GROUP 6: PENSTOK SIZING
PROCEDURE, JOINT, VALVE
Penstock
- A penstock is a group of pipes that
transport pressurized water from a
reservoir (dam) to the turbines
installed in a hydro-electric power
plant
- The penstock is the pipe which
conveys water under pressure to the
turbine.
Penstock Sizing Procedure
- The penstock often constitutes a
major expense in the total cost and it
is therefore worthwhile optimizing
the design. The trade-off is between
head loss and capital cost. The
efficiency of the penstock is
connected to the velocity of the
water passing through the pipe. The
higher the velocity, the more friction
losses appear. Since the diameter of a
pipe has a large influence on the
velocity, the diameter of the pipe
must be carefully chosen by
considering its cost/performance
ratio. Simply, smaller diameter pipes
tend to be cheaper but will contribute
to high head loss. The basic relation
between flow and pipe diameter is
obtained by the continuity equation:
Major Components of the Penstock
1. Penstock Gate
o A penstock or sluice gate is a
type of valve for controlling
water or sewerage. Penstocks
are, in essence, a sliding door
that can be operated by hand
or by means of an actuator.
2. Vent Pipe
o a pipe above a waste pipe or
soil pipe that allows gas to
escape from the system.
3. Power House
o the power house is
constructed on one flank of
the dam, part of the dam
being used as a spillway over
which excess water is
discharged in times of floods.
4. Pipe Joint
o the power house is
constructed on one flank of
the dam, part of the dam
being used as a spillway over
which excess water is
discharged in times of floods.
5. Valve
o A valve is a device or natural
object that regulates, directs
or controls the flow of a fluid
(gases, liquids, fluidized
solids, or slurries) by
opening, closing, or partially
obstructing various
passageways. Valves are
technically fittings, but are
usually discussed as a
separate category.
6. Anchor Block
o Anchor blocks are a type of
blocks that are used in many
different types of
construction. The block is
usually intended to provide
some type of means of
fastening other materials
together while still preserving
the overall integrity of the
construction.
Types of Materials used for Penstock:
The following materials can be considered
for use as penstock pipes in micro-hydro
schemes:
- Mild steel
- Unplasticized polyvinyl chloride
(uPVC)
- High density polyethylene (HDPE)
- Medium density polyethylene
(MDPE)
- Spun ductile iron
- Prestressed concrete
- Wood stave
- Glass reinforced plastic, etc.
Mild steel, uPVC, HDPE and MDPE
are the most common materials used.
 Penstock Jointing
- Pipes are generally supplied in
standard lengths and have to be
joined together on site. Methods of
pipe jointing fall roughly into four
categories:
o Flanged
o Spigot and socket
o Mechanical
o Welded
Valves
- Valves control the water flow
through the penstock. It is advisable
to place a valve at the entry to the
turbine, to allow uncoupling of the
turbine with the penstock. A valve is
not usually necessary at the top of
the penstock, because water can be
diverted from the penstock in other
ways such as by diverting from the
channel by closing the mouth of the
penstock with a flat board faced with
rubber or by opening a sluice in the
forebay tank.
Some types of valves that exist and are
commonly used include:
- Gate valve
o is the most common valve for
water supply systems. It
represents a linear-motion
isolation valve and has a
function to stop or allow the
flow. Gate valves got their
name from the closure
element sliding into the flow
stream to provide shutoff and,
therefore, acting like a gate.
- Butterfly valve
o -are a family of quarter-turn
rotational motion valves that
are used in pipelines to shut-
off flow. It is often said that
butterfly valves can be used
to regulate the flow.
- Globe valve
o -Globe valves, so-called
because of their outside
shape, are widely used in
plant piping. They are
suitable for manual and
automatic operation. Unlike
the gate valve, globe valve
can be used for regulating
flow or pressures as well as
complete shutoff of flow.
- Ball Valve
o -use a metal ball with a hole
bored through the center,
sandwiched between two
seats to control flow. Used in
many hydrocarbon process
applications, ball valves are
capable of throttling gases
and vapors and are especially
useful for low flow
situations.
- Pilot valve
o - is an add-on to the in-line
valve. It enables a small force
to operate the larger valve
like in a hydraulic piston. The
pressure inside the
temperature sensor and coil
enables the main valve to
operate. The control is
mechanical.
GROUP 7: TURBINE SELECTION,
PELTON, SINGLE AND MULTI JET
PELTON, TURGO TURBINE, CROSS
FLOW TURBINE
Factors affecting the Selection of
Hydraulic Turbines
- Head
- Specific Speed
- Rotational speed
- Efficiency of the turbine
- Cavitation
- Disposition of turbine shaft
- Part load operation
1. Head
- The hydraulic turbine selected
should be decided based on the head,
and for different head ranges
different turbines are suitable.

Head, Head Range in meters, Suitable
turbine, Notes
- Very low head, 3 – 10, Bulb turbine,
Kaplan turbines are also suitable but
uneconomical for very low heads
- Low head, 10 – 60, Kaplan Turbine,
Propeller turbines are also suitable
up to 15m head but there should not
be load variations.
- Medium head, 60 – 150, Francis
turbine
- High head, 150 – 350, Pelton or
Francis turbine One of them is
decided based on the specific speed.
- Very high head >350 Pelton turbine
2. Specific Speed
- The Specific speed is high for
turbines which works under high
heads and low flow rate. Similarly,
specific speed is low for a turbine
which works under the low head and
high flow rate. When the specific
speed of the selected turbine is not
up to the required range, then the
rotational speed of turbine reduces
thus the capacity of plant reduces.
Type of Turbine Specific speed range
Pelton turbine 10 - 70
Francis turbine 80 - 400
Kaplan turbine 300 - 1000
Bulb turbine 1000 – 1200
Pelton Turbine
3. Rotational Speed
- The rotational speed of the turbine
depends upon the specific speed of
the turbine, frequency and number of
pair of poles in the electric generator.
So, the specific speed of the selected
turbine should produce the same
amount of rotation speed of the
generator.
4. Efficiency of Turbine
- The efficiency of the turbine selected
should be as high as possible and it is
considered for various working
conditions of turbines. Different
turbines in decreasing order of their
overall efficiency are as follows:
Efficiency of turbines = Francis
Turbine > Kaplan Turbine > Pelton
Turbine
5. Cavitation
- Cavitation mainly occurs in the case
of reaction type turbines. So, while
selecting the turbine, cavitation
factor should be determined for that
particular turbine to check whether it
is in a safe zone or not. Cavitation
factor depends upon the specific
speed of the turbine. It is important,
especially in the case of Kaplan,
propeller and bulb type turbines.
6. Disposition of Turbine Shaft
- Based on the previous experiences, it
is recommended that the horizontal
shaft arrangement is best suitable for
large size impulse turbines such as
Pelton turbine etc. Similarly, in case
of large size reaction turbines such as
the Kaplan turbine, Deriaz turbine
etc. vertical shaft arrangement is
recommended.
7. Part-load Operation
- In general, the efficiency of the
turbine is maximum when it is
running with a designed load
condition. When the part-load or
overload condition arises the
efficiency reduces which is
uneconomical. In that case, Kaplan
turbine is recommended
- A type of hydro turbine (specifically
an impulse turbine) used frequently
in hydroelectric plants.
- These turbines are generally used for
sites with heads greater than 300
meters.
- This type of turbine was created
during the gold rush in 1880 by
Lester Pelton.
- The water in a Pelton turbine is
moving quickly (high velocity head)
 and the turbine extracts energy from
the water by slowing the water down,
which makes this an impulse turbine.
Single and Multi Jet Turbine
- Single nozzle impulse turbine have a
very flat efficiency curve and may be
operated down to loads of 20% of
rated capacity with good efficiency.
- For multi-nozzle units, the range is
even broader because the number of
operating jets can be varied.
Turgo Turbine
- An impulse water turbine designed
for medium head applications.
- Operational Turgo turbines achieve
efficiencies of about 87%. In factory
and lab tests Turgo turbines perform
with efficiencies of up to 90%. It
works with net heads between 15 and
300 m.
- Designed in 1919 by Gilkes as a
modification of the Pelton wheel, the
Turgo has some advantages over
Francis and Pelton designs for
certain applications
- Turgos operate in a head range
where the Francis and Pelton
overlap. While many large Turgo
installations exist, they are also
popular for small hydro where low
cost is very important.
Cross Flow Turbine
- The average flow at which these
turbines operate is from 40 to 5000
liters per second.
- They are suitable for a wide range of
heads and powers. Working in heads
between 1.75 to 200 meters and
power between 5 to 100 kW and at
higher scales, up to 3 MW of these
turbines has left a flexible machine
in mind.
- These turbines are usually used in
heads under 40 meters and for fewer
powers.
- Naming of Cross-flow turbines is
based on the way they work.
- Water flows after passing through
the guide vanes to the rotor on the
blades. It then flows across the
turbine from the center of the turbine
and creates a torque on the blades of
the lower part.
- This type of fluid flow across the
turbine has been the reason for
naming Cross-flow turbines.
GROUP 8: TURBINE
 FRANCIS TURBINE
o a combination of both impulse
and reaction turbine, where the
blades rotate using both reaction
and impulse force of water
flowing through them producing
electricity more efficiently.
o used for the production of
electricity most frequently in
medium or large-
scale hydropower stations.
o These turbines can be used for
heads as low as 2 meters and as
high as 300 meters. Additionally,
these turbines are beneficial as
they work equally well when
positioned horizontally as they do
when they are oriented vertically.
The water going through a Francis
turbine loses pressure, but stays at
more or less the same speed, so it
would be considered a reaction
turbine.
MAJOR COMPONENTS
 Spiral Casing is the inlet medium of
water to the turbine. The water
flowing from the reservoir or dam is
made to pass through this pipe with
high pressure. The blades of the
turbines are circularly placed, which
means the water striking the
turbine’s blades should flow in the
circular axis for efficient striking. So
the spiral casing is used, but due to
the circular movement of the water,
it loses its pressure.
 Stay Vanes guide the water to the
runner blades. Stay vanes remain
stationary at their position and
 reduces the swirling of water due to
radial flow, as it enters the runner
blades, thus, making the turbine
more efficient.
 Guide Vanes are not stationary, they
change their angle as per the
requirement to control the angle of
striking of water to turbine blades to
increase the efficiency. They also
regulate the flow rate of water into
the runner blades thus controlling the
power output of a turbine according
to the load on the turbine.
 Runner Blades are the heart of
any Francis turbine. These are the
centers where the fluid strikes and
the tangential force of the impact
causes the shaft of the turbine to
rotate, producing torque. Close
attention to the design of blade
angles at inlet and outlet is
necessary, as these are major
parameters affecting power
production.
 Draft Tube The pressure at the exit
of the runner of the reaction turbine
is generally less than atmospheric
pressure. The water at the exit,
cannot be directly discharged to the
tailrace. A tube or pipe of the
gradually increasing area is used for
discharging water from the exit of
the turbine to the tailrace. This tube
of the increasing area is called Draft
Tube. One end of the tube is
connected to the outlet of the runner.
However, the other end is submerged
below the level of water in the tail-
race.
 PROPELLER TURBINE
o is a type of inward flow reaction
turbine with a propeller-shaped
runner, which can be seen in ships
and submarines. It is equipped
with either fixed or adjustable
blades.
o the water flow is regulated by
adjustable guide vanes (or wicket
gates). The vanes move the water
into the runner to transfer its
energy to the blades. The
propeller turbine is usually
employed in hydraulic sites with
high flow rates.
o The main part of the runner is the
propeller including the rotating
hub and blades to carry the fluid
potential and kinetic energy to the
shaft attached to the turbine.
Propellers can be classified based
on different methods, such as the
number of blades or blade pitch.
o are designed for heads from 1.5 to
60 meters but are usually used for
heads less than 30 meters. In a
fixed blade propeller turbine, the
range of flow operation is better to
be between 75 and 100% of best
efficiency point (BEP) flow.
 KAPLAN TURBINE
o he blades and the wicket gates are
adjustable, which makes the
Kaplan a flexible turbine for a
wider range of operation. The
rotor is connected to the turbine
shaft and spins at a fixed
rotational speed. When the rotor
rotates, it causes the
electromagnetic field poles to pass
by the conductors placed in the
stator. This, in turn, generates an
electric current and creates
voltage to develop at the output
terminals of the generator. 
 S-TUBE TURBINE
o the penstock curves right before
or after the runner, which makes a
straight-line connection to the
generator. The output power
generated by the tube turbines
ranges from 20 to 700 kW. Tube
turbines have a direct drive
configuration in which the turbine
and the generator are mounted on
the same shaft with common
bearings and seals.
o S-type turbines omit the
requirement for bulb housing by
installing the generator outside the
water channel. This is performed
with a jog in the channel and a
 shaft connecting the generator and
the runner.
 BULB TYPE TURBINE
o the turbine and generator are
sealed and installed directly
in the water flow. Bulb
turbine is proper for low
heads, less than 25 meters.
The almost straight design of
the water flow reduces both
the size and costs. A bulb
turbine is a compact unit with
an upstream watertight casing
containing a generator
mounted on a horizontal axis.
The advantage of these
turbines is that they take up
little space due to the sealed
turbine and generator.  couplings to connect shafts, any
o Bulb turbines are also able to
work in reverse flow
directions. For very low
heads, an additional set of
gears is utilized to increase
the rotational speed of the
generator. However, both the
set-up gears and the generator
are put in an open pit rather
than a bulb. Bulb turbines are
available to generate power
in the range of 10 to 100
MW.
 STRAFLO TURBINE
o One of the main features of
the Straflo turbine is the
combination of turbine and
generator, which leads to less
required space. A Straflo
turbine also includes a group
of axial turbines with a
generator arranged
concentrically outside the
flow channel.
o The generator is connected to
the propeller runner
periphery, and the stator is
installed inside the civil
works surrounding the water
channel. Only one crane is
needed for maintenance, thus
decreasing space
requirements and complexity
of construction works. The
rotor relatively larger
diameter creates greater unit
inertia than that of bulb
generators, which is an
advantage in operating
stability.
GROUP 9: DRIVE SYSTEM
Drive System
- Drive systems comprise the
generator shaft, turbine shaft, the
bearings which support those shafts,
extra shafts, bearings, pulleys, belts,
gearboxes, or other components used
to change the speed or orientation of
the shafts.
- The function of the drive system is to
transmit power from the turbine to
the generator at the correct speed for
the generator and in suitable
direction.
1. Direct-coupled Drive System
- It is compact, simple and efficiency
approaches almost 100%
- Drive imposes no additional loads on
bearings
- Both turbine and generator may be
bolted to concrete foundation or rigid
structure at same height
- Alignment of shafts must be correct
to prevent failure of coupling or
bearings
- Flexible in-line coupling is needed
- No speed change between turbine
and generator is possible
2. Wedge Belt Drive System
- An alternative arrangement could
have flat belt instead of wedge belts
- Generator is mounted on side rails to
obtain belt tension
- This drive applies loads to generator
and turbine bearings
- Turbine and generator may run at
different speeds and be at different
heights
- Direction of rotation should pull on
the lower part of the belts
3. Wedge Belt Drive System with
Extra Bearing
- Alternative arrangement could have
flat belt instead of wedge belts
- Turbine may have an extra shaft and
bearings for the generator
- The generator extension shaft must
be removable from the bearings to
enable belts to be changed
- Turbine and generator may run at
different speeds
- Flexible in-line coupling required
- Direction of rotation should pull on
the lower part
- Belt tensioning must be achieved
with a jockey pulley
4. Quarter Turn Belt Drive
- Alternative arrangement could have
wedge belts in place of flat belt
- Generator mounted on slide rails to
obtain belt tension
- Extra bearings, shafts, and couplings
may be used
- Turbine and generator pulleys must
be aligned with care
- Not always permissible – always
consult the manufacturer
5. Direct Couple Turbine and Geared
Motor Used as an Alternator
- The gearbox provides the speed
change between turbine and
generator.
- Geared motor units are available
from many manufacturers in wide
ranges of powers and speed ratios.
Various types of gears are used: spur
gears, helical gears and bevel gears
which are suited to speed increasing
drives. Worms and worm wheels are
not suitable because they will not run
backwards.
6. Turbine Rotor Mounted in
Generator Shaft
- The turbine and generator speed
match
- There has to be clearance between
turbine and generator to avoid water
splash interference
- The bearings should be able to
tolerate the side load of the turbine
GROUP 10: GENERATOR, TYPES
AND SPECIFICATION
Generators
- Generators are machines that
produce electric energy in the form
of voltage and current. They
produce electricity based on the
principle of electromagnetic
induction.
How does a Generator Work?
- The electric-generator is a
GASOLINE Typically used for short periods
DIESEL Most popular fuel for industrial generators
NATURAL Generators rely on underground access to
GAS natural gas; more environmentally friendly
than gasoline or diesel.
PROPANE Another greener alternative to diesel and
gasoline; often the choice for fuel when
natural gas isn’t an option.
machine that converts mechanical
energy into electricity. The
primary purpose of electric
generators is to provide backup
power due to outages, though there
are generators that serve as the
only source of power, which might
be needed in mining and oil and
gas operations.
What do generators run on?
 The different types of power
generation come from these external
sources:
Other external sources include wind, solar,
hydro (water), coal and nuclear energy,
which are mostly used by generators in
power plants to harness power for the grid
and hydrogen, typically used in laboratories.
Homes, businesses, medical centres and
hospitals tend to rely on diesel, gasoline or
natural gas to convert to electricity.
DC AND AC GENERATORS
- AC and DC power generators both
use electromagnetic induction to
generate electricity. However, the
process they use is different. An AC
generator creates an alternating
current that periodically reverses
direction. But in a DC generator, a
direct current flows in one direction.
Generator Types and Specification
1. Portable Generators
- Portable generators are very useful in
a variety of applications. They come
in varying power configurations
suitable for different types of uses.
- These are generators ranging from
1000 to 15000 watts.
2. Inverter Generators
- Inverter generators produce AC
power and by using a rectifier which
converts the AC power into DC
power and then inverts it to AC to
provide steady current to appliances.
These are very useful for appliances
such as air-conditioners,
refrigerators, automobiles, boats and
recreation vehicles which need
particular values of voltage and
frequency, which inverter generators
are capable of providing. They are
also light in weight and compact,
therefore highly suitable for such
applications.
 Large Inverter Generators
• With very few exceptions, the large
inverter generators in our ratings
weigh around 250 pounds or more
(wheels included). They generate
5,000 watts of power or more (at 220
volts).
• This category of inverter generator
can be connected directly to your
electrical panel with a safety device
called a transfer switch, which CR
strongly recommends. That allows
them to power entire circuits in your
home rather than having to plug in
individual electronics with extension
cords.
 Midsized Inverter Generators
• These weigh 80 pounds or more and
might come with wheels. They
produce 2,500 to 5,000 watts but
don’t allow the recommended option
of connecting to an electrical panel
with a transfer switch. Instead, you
plug appliances or electronics
directly into the generator, which can
be dangerous if you don’t follow
certain safety guidelines.
• This size is well-suited for users of
recreational vehicles. These models
produce all the power you need for
plug-in appliances like a toaster or
microwave, and they’re light enough
to unload and carry away to a safe
distance from your RV before use.
 Recreational Inverter Generators
- These weigh up to 60 pounds and are
designed to be carried with one hand.
Most recreational models max out at
around 2,500 watts, which should be
plenty for tailgating or camping.
3. Standby Generators
- A standby generator comes on when
the grid goes down. Within seconds
of a power outage, the standby
generator automatically comes on
and sends power to appliances and
light sockets in the home. These are
very useful for residential
apartments, hotels, restaurants,
hospitals and commercial
establishments connected to grid
power.
- Standby generators can generate 150
kilowatts or more of clean power that
can handle all your appliances, even
sensitive electronics.

4. Industrial Generators
- Industrial applications of generators
are very different from residential or
small commercial applications.
Industrial generators or large
commercial generators need to be
more robust and rugged and perform
under harsh conditions. They also
need to provide a wide range of
power supply characteristics – from
20 kW to 2500 kW, from 120 to 48
volt and single phase to three phase
supply.
- Industrial generators are available in
a range of sizes, from around 20kW
to well over 3MW.