and
air may be expelled, resulting in volume reduction which is not immediately recovered
when the load is removed.
Fine-grained soils which contain at least 50 percent of silt + clay may be listed in three classes of
compressibility on the basis of their liquid limit . They are as follows:
 Low compressibility: LL smaller than 30;
 Medium compressibility: LL from 30 to 50;
 High compressibility: LL greater than 50.
In general, compressibility is approximately proportional to the Plasticity index. The greater the
PI, the greater the compressibility of the soil.

CLASSIFICATION OF SOIL
Classification systems are used to group soils according to their order of performance under
given set of physical conditions. Soils that are grouped in order of performance for one set of
physical conditions will not necessarily have the same order of performance under some other
physical conditions. Therefore, number of classification systems have been developed depending
on the intended purpose of the system. Soil classification has proved to be a very useful tool to
the soil engineer. It gives general guidelines in an empirical manner for making use of the field
experience of others. Soil may be broadly classified as follows:
1. Classification based on grain size
2. Textural classification
3. AASHTO classification system
4. Unified soil classification system

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Grain Size Classification System for Soils
Grain size classification systems were based on grain size. In this system the terms clay, silt,
sand and gravel are used to indicate only particle size and not to signify nature of soil type. There
are several classification systems fin use, but commonly used systems are shown here.

Textural Classification of Soil

The classification of soil exclusively based on particle size and their percentage distribution is
known as textural classification system. This system specifically names the soil depending on the
percentage of sand, silt and clay. The triangular charts are used to classify soil by this system.

AASHTO classification system of Soil

AASHTO classification is otherwise known as PRA classification system. It was originally
developed in 1920 by the U.S. Bureau of Public Roads for the classification of soil for highway
subgrade use. This system is developed based on particle size and plasticity characteristics of soil
mass. After some revision, this system was adopted by the AASHTO in 1945. In this system the
soils are divided into seven major groups. Some of the major groups further divided into
subgroups. A soil is classified by proceeding from left to right on the classification chart to find
first the group into which the soil test data will fill. Soil having fine fractions are further
classified based on their group index. The group index is defined by the following
equation. Group index = (F – 35)[0.2 + 0.005 (LL – 40)] + 0.01(F – 15)(PI – 10)
F – Percentage passing 0.075mm size
LL – Liquid limit
PI – Plasticity index
When the group index value is higher, the quantity of the material is poorer.

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Unified Soil Classification System

Unified soil classification system was originally developed by Casagrande (1948) and was
known as airfield classification system. It was adopted with some modification by the U.S.
Bureau of Reclamation and the U.S. Corps of Engineers. This system is based on both grain size
and plasticity characteristics of soil. The same system with minor modification was adopted by
ISI for general engineering purpose (IS 1498 - 1970). IS system divides soil into three major
groups, coarse grained, fine grained and organic soils and other miscellaneous soil materials.
Coarse grained soils are those with more than 50% of the material larger than 0.075mm size.
Coarse grained soils are further classified into gravels (G) and sands (S). The gravels and sands
are further divided into four categories according to gradation, silt or clay content. Fine grained
soils are those for which more than 50% of soil finer than 0.075 mm sieve size. They are divided
into three sub-divisions as silt (M), clay (c), and organic salts and clays (O). based on their
plasticity nature they are added with L, M and H symbol to indicate low plastic, medium plastic
and high plastic respectively. Examples: GW – well graded gravel GP – poorly graded gravel
GM – silty gravel SW – well graded sand SP – poorly graded sand SM – silty sand SC – clayey
sand CL – clay of low plastic CI – clay of medium plastic CH – clay of higher plastic ML – silt
of medium plastic MI – silt of medium plastic MH – silt of higher plastic OL – organic silt and
clays of low plastic OI - organic silt and clays of medium plastic OH – organic silt and clays of
high plastic. Fine grained soils have been sub-divided into three subdivisions of low, medium
and high compressibility instead of two sub-divisions of the original Unified Soil Classification
System.
The standard recommends that when a soil possesses characteristics of two groups either in
particle size distribution or in plasticity, it is designed by combination of group symbols. Field
identification is recommended through the following tests: For fine grained soils a) Visual
examination b) Dilatancy test c) Toughness test d) Dry strength test e) Organic content and
colour f) Other identification test.

Indian Standard Classification System for Soil

Indian Standard Classification System (ISC) was adopted by Bureau of Indian Standards is in
many respect similar to the Unified Soil Classification (USC) system. Soils are divided into three
broad divisions:
1. Coarse grained soils, when 50% or more of the total material by weight is retained on 75
micro IS sieve.
2. For fine grained soils, when more than 50% of the total material passes through 75
micron IS sieve.
3. If the soil is highly organic and contains a large percentage of organic matter and
particles of decomposed vegetation, it is kept in a separate category marked as peat (Pt).

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In all there are 18 groups of soils: 8 groups of coarse grained, 9 groups of fine grained and one of
peat.

Types of Soil Tests And Procedures

Moisture Content Test on Soil
Moisture content or water content in soil is an important parameter for building construction.
It is determined by several methods and they are:

 Oven drying method

 Calcium carbide method
 Torsion balance method
 Pycnometer method
 Sand bath method
 Radiation method
 Alcohol method
Of all the above oven drying method is most common and accurate method. In this method the
soil sample is taken and weighed and put it in oven and dried at 110o + 5oC. After 24 hours soil is
taken out and weighed. The difference between the two weights is noted as weight of water or
moisture content in the soil.
Specific Gravity Test on Soil
Specific gravity of soil is the ratio of the unit weight of soil solids to that of the water. It is
determined by many methods and they are.

 Density bottle method

 Pycnometer method

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  Gas jar method
 Shrinkage limit method
 Measuring flask method
Density bottle method and Pycnometer method are simple and common methods. In Pycnometer
method, Pycnometer is weighed in 4 different cases that is empty weight (M1), empty + dry soil
(M2), empty + water + dry soil (M3) and Pycnometer filled with water (M4) at room
temperature. From these 4 masses specific gravity is determined by below formula.

Dry Density Test on

Soil
The weight of soil particles in a given volume of sample is termed as dry density of soil. Dry
density of soil depends upon void ratio and specific gravity of soil. Based on values of dry
density soil is classified into dense, medium dense and loose categories.

Dry density of soil is calculated by core cutter method, sand replacement method and water-
displacement method.
Core Cutter Method for Soil Dry Density Testing
In this methods a cylindrical core cutter of standard dimensions is used to cut the soil in the
ground and lift the cutter up with soil sample. The taken out sample is weighed and noted.
Finally water content for that sample is determined and dry density is calculated from the below
relation.

Sand Replacement Method for Soil Dry Density Testing

In this method also, a hole is created in the ground by excavating soil whose dry density is to be
find. The hole is filled with uniform sand of known dry density. So by dividing the mass of sand

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poured into the hole with dry density of sand gives the volume of hole. So we can calculate the
soil dry density from above formula.
Atterberg Limits Test on Soil
To measure the critical water content of a fine grained soil, Atterberg provided 3 limits which
exhibits the properties of fine grained soil at different conditions. The limits are liquid limit,
plastic limit and shrinkage limit. These limits are calculated by individual tests as follows.

Liquid Limit Test on Soil

In this test, Casagrande’s liquid limit device is used which consist a cup with moving up and
down mechanism. The cup is filled with soil sample and groove is created in the middle of cup
with proper tool. When the cup is moved up and down with the help of handle the groove
becomes closed at some point.
Note down the number of blows required to close the groove. After that water content of soil is
determined. Repeat this procedure 3 times and draw a graph between log N and water content of
soil. Water content corresponding to N=25 is the liquid limit of soil.

Plastic Limit Test on Soil

Take the soil sample and add some water to make it plastic enough to shape into small ball.
Leave it for some time and after that put that ball in the glass plate and rolled it into threads of
3mm diameter.
If the threads do not break when we roll it to below 3mm diameter, then water content is more
than the plastic limit. In that case reduce water content and repeat the same procedure until
crumbling occurs at 3mm diameter. Finally find out the water content of resultant soil which
value is nothing but plastic limit.

Shrinkage Limit Test on Soil

In case of shrinkage limit, the water content in the soil is just sufficient to fill the voids of soil.
That is degree of saturation is of 100%. So, there is no change in volume of soil if we reduce the
shrinkage limit. It is determined by the below formula for the given soil sample.

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Where M1 = initial mass
V1= initial volume
M2= dry mass
V2= volume after drying
Pw = density of water.
Proctor’s Compaction Test on Soil
Proctor’s test is conducted to determine compaction characteristics of soil. Compaction of soil is
nothing but reducing air voids in the soil by densification. The degree of Compaction is
measured in terms of dry density of soil.
In Proctor’s Compaction Test, given soil sample sieved through 20mm and 4.75 mm sieves.
Percentage passing 4.75mm and percentage retained on 4.75mm are mixed with certain
proportions.
Add water to it and leave it in air tight container for 20hrs. Mix the soil and divide it into 6 – 8
parts. Position the mold and pour one part of soil into the mold as 3layers with 25 blows of
ramming for each layer.
Remove the base plate and Weight the soil along with mold. Remove the soil from mold and take
the small portion of soil sample at different layers and conduct water content test. from the
values find out the dry density of soil and water content and draw a graph between them and note
down the maximum dry density and optimum water content of the compacted soil sample at
highest point on the curve.

BASIC PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF AGGREGATES

1. Size and Gradation
The particle size distribution, or gradation, of an aggregate is one of the most influential
aggregate characteristics in determining how it will perform as a pavement material. In HMA,
gradation helps determine almost every important
propertyincluding stiffness,stability, durability, permeability, workability, fatigue resistance,
frictional resistance and moisture susceptibility. In PCC, gradation helps determine durability,
porosity, workability, cement and water requirements, strength, and shrinkage. Because of this,
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gradation is a primary concern in HMA and PCC mix design and thus most agencies specify
allowable aggregate gradations for both.
Maximum Aggregate Size
Maximum aggregate size can affect HMA, PCC and base/subbase courses in several ways. In
HMA, instability may result from excessively small maximum sizes; and poor workability
and/or segregation may result from excessively large maximum sizes. In PCC, large maximum
sizes may not fit between reinforcing bar openings, but they will generally increase PCC strength
because the water-cement ratio can be lowered. ASTM C 125 defines the maximum aggregate
size in one of two ways:
 Maximum size: The smallest sieve through which 100 percent of the aggregate sample
particles pass. Superpave defines the maximum aggregate size as “one sieve larger than
the nominal maximum size”.
 Nominal maximum size: The largest sieve that retains some of the aggregate particles
but generally not more than 10 percent by weight. Superpave defines nominal maximum
aggregate size as “one sieve size larger than the first sieve to retain more than 10 percent
of the material”.
Thus, it is important to specify whether “maximum size” or “nominal maximum size” is being
referenced.
Desired Gradation
Gradation has a profound effect on material performance. But what is the best gradation? This is
a complicated question, the answer to which will vary depending upon the material (HMA or
PCC), its desired characteristics, loading, environmental, material, structural and mix property
inputs. It might be reasonable to believe that the best gradation is one that produces the
maximum density. This would involve a particle arrangement where smaller particles are packed
between the larger particles, which reduces the void space between particles. This creates more
particle-to-particle contact, which in HMA would increase stability and reduce water infiltration.
In PCC, this reduced void space reduces the amount of cement paste required. However, some
minimum amount of void space is necessary to:
 Provide adequate volume for the binder (asphalt binder or portland cement) to occupy.
 Promote rapid drainage and resistance to frost action for base and subbase courses.
Therefore, although it may not be the “best” aggregate gradation, a maximum density gradation
does provide a common reference. A widely used equation to describe a maximum density
gradation was developed by Fuller and Thompson in 1907. Their basic equation is:

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 2. Toughness/ hardness
Resistance of the aggregates to impact is termed as toughness. Aggregates used in the pavement
should be able to resist the effect caused by the jumping of the steel tyred wheels from one
particle to another at different levels causes severe impact on the aggregates. Aggregate undergo
substantial wear and tear throughout their life. In general, they should be hard and tough enough
to resist crushing, degradation and disintegration from any associated activities including
manufacturing, stockpiling, production, placing, compaction (in the case of HMA)
and consolidation (in the case of PCC). Furthermore, they must be able to adequately
transmit loads from the pavement surface to the underlying layers (and eventually the subgrade).
Aggregates not adequately resistant to abrasion and polishing will cause premature structural
failure and/or a loss of skid resistance.
3. Durability/Soundness/ Resistance to Weathering
The soundness test determines an aggregate’s resistance to disintegration by weathering and, in
particular, freeze-thaw cycles. Aggregates that are durable (resistant to weathering) are less
likely to degrade in the field and cause premature HMA pavement distress and potentially,
failure. The soundness test repeatedly submerges an aggregate sample in a sodium sulfate or
magnesium sulfate solution. This process causes salt crystals to form in the aggregate’s water
permeable pores. The formation of these crystals creates internal forces that apply pressure on
aggregate pores and tend to break the aggregate. After a specified number of submerging and
drying repetitions, the aggregate is sieved to determine the percent loss of material.
The formation of salt crystals is supposed to mimic the formation of ice crystals in the field and
could therefore be used as a surrogate to predict an aggregate’s freeze-thaw performance.
Typical Soundness Tests
Sulfate Soundness
This test subjects aggregate samples to repeated imersion in either sodium sulfate or magnesium
sulfate solution. Salt crystals that form during this test are intended to mimic ice crystals formed
in the normal water freeze-thaw process in the field.
Freezing and Thawing Soundness
This test is similar to the sulfate soundess test, however it uses actual freeze-thaw cycles with
water or a weak ethyl alcohol – water solution.
Aggregate Durability Index
This test measures the relative resistance of an aggregate to produce detrimental clay-like fines
when subjected to mechanical methods of degradation. It is not widely used; its chief use has
been by western states to identify weathered basalt containing interstitial montmorillonite, which
will not maintain strength when used as unbound aggregate base.
4. Surface Texture
Aggregate particle shape and surface texture are important for proper compaction, deformation
resistance, and workability. However, the ideal shape for HMA and PCC is different because
aggregates serve different purposes in each material. In HMA, since aggregates are relied upon
to provide stiffness and strength by interlocking with one another, cubic angular-shaped particles
with a rough surface texture are best. However, in PCC, where aggregates are used as an
inexpensive high-strength material to occupy volume, workability is the major issue regarding
particle shape. Therefore, in PCC rounded particles are better.
 Based on texture, aggregates can be classified into:
Smooth Surface Texture Aggregate: These aggregates category are generally hard, dense and
fine-grained aggregates are smooth textured. These aggregates have lesser surface area because

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of lesser irregularities. When these aggregates are employed, lesser amount of cement is
necessary for the lubrication purpose. 
With there is increase in surface smoothness, the contact area also decreases. This means a
highly polished particle will have less bonding area with the matrix. Due to less water
requirement, these produce high compressive strength but with poor bonding and interlocking. 
Rough Surface Textures Aggregate: Rough textured aggregates have higher strength in
tension. These help in developing bond strength in tension. These will develop lower
compressive strength. 

5. Particle Shape/ Flakiness

Flakiness index test is used to determine the particle shape of the course aggregate. The
particle shape of the aggregates is obtained by the percentages of flaky and elongated
particles accommodate in it. For base course and construction of cement concrete types, the
presence of flaky and elongated particles are considered undesirable. It causes inherent
weakness with possibilities of breaking down under heavy loads. Therefore, the evaluation
of the shape of the particles, particularly with respect to flakiness and elongation is
necessary. The flakiness index of course aggregate is defined in percentage by weight of
aggregate particles and least dimension (thickness) of those particles should not be less than
0.6 times their mean area. Flakiness index test is not applicable for aggregates sizes smaller
than 6.3mm. Flaky or elongated course aggregates are disadvantageous to higher
workability and stability of mixes. Flakiness index test is conducted by using a metal
thickness gauge. An adequate quantity of course aggregate is taken such that the minimum
number of 200 pieces of any fraction can be tested. Each fraction is gauged in turn for
thickness on the metal gauge. The total amount passing in the gauge is weighed to an
accuracy of 0.1 % of the weight of the samples.
The value of the flakiness index is calculated from the expression:
Flakiness Index = 100 x M3 / M2
Where, M2= is the total mass of test portion
M3= is the mass of the flaky portion
6. Absorption [Water, Asphalt]
Water Absorption of Aggregate: The water absorption of the fine aggregate and the water
absorption of the coarse aggregates may differ significantly, particularly when they are not
coming from the same source or have not been stored in the same conditions. The water
absorption value for aggregates describes the percentage increase in weight between the dry
aggregate and the saturated aggregate. Therefore, the absorption value is the amount of water
which the aggregates are able to hold. All normal weight aggregates include pores which can be
filled with water. When these pores are full the aggregates can also maintain a thin film of water
around the aggregate particles. The water absorption of the aggregates along with the moisture
content of the aggregates are important factors to consider when proportioning the concrete mix,
particularly the amount of water required. The absorption value can be ascertained using the
water absorption test and should generally be less than 2% in order to prevent large variations of
water in the concrete mix during production. It can be difficult to control the moisture content of
high absorption aggregates in practice, leading to variations in the quality of the produced
concrete.

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Asphalt Absorption of Aggregate: Absorptive aggregates will pull the fluid asphalt into the
pores of the aggregate, which is called asphalt absorption. Asphalt binder that is absorbed into
the aggregates does not contribute to the durability characteristics of the produced HMA. It is
thought that asphalt absorption, with its consequent effects upon the remaining effective asphalt
film, may contribute to premature pavement failure through various mechanisms such as water
stripping, accelerated aging, and cracking. The amount and extent of asphalt absorption will
depend on such asphalt properties as viscosity, composition as measured by separation methods
(yielding asphaltenes, resins, saturates, etc.), molecular size distribution (GPC), wetting
properties such as, contact angle, surface tension, and time. Of course many of these factors are
interrelated and depend upon other variables such as temperature. Aggregate properties thought
to be important in the absorption process are porosity or void fraction, pore size distribution
(internal and/or external), surface areas, surface roughness, presence of fines, aggregate size
distribution (gradation), and surface chemical composition of the aggregate. Other factors such
as the presence or absence of water also influence the degree of absorption.
7. Affinity for Asphalt
Affinity is a term used to describe the amount of the adhesion bond between asphalt binder and
aggregate. Adhesion force may be used as indicator to the amount of energy or work required to
breakdown the adhesive bond between asphalt binder and aggregate. In order to study affinity
between asphalt binder and aggregate, a modified device is manufacture locally similar to
Rolling Bottle Test (RBT) to Predicted the degree of affinity between asphalt binder and
aggregate; taking into consideration mineral composition with physical properties of asphalt
binder to measure required force to separate asphalt binder from aggregate surface. The affinity
between aggregate and bitumen is one of the most important factors affecting the durability of
asphalt and subsequently the durability and tenacity of the road pavement. The adhesion of
bitumen to aggregate also greatly affects the water-tightness and resistance to hardening
processes that occur during use of the road. The affinity of bitumen with aggregate depends on
the properties of the aggregate such as moisture, dust (cleanness), porosity, ability to absorb
bitumen, the micro-texture of the granules, the chemical type (conventionally: acidic, alkaline
and in-between), as well as the properties of the bitumen such as viscosity, adhesion,
composition group and acid number. Apart from the influence of the particular materials, a large
influence on the durability of the bitumen and aggregate binding is exerted by properties of the
asphalt, such as bitumen content, the amount of voids, permeability, type of filler, granulation.
It is very important to measure the asphalt affinity of an aggregate which will be used for road
construction because of the following reasons.
1. If aggregates have poor affinity towards asphalt, then both will behave individually
then it will not the serve purpose of asphalt pavement.
2. Because of poor affinity, asphalt will strip out from aggregate due to rapid traffic
movement and climatic conditions it will lead to severe distress.
3. Durability of pavement will decrease.
4. During laying of asphalt mix it will loose its workability nature and during compaction
it will also not properly compacted.
8. Specific Gravity
Specific Gravity is the ratio of the weight of a given volume of aggregate to the weight of an
equal volume of water. It is the measure of strength or quality of the specific material.
Aggregates having low specific gravity are generally weaker than those with higher specific
gravity values. The specific gravity of aggregates normally used in construction ranges from

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about 2.5 to 3.0 with an average value of about 2.68. Aggregate specific gravity is needed to
determine weight-to-volume relationships and to calculate various volume-related quantities
such as voids in mineral aggregate (VMA), and voids filled by asphalt (VFA).
Aggregate Specific Gravity Types
Several different types of specific gravity are commonly used depending upon how the volume
of water permeable voids (or pores) within the aggregate are addressed:

 Apparent Specific Gravity, Gsa. The volume measurement only includes the volume of
the aggregate particle; it does not include the volume of any water permeable voids. The
mass measurement only includes the aggregate particle. Apparent specific gravity is
intended to only measure the specific gravity of the solid volume, therefore it will be the
highest of the aggregate specific gravities. It is formally defined as the ratio of the mass
of a unit volume of the impermeable portion of aggregate (does not include the permeable
pores in aggregate) to the mass of an equal volume of gas-free distilled water at the stated
temperature.
 Bulk Specific Gravity (Bulk Dry Specific Gravity), Gsb. The volume measurement
includes the overall volume of the aggregate particle as well as the volume of the water
permeable voids. The mass measurement only includes the aggregate particle. Since it
includes the water permeable void volume, bulk specific gravity will be less than
apparent specific gravity. It is formally defined as the ratio of the mass of a unit volume
of aggregate, including the water permeable voids, at a stated temperature to the mass of
an equal volume of gas-free distilled water at the stated temperature.
 Effective Specific Gravity, Gse. Volume measurement includes the volume of the
aggregate particle plus the void volume that becomes filled with water during the test
soak period minus the volume of the voids that absorb asphalt. Effective specific gravity
lies between apparent and bulk specific gravity. It is formally defined as the ratio of the
mass in air of a unit volume of a permeable material (excluding voids permeable to
asphalt) at a stated temperature to the mass in air (of equal density) of an equal volume of
gas-free distilled water at a stated temperature. Effective specific gravity is determined by
a different procedure and is not covered in this section.

ERA PAVEMENT DESIGN MANUAL VOLUME I CHAPTER 6

Graded crushed stone (GB1)
This material is produced by crushing fresh, quarried rock (GB1) and may be an all-in product,
usually termed a ‘crusher-run’, or alternatively the material may be separated by screening and
recombined to produce a desired particle size distribution, as per the specifications. If the amount
of fine aggregate produced during the crushing operation is insufficient, non-plastic angular sand
may be used to make up the deficiency. In constructing a crushed stone base course, the aim
should be to achieve maximum impermeability compatible with good compaction and high
stability under traffic.
Table-Grading Limits for Graded Crushed Stone Base Course Materials (GB1)
Test sieve(mm) Percentage by mass of total aggregate passing test sieve
Nominal maximum particle size
37.5 mm 28 mm 20 mm
50 100 - -

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 37.5 95-100 100
28 - - 100
20 60-80 70-85 90-100
10 40-60 50-65 60-75
5 25-40 35-55 40-60
2.36 15-30 25-40 30-45
0.425 7-19 12-24 13-27
0.075 5-12 5-12 5-12

Table-Mechanical Strength Requirements for the Aggregate Fraction of Crushed Stone

Base Course Materials (GB1)
Typical AnnualRainfall (mm) Minimum Ten Percent Fines Minimum Ratio Wet/Dry
Values (kN) Test (%)
>500 110 75
<500 110 60
Crushed stone base courses constructed with proper care with the materials described above
should have CBR values well in excess of 100 per cent.
Normal requirements for natural gravels and weathered rocks (GB2,  GB3)
A wide range of materials including lateritic, calcareous and quartzitic gravels, river gravels,
boulders and other transported gravels, or granular materials resulting from the weathering of
rocks can be used successfully as base course materials. The fines of these materials should
preferably be non-plastic but should normally never exceed a PI of 6. If the PI approaches the
upper limit of 6, it is desirable that the fines content be restricted to the lower end of the range.
To ensure this, a maximum PP of 60 is recommended or alternatively a maximum Plasticity
Modulus (PM) of 90 where:
PM = PI x (percentage passing the 0.425 mm sieve). If difficulties are encountered in meeting
the plasticity criteria, consideration should be given to modifying the material by the addition of
a low percentage of hydrated lime or cement. When used as a base course, the material should be
compacted to a density equal to or greater than 98 per cent of the maximum dry density achieved
in the ASTM Test Method D 1557 (Heavy Compaction). When compacted to this density in the
laboratory, the material should have a minimum CBR of 80% after four days immersion in water
(ASTMD 1883).
 For low volume roads the plasticity and strength requirements for the unbound materials
can be relaxed, especially when the subgrade is strong and/or the climate is dry. In such
conditions, high strengths(CBR>80 %) are likely to develop even when natural gravels
containing a substantial amount of plastic fines are used. In these situations, and
depending on subgrade strength, for the lowest traffic categories the maximum allowable
PI can be increased to 9 and the minimum soaked CBR criterion reduced to 65% at the
expected field density.
Sub-Bases (GS)
The sub-base is an important load spreading layer in the completed pavement. It enables traffic
stresses to be reduced to acceptable levels in the subgrade, it acts as a working platform for the
construction of the upper pavement layers and it acts as a separation layer between subgrade
and base course.
Sub-Bases Bearing Capacity

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A minimum CBR of 30 per cent is required at the highest anticipated moisture content when
compacted to the specified field density, usually a minimum of 95 per cent of the maximum dry
density achieved in the ASTM Test Method D 1557 (Heavy Compaction).Under conditions of
good drainage and when the water table is not near the ground surface, the field moisture content
under a sealed pavement will be equal to or less than the optimum moisture content in the ASTM
Test Method D 698 (Light Compaction).In such conditions, the sub-base material should be
tested in the laboratory in an unsaturated state. 
Sub-Bases Use as a Construction Platform
In many circumstances the requirements of a sub base are governed by its ability to support
construction traffic without excessive deformation or travelling. A high quality
sub- base is therefore required where loading or climatic conditions during construction aresever
e. Suitable material should possess properties similar to those of a good surfacing material for
unpaved roads. The material should be well graded and have a plasticity index at the lower end
of the appropriate range for an ideal unpaved road wearing course under the prevailing climatic
conditions. 
Table 1-Recommended Plasticity Characteristics for Granular Sub-Bases (GS)
Climate Typical Liquid Limit Plasticity Linear
Annual Index Shrinkage
Rainfall (mm)
Moist tropical and wet > 500 < 35  <6 <3
tropical
Seasonally wet tropical > 500 < 45 < 12 <6
Arid and semi-arid < 500 < 55 < 20 < 20

Table 2-Typical Particle Size Distribution for Sub-bases (GS)

Test Sieve(mm) Percentage by mass of total aggregate passing test sieve (%)
50 100
37.5 80-100
20 60-100
5 30-100
1.18 17-75
0.3 9-50
0.075 5-25

In the construction of low-volume roads local experience is often invaluable and a wider range of
materials may often be found to be acceptable. In Ethiopia, laterite is one of the widely available
materials and can be used as a sub-base material. Laterite meeting the gradation requirements of
Table 2 can be used for traffic levels up to 3 million ESA provided the following criteria are
satisfied:
i)CBR (%) (after soaking) > 30
ii)Plasticity Index (%) < 25
iii)Plasticity Modulus (PM) < 500

Selected Subgrade Materials and Capping Layers (GC)

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These materials are often required to provide sufficient cover on weak subgrades. They are used
in the lower pavement layers as a substitute for a thick sub-base to reduce costs, and a cost
comparison should be conducted to assess their cost effectiveness. In some of the design charts,
substitution of part of the sub-base with GC quality material is allowed as mentioned in the
footnotes to the charts. The substitution ratio is 1.3:1 so that 50mm of sub-base can be replaced
with 65mm of GC, for example, provided that the rules in the footnotes are followed. Similarly, a
layer of GC material on top of a weak subgrade effectively increases the subgrade class. The
requirements are less strict than for sub-bases. A minimum CBR of 15 per cent is specified at the
highest anticipated moisture content measured on samples compacted in the laboratory at the
specified field density. This density is usually specified as a minimum of 95 per cent of the
maximum dry density in the ASTM Test Method D 1557 (Heavy Compaction). In estimating the
likely soil moisture conditions, the designer should take into account the functions of the
overlying sub-base layer and its expected moisture condition and the moisture conditions in the
subgrade. If either of these layers is likely to be saturated during the life of the road,
then the selected layer should also be assessed in this state. Recommended grading or plasticity
criteria are not given for these materials. However, it is desirable to select reasonably
homogeneous materials since overall pavement behavior is often enhanced by this. The selection
of materials which show the least change in bearing capacity from dry to wet is also beneficial.

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