Journal of Dietary Supplements

ISSN: 1939-0211 (Print) 1939-022X (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/ijds20

Beta-Alanine Does Not Enhance the Effects of

Resistance Training in Older Adults

Christopher H. Bailey, Joseph F. Signorile, Arlette C. Perry, Kevin A. Jacobs &

Nicholas D. Myers

To cite this article: Christopher H. Bailey, Joseph F. Signorile, Arlette C. Perry, Kevin A. Jacobs
& Nicholas D. Myers (2018): Beta-Alanine Does Not Enhance the Effects of Resistance Training in
Older Adults, Journal of Dietary Supplements, DOI: 10.1080/19390211.2017.1406422

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/19390211.2017.1406422

Published online: 16 Jan 2018.

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JOURNAL OF DIETARY SUPPLEMENTS
https://doi.org/./..

ARTICLE

Beta-Alanine Does Not Enhance the Effects of Resistance

Training in Older Adults
Christopher H. Bailey, PhD a , Joseph F. Signorile, PhDa , Arlette C. Perry, PhDa ,
Kevin A. Jacobs, PhDa , and Nicholas D. Myers, PhDb
a
University of Miami, Department of Kinesiology and Sport Sciences, Coral Gables, FL, USA; b University of Miami,
Education and Psychological Studies, Coral Gables, FL, USA

ABSTRACT KEYWORDS
To investigate the potential of beta-alanine to increase muscular amino acid supplementation;
endurance of elder individuals in specific resistance-training protocols, elderly; muscular endurance;
we randomly assigned 27 participants (60–82 years of age) to a 12-week neuromuscular fatigue
double-blind intervention using 3.2 g/day beta-alanine or placebo with
or without resistance training to determine the effects on anthropo-
metrics, muscular performance, and activities of daily living (ADL). The
endurance-based resistance-training program (ERT) was given three
times per week and included two sets of 15–25 repetitions on 11 comput-
erized pneumatic machines (alternating upper and lower body) at an
intensity of 50% of maximum lifting weight (1RM). Mixed design analysis
of variance (ANOVA) revealed no significant group × time interactions
(p > .05) for any anthropometric or strength measures except 1RM leg
press (p = .010). A post hoc analysis revealed significant improvements
in 1RM leg press for both the resistance-training groups (p < .001) but
no significant between-group difference attributable to beta-alanine.
For the 20-repetition chest and leg press tests, no main effects of
beta-alanine or group × time interactions for the exercise versus
control groups were observed. Pairwise comparisons, however, did
reveal significant improvements in peak and average power for both
tests and fatigue index for the chest press in resistance-training groups.
Although beta-alanine had no effect on any measures, the ERT program
did positively affect three performance variables: 1RM, mechanical
power, and fatigue patterns during muscular endurance testing. Future
research should examine beta-alanine with different dosages and
training programs to expand upon our findings using endurance-based
resistance training.

Introduction
Skeletal muscle strength, power, and endurance decline with age, and these declines are com-
monly associated with reduced physical activity levels. The two most effective interventions
reported to overcome declines in the neuromuscular performance of older persons are exer-
cise (Hunter et al., 2004; Shephard, 2009) and nutritional supplementation (Bhasin et al., 2001;
Moon et al., 2013; Parise and Yarasheski, 2000).
Progressive strength training can mitigate age-associated declines in muscular strength
(Liu and Latham, 2009), power (Henwood et al., 2008), and endurance (Adams et al., 2001).

CONTACT Christopher H. Bailey christopherhayesbailey@gmail.com University of Miami, Department of Kinesiology

and Sport Sciences,  University Drive, Coral Gables, FL  USA.
©  Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
2 C. H. BAILEY ET AL.

In doing so, the difficulty of activities of daily living (ADL) may decrease, resulting in a
delayed onset of fatigue. Resistance-training has also been shown to be effective in improv-
ing muscle power in older adults, which may be more effective for improving the abil-
ity to live independently (Hazell et al., 2007) and reducing fall probability (Ni et al., 2016;
Pamukoff et al., 2014).
Beta-alanine is an amino acid that has been reported to improve exercise performance in
older adults (del Favero et al., 2012). Beta-alanine combines with histidine to form carnosine
(Artioli et al., 2010). Beta-alanine is the rate-limiting substrate for carnosine synthesis in
skeletal muscle (Artioli et al., 2010). Beta-alanine supplementation is a proven method for
increasing muscle carnosine content (Artioli et al., 2010). Supplementation rapidly increases
plasma beta-alanine levels, peaking between 30 and 40 minutes, before returning to baseline
3 hours after ingestion (Harris et al., 2006). A number of mechanisms have been proposed to
explain the benefits of increased skeletal muscle carnosine content on muscular endurance,
including enhanced calcium release in type I fibers (Dutka et al., 2012), improved antioxidant
activity (Boldyrev et al., 2013; Dawson et al., 2002), increased buffering in skeletal muscle
(Sale et al., 2013), and improved calcium sensitivity (Dutka et al., 2012).
Stout et al. (2008) and del Favero et al. (2012) have suggested that beta-alanine supplemen-
tation could enhance a resistance-training regimen by delaying the onset of fatigue, thereby
improving individuals’ tolerance of resistance training, increasing training volume, and conse-
quently enhancing improvements in skeletal muscle function. This provides a basis to hypoth-
esize that beta-alanine supplementation may improve ADL performance of the elderly by
increasing muscular endurance as a result of an increase in muscle carnosine content and
increased training volume.
The purpose of this study was to determine whether beta-alanine supplementation, com-
bined with endurance-based resistance training, could improve anthropometric measures,
machine tests of muscular strength and endurance, and ADL-based performance to a greater
extent than endurance-based resistance training alone in older adults.

Methods

Design
The study utilized a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial design. Participants
were randomly assigned to one of four groups. Individuals assigned to the treatment groups
were provided a 12-week supply of 800 mg sustained-release tablets of beta-alanine (two 1.6 g
doses per day, totaling 3.2 g per day). Individuals assigned to the placebo groups were provided
a tablet identical in appearance and weight containing a maltodextrin placebo. The treatment
and placebo groups were further divided into an exercise group and a nonexercise group.
A flow diagram of the enrollment, baseline testing, intervention, and posttesting process is
presented in Figure 1.

Participants
Participants were men and women between 60 and 82 years of age who lived independently
without assistance, were not sarcopenic (as measured by gait speed ࣙ 0.8 m rs−1 and/or skele-
tal muscle index (SMI) ࣙ 8.87 kg rm−2 in men and ࣙ 6.42 kg rm−2 in women; Cruz-Jentoft
et al., 2010), and had no significant cognitive impairments (Mini-Mental Questionnaire < 23;
 JOURNAL OF DIETARY SUPPLEMENTS 3

Figure . Flow chart of participants’ progress through the study with specific events and explanation.

Folstein et al., 1975) or medical conditions that would interfere with participation in the
study. Individuals who responded “yes” to any item on the Physical Activity Readiness Ques-
tionnaire (PAR-Q) (Thomas et al., 1992) or who were not eligible to complete the form due
to being over 69 years of age were required to obtain clearance from their physicians before
beginning the exercise program. Additional questionnaires were used to screen individuals
for the use of supplements (including beta-alanine) and to assess their physical activity levels.
Individuals were excluded from the study if they had any previous history of beta-alanine
supplementation or recent history (within 6 months) of resistance training. Recruitment,
testing, and training of participants were conducted in accordance with procedures approved
by the university’s institutional review board (IRB) for studies involving human participants.
Participants were informed of the potential risks and benefits associated with the study, and
written consent was obtained from all individuals prior to participation.
Fifty-four individuals consented to participate in the study. A total of 35 participants com-
pleted baseline testing and were randomly assigned to one of the four groups. Twenty-seven
individuals completed final testing. Table 1 contains the baseline characteristics of the partic-
ipants who completed the study.

Table . Baseline characteristics of participants completing the study.

Beta-alanine/no exercise Placebo/no exercise Beta-alanine/exercise Placebo/exercise
Characteristic n= n= n= n=

Age (years) . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± .
Height (m) . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± .
Weight (kg) . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± .
Body composition (%) . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± .
Fat-free mass (kg) . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± .
Skeletal muscle index (kg/m ) . . . .

Results are expressed as mean ± standard error.

4 C. H. BAILEY ET AL.

Testing protocol
During the first test session, participants’ anthropometric measurements, including height,
weight, body composition, and skeletal muscle mass, were obtained. Height was measured
using a Detecto scale stadiometer (Detecto Corp., Webb City, MO, USA), and weight and body
composition were measured using a single-frequency bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA)
device (Tanita BC 418, Tanita Corp., Arlington Heights, IL, USA). ADL performance was
then evaluated using “usual” and maximum gait speed on a 4 m course and the 10-item short
Physical Functional Performance Test (PFP-10) (Cress et al., 2005). Following a 15-minute
recovery, participants’ one-repetition maximums (1RM) for chest press and leg press were
measured using computerized pneumatic machines (Keiser Air 420, Keiser Corp, Fresno, CA,
USA). To determine 1RM on the pneumatic leg press, participants started with a 10-repetition
warm-up at 25% of body weight. A second warm-up using 5 repetitions at 35% of body weight
was then performed. All subsequent tests were single repetitions at progressively higher resis-
tance (lbs) until a 1RM was achieved. A 1-minute rest between warm-up sets and a 2- to
3-minute rest period between 1RM attempts was provided. For the 1RM on the pneumatic
chest press machine, a similar warm-up and test protocol was used with the same number of
repetitions and rest period duration, but using 10% and 20% of the participant’s body weight.
On a second testing day, components of the Senior Fitness Test (SFT) (Rikli and Jones,
2013) (excluding the 6-minute walk test included on the first day of testing in the PFP-10
and the 2-minute step test) were used to measure physical performance, followed by tests of
muscular endurance. Muscular endurance testing involved participants performing 20 rep-
etitions of the chest press and leg press as fast as possible at 50% of their 1RM on the same
pneumatic machines. Before the muscular endurance tests, the same warm-up protocols for
the chest press and leg press machines were used. Peak power (Ppeak ; W), average power (Pave ;
W), fatigue rate (FR; W·rep−1 ), fatigue index (FI; percent decline from peak to minimum
power), and total work (TW; joules) over the 20 repetitions were evaluated using dedicated
software (Keiser Corp, Fresno, CA, USA).

Training protocol
The endurance-based resistance-training protocol (ERT) was adapted from the American
College of Sports Medicine, (2009) guidelines for improving muscular endurance. Training
was performed three times per week. Participants were instructed to perform two sets of 15–
25 repetitions on 11 computerized pneumatic machines at an intensity of 50% 1RM. A 1- to
2-minute recovery was provided between sets with no formal recovery between machines.
Upper and lower body exercises were alternated to optimize training intensity. When partic-
ipants completed 25 consecutive repetitions of an exercise, the resistance was raised for the
following set. Larger increases were provided for machines involving larger muscle groups
(i.e., leg press) and smaller increases for those involving smaller muscle groups (i.e., seated
bicep curl). Before starting the training program, participants assigned to the exercise groups
were shown proper form and technique on each of the 11 pneumatic machines. Individuals
were then tested for their 1RM on each machine. All training was supervised by an ACSM-
certified exercise physiologist (ACSM EP-C).

Supplementation protocol
After completing the second day of testing, participants were randomly assigned to one of
the four groups. If the individual was assigned to a nonexercise group, he or she was given
 JOURNAL OF DIETARY SUPPLEMENTS 5

the coded supplement or placebo so dosing could begin the following morning. For partici-
pants assigned to an exercise group, they began taking the supplement or placebo on the first
training day following their familiarization with the exercise equipment. Natural Alternatives
International (San Marcos, CA, USA) provided the coded sustained-release beta-alanine and
placebo tablets.

Statistical analysis
All analyses were completed prior to breaking the blinding codes except for post hoc analyses
of pre- and posttest variables independent of beta-alanine supplementation. Initially, separate
4 (group) × 2 (time) mixed design ANOVAs were used to determine group differences, time
differences, and group × time interactions for all variables. Significance for all analyses was
set a priori at α = .05. When significant main effects or interactions were found, Bonferroni
post hoc tests were used to determine the sources. Effect size was evaluated using partial eta
squared (η2 p ), which describes the percentage of the study variance explained by a variable.
Since only a single variable produced a group × time interaction, a decision was made to
combine the placebo and supplement groups within the training and control groups and to
repeat the analyses to evaluate the potential impact of the ERT protocol on the dependent
variables.

Results
The 4 × 2 mixed design analyses, incorporating supplementation and ERT when defining
group membership, revealed a limited number of significant differences. For the anthropo-
metric measures, including weight, body composition, fat-free mass, and skeletal muscle
index (SMI), there were no significant effects of time or group × time interactions. When
examining the individual tests of the PFP-10, significant effects of time were detected for the
jacket test, pot carry test, laundry test, grocery carry test, and 6-minute walk test (p ࣘ .038);
however, no significant group × time interactions were detected. The 4 × 2 mixed design
ANOVA for the individual tests of the Senior Fitness Test revealed a significant time effect
for the 30 s arm curl test alone (p = .001) and no significant group × time interactions. For
1RM leg press and chest press, significant effects of time were seen for both measures and
a significant group × time interaction for 1RM leg press only (F (3,23) = 4.803, p = .010,
η2 p = .385). A post hoc analysis revealed significant improvements in 1RM leg press for the
ERT group taking beta-alanine (MeanDiff = 46.9 kg, 95% CI [26.5, 67.2 kg], p < .001) and
the ERT group taking the placebo (MeanDiff = 59.4 kg, 95% CI [39.0, 79.7 kg], p < .001);
however, an independent samples t test indicated no significant differences in the changes for
1RM leg press performance between the two exercise groups (t(14) = −.826, p = .423).
Given the lack of significance for the majority of variables among groups and the fact that
differences observed were specific to ERT rather than supplement administration, all analyses
were repeated using training condition and time as the independent variables.
When analyses were performed using training as the sole determinant of group member-
ship, once again, no significant time or time × group differences were found for the anthro-
pometric variables.
Analyses of selected PFP-10 variables are presented in Table 2. For the overhead reach, there
was a significant group × time interaction (p = .030; η2 p = .176). Post hoc analysis revealed a
significant decline in reach height for the nonexercise group (CON) (MeanDiff ± SE: −1.46 ±
0.69 cm, p = .043) with an increase by the ERT group that did not reach significance (MeanDiff
± SE: 0.59 ± 0.57 cm, p = .305). Results from gait speed and selected Senior Fitness Tests
6 C. H. BAILEY ET AL.

Table . Results of the Physical Functional Performance Test- (PFP-).

Condition × Time
Baseline Changes at posttest
Effect size p value
CON ERT CON ERT η p Adj.

Jacket (s) . ± . . ± . − . [−., .] −. [−., .]∗∗ . .
Scarf (s) . ± . . ± . − . [−., .] − . [−., .] . .
PotCtime (s) . ± . . ± . . [−., .] . [−., .] . .
PotCwt (kg) . ± . . ± . . [−., .] . [−., .] . .
Washer (s) . ± . . ± . − . [−., .] − . [−., −.]∗ . .
Dryer (s) . ± . . ± . − . [−., .] − . [−., .] . .
Floor Swp (s) . ± . . ± . − . [−., −.]∗ − . [−., −.]∗ . .
ReachOH (cm) . ± . . ± . − . [−., −.] . [−., .]∗ . .
Grocerytime (s) . ± . . ± . . [−., .] − . [−., −.]∗ . .
Grocerywt (kg) . ± . . ± . . [−., .] . [., .]∗ . .
Stair Climb (s) . ± . . ± . . [−., .] − . [−., .] . .
Walk-Min (yd) . ± . . ± . . [−., .] . [., .]∗ . .

CON = control; ERT = endurance-based resistance training; Jacket = Time to put on and remove a jacket (seconds); Scarf =
Time to pick up  scarves off the floor (seconds); PotCtime = pot carry time; PotCwt = pot carry weight; Washer = Time to
load the washer (seconds); Dryer = Time to load the basket from the dryer (seconds); Floor Swp = floor sweep time; ReachOH
= overhead reach height; Grocerytime = grocery bag carrying time; Grocerywt = grocery bag carrying weight; Stair climb =
Time to climb a flight of stairs; Walk-Min = -minute walk distance. Baseline values are presented as mean ± standard error;
Changes at posttest are mean differences with lower and upper bounds of % confidence intervals for difference.
∗ Significant pretest to posttest differences in pairwise comparisons (p < .).
∗∗ p = .

(excluding the 6-minute walk test included on the first day of testing in the PFP-10 and the
2-minute step test) scores are shown in Table 3.
Table 4 provides the results for 1RM testing. Time × group (p = .001, η2 p = .351) differ-
ences were seen for the chest press. Pairwise comparisons indicated a significant improvement
by the ERT group (MeanDiff ± SE: 5.08 ± 1.10 kg, p = .0001), but not for CON (MeanDiff
± SE: 1.48 ± 1.3 kg, p = .274). For leg press, there were significant differences detected for
time × group (p = .001, η2 p = .351). Post hoc analysis revealed no significant improvement
for CON (MeanDiff ± SE: 13.6 ± 8.3 kg, p = .112); the ERT group showed a significant
increase (MeanDiff ± SE: 53.1± 6.9 kg, p = .0001).

Table . Results of gait speed and selected Senior Fitness Tests (SFTs).
Condition × Time
Baseline Changes at posttest
Effect size p value
CON ERT CON ERT η p Adj.

GSusual (s) . ± . . ± . . [−., .] . [−., .] . .
GSmax (s) . ± . . ± . − . [−., .] . [−., .] . .
s chair stand (reps) . ± . . ± . . [−., .] . [−., .]∗∗ . .
s arm curl (reps) . ± . . ± . . [−., .] . [., .]∗ . .
Up-and-go (s) . ± . . ± . − . [−., .] − . [−., −.]∗ . .
Sit & reach (in) − . ± . . ± . − . [−., .] . [−., .] . .
Back scrth (in) − . ± . − . ± . . [−., .] . [−., .] . .

CON = control; ERT = endurance-based resistance training; GSusual = usual gait speed; GSmax = maximum gait speed; s chair
stand = Number of chair stand repetitions completed in  (s); s arm curl = Number of arm curl repetitions completed in
 (s); Up-and-go = Time to complete up-and-go course; Sit & reach = Forward reach distance from a seated position (cm);
Back scrth = back scratch test.
All baseline results are expressed as mean ± standard error. Posttests are standardized mean differences with lower and upper
bounds of % confidence intervals for difference.
∗ Significant pretest to posttest differences in pairwise comparisons (p < .).
∗∗ p = .
 JOURNAL OF DIETARY SUPPLEMENTS 7

Table . Maximal strength tests (RM).

Condition × Time
Baseline Changes at posttest
Effect size p value
CON ERT CON ERT η p Adj.

CPmax (kg) . ± . . ± . . [., .] . [., .]∗ . .
LPmax (kg) . ± . . ± . . [−., .] . [., .]∗ . .

CON = control; ERT = endurance-based resistance training; CPmax = maximal strength for chest press; LPmax = maximal
strength for leg press; RM = one-repetition maximum weight.
Results are presented as mean ± standard error. Posttests are standardized mean differences with lower and upper bounds of
% confidence intervals for difference.
∗ Significant pretest to posttest differences in pairwise comparisons (p < .).

Table . Twenty-repetition muscular endurance test.

Condition × Time
Baseline Changes at posttest
Effect size p value
CON ERT CON ERT η p Adj.

Chest press
Ppeak (W) . ± . . ± . . [−., .] . [., .]∗ . .
Pave (W) . ± . . ± . . [−., .] . [., .]∗ . .
FR (W/rep) . ± . . ± . . [−., .] − . [−., .] . .
FI (%) . ± . . ± . . [−., .] − . [−., −.]∗ . .
TW (kJ) . ± . . ± . − . [−., .] − . [−., .] . .
Leg press
Ppeak (W) . ± . . ± . . [−., .] . [−., .]∗ . .
Pave (W) . ± . . ± . . [−., .] . [., .]∗ . .
FR (W/rep) . ± . . ± . − . [−., .] . [−., .] . .
FI (%) . ± . . ± . − . [−., .] − . [−., .] . .
TW (kJ) . ± . . ± . − . [−., .] − . [−., .] . .

CON = control; ERT = endurance-based resistance training; Ppeak = peak power; Pave = average power, FR = fatigue rate;
FI = fatigue index; TW = total work. Results are expressed as mean ± standard error. Posttests are standardized mean differ-
ences with lower and upper bounds of % confidence intervals for difference.
∗ Significant pretest to posttest differences in pairwise comparisons (p < .).

Results for muscular endurance testing on both the chest press and leg press are shown in
Table 5. For FI during the chest press, a significant condition × time interaction was detected
(p = .040, η2 p = .159). Pairwise comparisons revealed no significant difference across time
for CON (MeanDiff ± SE: 1.34 ± 7.00%, p = .850); ERT showed a significant decline in FI
(MeanDiff ± SE: −18.40 ± 5.80%, p = .004).

Discussion
The principal finding of the study was that beta-alanine supplementation did not significantly
impact anthropometric measures, ADL strength, or endurance in older adults. A secondary
finding, revealed primarily through post hoc analysis, was that independent of supplementa-
tion status, ERT had a significant, positive impact on a number of performance and functional
measures.
The lack of effect of beta-alanine on body composition and daily performance measures in
the older adults who did not receive resistance training in this study is similar to the results
of del Favero et al. (2012), who examined the impact of this supplement on anthropometric
measures and muscle performance of 18 healthy men and women, 60–80 years of age. Similar
to our findings, these researchers reported no significant improvements in anthropometric
8 C. H. BAILEY ET AL.

measures or sit-to-stand or timed up-and-go performance; however, a significant increase

in time-to-exhaustion on a treadmill test performed at 75% of the difference score between
participants’ ventilatory anaerobic threshold and VO2peak was seen. The difference in results
between our 20-repetition fatigue test and their treadmill test may be central to understanding
why beta-alanine had no effect in the current study. Clearly, the endurance testing protocol
used by del Favero et al. (2012) targeted the classic use of beta-alanine to enhance whole body
endurance, with a large cardiovascular involvement, while our 20-repetition leg press and
chest press tests were more representative of localized neuromuscular endurance. While there
may be some relationship between whole body and localized neuromuscular endurance, evi-
dence suggests that the two do not have a perfectly linear relationship. For example, a compar-
ative analysis of Canadian firefighters to the general population indicated that the firefighters
had higher muscular endurance, but lower cardiovascular endurance, than the general pop-
ulation (Horowitz and Montgomery, 1993). This is further highlighted by a study that found
beta-alanine had beneficial effects in older individuals (55–92 years) (Stout et al., 2008) in
which the exercise test protocol involved a cycle ergometer with 2-minute exercise intervals,
which is a significantly greater duration than the 20-repetition protocol used in this study.
The current training program produced a number of significant improvements in func-
tional measures, including some simulated tests of ADL and machine-measured strength,
power, and endurance. Previous studies using similar training programs consisting of low
intensity (40% 1RM) and high repetitions (13–14), but longer duration (24–52 weeks),
resulted in increased muscular strength and endurance for the chest press and leg press
(Vincent et al., 2002), decreases in stair-climb time (Vincent et al., 2002), and increased leg
muscle strength (Taaffe et al., 1996). The current study found significant improvements on
some, but not all, of the components of the CS-PFP-10, and a number of factors may explain
this result. First, due to the targeting of endurance through multiple repetitions, a lower
intensity was required to achieve the target number of repetitions, which may have produced
a reduced stimulus for strength development. Second, the duration of the current study
was substantially shorter than in the aforementioned studies. And finally, the nature of the
functional tests used was more attuned to testing strength and power than to testing muscular
endurance. Our results are similar to a study using pneumatic equipment in a training pro-
gram of similar duration and frequency, which reported no significant improvements in the
400 m walk, timed chair rise, or self-reported function using the WOMAC scale in individuals
with knee osteoarthritis (Sayers et al., 2012). As noted by these researchers, the lack of transfer
between the training and the test tasks may have been due to differences between the biome-
chanical nature of the training program and the test tasks (Sayers et al., 2012). Furthermore,
many of the ADL tests included in the present study were not fatigue-dependent and, there-
fore, were not reflective of the muscular endurance–based program. This is highlighted by
the observation that although not all of the timed tests of ADL showed improvement, the 20-
repetition leg press and chest press tests showed significant improvements in peak and average
power.

Study limitations
This study had a few major limitations. First, the PFP-10 and Senior Fitness batteries are pre-
dominantly short-duration tests with limited capacity to distinguish improvements in muscu-
lar endurance related to beta-alanine administration. Second, the lack of dietary control may
 JOURNAL OF DIETARY SUPPLEMENTS 9

have introduced a substantial source of inter-individual variability. Third, a number of signif-

icant effects over time were found among all groups. This suggests that some of the improve-
ments in performance may have been a result of a learning effect, indicating that a familiar-
ization session should be included when evaluating activities of daily living. Finally, a larger
sample may have been required to detect effects on these other activities.

Conclusions
While our study found no effect of beta-alanine supplementation on the performance of neu-
romuscular tasks by the elderly, the analysis of the exercise training data suggests that this
result may not apply to tasks with more strenuous, aerobic endurance demands. We, there-
fore, recommend that beta-alanine should be tested for effectiveness in older adults using
training interventions of longer duration (i.e., 24 or more weeks) and larger endurance com-
ponents that would provide greater stimuli for changes in function, body composition and
aerobic endurance challenge. Similarly, future research should also consider the difficulty of
the tests of performance in relationship to the age and health of the population being studied.
Many of the tests in the current study may have a ceiling effect, whereby the performance of
the participants in the current study may have been too high at baseline to demonstrate sig-
nificant effects of supplementation. Making the tests more demanding, through duration or
intensity, or utilizing an older, less-able participant population may elicit different results.

Acknowledgments
The authors thank Natural Alternatives International (NAI) for their contribution of sustained-release
beta-alanine tablets and the matching placebo. The authors also thank student research assistants
Amanda Luiso and Caitlin Lowe for their assistance with the study.

Declaration of interest
Natural Alternatives International (NAI) provided the coded placebo and beta-alanine tablets at no
cost but was not involved in the study design, data collection, statistical analysis or preparation of this
manuscript.

About the authors

Christopher H. Bailey, PhD, is interested in Research of dietary supplements. Department of Kinesi-
ology and Sport Sciences, University of Miami, Coral Gables, FL, USA.
Joseph F. Signorile, PhD, is interested in Research of kinesiology. Department of Kinesiology and Sport
Sciences, University of Miami, Coral Gables, FL, USA and Center on Aging, Miller School of Medicine,
Miami, FL, USA.
Arlette C. Perry, PhD, is interested in Research of kinesiology. Department of Kinesiology and Sport
Sciences, University of Miami, Coral Gables, FL, USA.
Kevin A. Jacobs, PhD, is interested in Research of kinesiology. Department of Kinesiology and Sport
Sciences, University of Miami, Coral Gables, FL, USA.
Nicholas D. Myers, PhD, is interested Research of statistics. Education and Psychological Studies, Uni-
versity of Miami, Coral Gables, FL, USA.
10 C. H. BAILEY ET AL.

ORCID
Christopher H. Bailey http://orcid.org/0000-0002-0475-8746

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