The Ana!

ysis of Frames with Semi-Rigid

Connections- A State-of-the-Art Report
Dr S. W. Jones*, Dr P. A. Kirby? and Dr D. A. Nethercot?
*W. S. ATKINS AND PARTNERS, EPSOM, SURREY(FORMERLYUNIVERSITYOF SHEFFIELD)
tDEPARTMENT OF CIVIL AND STRUCTURALENGINEERING, UNIVERSITYOF SHEFFIELD,UK
SYNOPSIS 1 INTRODUCTION
The history of research into the behaviour of steel When designing steel frames O'2"3) it is customary to
beam-to-column connections is traced starting from assume that joints are either
early developments in 1917. Attention is focussed on
moment-rotation characteristics as this is the most (i) pinned - implying no moment transfer, or
important influence on the response of either (ii) rigid - implying complete rotational continuity.
individual members or complete frames. The non-
Design Codes, including the revision of reference 1,
linear nature of this characteristic is identified and
perpetuate this concept, referring to the two alter-
methods of representing moment-rotation curves for
natives as 'simple' and 'continuous' construction.
subsequent use in analytical procedures are discussed.
The notions of either pinned or rigid joints are,
A review is made of all available test data; this may be
however, simply extreme cases of true joint
used as a starting point for both further studies of
behaviour, and experimental investigations, many of
connection behaviour and as the basis for investiga-
which are referred to in this report, show clearly that
tions of the effects of semi-rigid connections on
actual joints exhibit characteristics over a wide
structural response.
spectrum between these extremes. Most connections
NO TA TION normally regarded as pinned possess some rotational
A,B,C,D c o e f f i c i e n t s of g e n e r a l i s e d stiffness, while connections which are regarded as
slope-deflection equation rigid often display some flexibility. It would there-
d depth of angle section fore seem more correct to classify all steel frames
el, e2 BSI draft B.20 - end factors under the heading of semi-rigid construction, while
E1 flexural rigidity of section recognising 'simple' and 'continuous' construction as
g connection gauge extreme cases.
/ BSI draft B.20 - joint ratio The most obvious advantage of a design utilising
L real length of member semi-rigid connections is that beam moments are
l effective length of member reduced leading to lighter beams. Figure 1 shows
M moment at connection that for an isolated beam with simple connections
P axial load the span moment is critical, whereas when rigid
t angle thickness connections are assumed the end moments are
Z semi-rigid connection factor critical for beam design. If semi-rigid connections
are assumed these two moments may be more nearly
Moment-distribution terms
balanced. Another possible source of economy lies
C carry-over factors
MF in the columns where a better understanding of
fixed end moments
actual restraint conditions and end moments may
S stiffness factors
well lead to more rationally based, less conservative
Matrices methods of design.
K overall stiffness matrix
Ko geometric stiffness matrix
Ks normal stiffness matrix
Greek terms / IMs ~ fiend ~Mr
Ol semi-rigid slip factor
(ca)Rigidconnection
semi-rigid slip factor
0A, On rotations of ends A and B of
member
@, @coNNEc-noN relative change of angle of (b) Semi-rigiclconnect,on
member centrelines at
connection ~-Lf" Full simple ~\~-1m
No end
(~)TOTAL, @AB, @BC measured component rotations moment
to determine true connection
rotation (c) FLexible connecbon
(0 load per unit length Figure l Classes of beam-column connections
 The analysis of frames with semi-rigid connections - a state-of-the-art report
The aim of this paper is:
(i) to review methods of incorporating semi-rigid
end restraint into conventional analytical
methods,
(ii) to review experimental data available on the
behaviour of common types of structural
connection, and
(iii) to discuss methods of modelling this experi-
mental data within analytical procedures.
Section 2 reviews the available literature on the
modified methods of indeterminate frame analysis
including stability analysis and ways of including
semi-rigid end restraint into the effective length
approach to the design of compression members.
Section 3 includes an extensive survey of published
experimental data relating to connection behaviour.
Methods of modelling, including a new method
developed by the authors, are outlined in the fourth
section.
2 METHODS OF INCORPORATING SEMI-RIGID
END RESTRAINT INTO THE ANALYSIS OF
FRAMES
2.1 Early investigations into semi-rigid
connection behaviour
The importance of the end restraint provided by
semi-rigid connections was realised over fifty years
ago. Wilson and Moore (4) first investigated the
flexibility of riveted structural connections in 1917.
Research workers in Britain, (5"6"7) Canada (s) and the
United States, (9) in three separate investigations
during the 1930s, measured the relations between
end moment and relative angle changes at beam-to-
column connections in an attempt to provide data
for semi-rigid connection design. Since then
numerous tests on riveted, bolted and welded
connections have been reported.
Batho and Rowan ~5) proposed a graphical method
for predicting the end restraint provided by a
connection for which the experimentally obtained
moment-rotation relationship was known. This
method, known as the 'beam-line method', is
discussed in more detail in Section 2.4. Young and
Jackson ~8) investigated (i) the rotational capacity
and end restraint provided by connections to reduce
the beam moment due to gravity loads and also (ii)
the ability of connections in frames to resist
horizontal deflections due to lateral or wind loads.
Methods of incorporating semi-rigid end restraint
into slope-deflection and moment-distribution
methods were proposed by both Baker (5) and
Rathbun tg) independently. Both used a semi-rigid
connection factor Z, defined as the angle change per
unit moment.
Z=*--
M (I)
3
This assumes a linear moment-rotation relation-
ship and the connection factor, Z, is the inverse
slope of this relationship.
From the early investigations into connection
behaviour the possible economies were realised.
According to British investigations, (6) savings of as
much as 20 per cent could be achieved on the design
of beams in frames by taking advantage of end
restraint.
2.2 Methods of indeterminate frame analysis
modified to allow for semi-rigid end restraint
Conventional methods of indeterminate frame
analysis have all been modified to allow for semi-
rigid end restraint. The bases of these conventional
methods are that frame deformations are due solely
to the bending of members, but in practice extra
deformation is caused by connection deformation.
Methods of analysis modified to allow for these extra
connection deformations include the slope-
deflection method, moment-distribution method,
matrix stiffness methods and some of the older
methods such as the method of three moments and
the deformeter method.
The modification of all these methods used the
connection factor Z, thereby including the simplify-
ing assumptions that a linear moment-rotation
relationship exists, despite the fact that experiments
had clearly shown that moment-rotation curves
were non-linear over the whole range for most types
of connection. This assumption makes the methods
only strictly applicable for very low values of
rotation where the slope of the moment-rotation
curve may be reasonably approximated by the
inverse of the initial tangent connection factor, Z.
The slope--deflection method was first applied to
frames with semi-rigid connections in 1936, both by
Baker (6'7"1~) and Rathbun (9) independently. The
slope-deflection equation for a beam of length L and
flexural rigidity E1 loaded by a uniformly distributed
load to is shown in equation 2 for the no-sway case.
2El DtoL 2
M = T A(BOA + COn) - 1"-'-~ (2)
The values of the coefficients A, B, C and D for both
the conventional and modified methods are given in
Table 1. The values of the coefficients a~and fl in the
table are defined as
anO (3)
where Z A and ZB are the semi-rigid connection
factors for end A and B for the beam respectively.
4 Journal o f Constructional Steel Research: Vol. 3, No. 2:1983

Table 1 Slope-deflection equation coefficients By 1960, the analysis of plane frames by matrix
stiffness methods using electronic computers had
Conventional Modified
slope--deflection slope-deflection been established. In 1961 Lightfoot and Baker (~3)
Coefficient method method produced a computer solution to the problem of
plane frames with elastic connections, using the
1
AAB 1 generalised slope-deflection equations in matrix
(3trfl + 2a~ + 2fl + 1)
BaB 2 (3fl + 2) form. The semi-rigid connection restraint was
CAB 1 1 incorporated into the analysis by the use of correc-
DAB 1 (3/3 + 1) tion matrices to amend the initial assumption of fully
1 rigid connections. M o n f o r t o n and Wu (t4) first
ABA 1
(3a~fl + 2a + 2fl + 1) incorporated the effects of semi-rigid connections
BBA 1 1 into the matrix stiffness analysis in 1963. Similar
CBA 2 (3a + 2) procedures were proposed by Livesley C~5) and also
DBA --1 --(3O: + 1) by Gere and Weaver (t6) at about the same time. The
linear semi-rigid connection factor, Z, is used to
The moment--distribution method of analysis was modify the member stiffness matrices and the
modified to allow for flexible connections shortly fixed-end-forces vector. The stiffness matrices are
after being first proposed by Hardy Cross. The modified by correction matrices and the resulting
conventional method is confined to frames with linear equations are solved as in the normal stiffness
perfectly rigid connections; the m e t h o d when method. The advantages of the matrix stiffness
applied to frames with semi-rigid connections is the method are that it can be programmed so that
same as the usual method except for the numerical relatively large frames can be analysed with ease and
that the use of interactive techniques would permit
differences in the values of stiffness factors, carry-
the inclusion of improvements in the end restraint
overs and fixed end moments as shown in Table 2.
representation.
Methods of incorporating the effects of semi-rigid
connections into the moment-distribution method Young and Jackson (8) first investigated the effects
were proposed by Baker, (6) Rathbun, (9) Johnston which semi-rigid connections have on the sway
and Mount (m) and more recently by Gere. (~2) For deflections of frames in 1934. In the same year
any particular frame with semi-rigid connections the Baker (6) analysed a frame with side loads producing
factors in Table 2 can be evaluated and once sway deflections using the moment--distribution
obtained the analysis proceeds in exactly the same method, while Stewart (~7) applied the transverse
fashion as for rigidly connected frames. It requires method of analysis to the same problem. Baker's
no extra work except in the evaluation of the initial earlier work (6) was developed in 1936 by Baker and
Williams. (7) S o u r o c h n i k o f f (~s) e x a m i n e d the
factors.
Table 2 gives a comparison of the m o m e n t - b e h a v i o u r of s e m i - r i g i d l y c o n n e c t e d f r a m e s
distribution factors for a beam within a frame of subjected to combined gravity and horizontal wind
length L and flexurai rigidity E1 loaded by a loads and considered the behaviour of the connec-
uniformly distributed load to. tions due to moment reversals.

Table 2 Comparison of moment-distribution factors 2.3 Investigations into connection behaviour

to provide data for design methods
Modified method
Conventional includingeffects of During the 1940s much experimental work was
Factor M-D method semi-rigidconnections undertaken by various experimenters to provide
m o m e n t - r o t a t i o n data for bolted, riveted and
Fixed-end-moment welded connections. A notable investigation by
-toL 2 -(3fl + 1)wLz
MABF Hechtman and Johnston °9) at Lehigh University in
12 12(3043 + 20~ + 2/3 + 1)
wL ~ (3a + I)wL:
1947 considered the behaviour of 47 riveted connec-
MBAF tions. Experimental data produced during this
12 12(3orfl+ 2o~ + 2,8 + l)
Carry-ovcrs period are summarised in Section 3 of this paper.
I Johnston and Hechtman (2°) proposed a design
CAa (2 + 3/3) procedure accounting for semi-rigid end restraint
CBA 21
1 and suggested that economies of 15-20 per cent of
(2 + 3o0 the weight of beams in a frame were possible by
Stiffness factors using their approach as opposed to assuming simple
SAR 1 (3/~ + 2) connections. F u r t h e r design p r o c e d u r e s were
2(2Otfl+ 2a + 2fl + 1) proposed by Johnston and Mount (m) and Hechtman
SBA 1 (30: + 2) and Johnston O9) as a result of their analytical and
2(2o:fl + 2~r + 2fl + 1)
experimental investigations.
 The analysis o f frames with semi-rigid connections
M restraint equations produce a single constant value
M
A
,r ~
Moment J
0 Rotation ¢ and secondly the extension, of research into
Figure 2 Beam-line method
2.4 Early methods of end restraint prediction
The beam-line method is used to determine the end
restraint provided by a connection using the actual
moment-rotation curve. The method was proposed
by Batho and Rowan C6) and later developed by
Batho. (7) Moment-area principles were used to
derive the beam-line equation which gives the end
restraining moment a linear function of the angle of
connection rotation as
M = MF 2El~p (4)
L (a) provide a more consistent clamping force O3'26)
To determine the end restraint provided by a
certain connection this beam-line is drawn on the
connection's moment-rotation curve, as shown in
Figure 2.
The beam-line and restraint-line intersect at a
point, P, where the values of moment and angle of
rotation represent the end restraint conditions that
would exist at the end of such a member with the
connection as described by the moment-rotation
curve. The advantage of this method is that it uses
the actual M-q~ relationship and so finds a more
accurate value of end restraint without assuming
linear moment-rotation behaviour. However, the
method requires experimental moment-rotation
data to be available for every connection analysed.
By the 1950s methods of analysis were available
for frames with semi-rigid connections. These
methods could be used to produce economy in beam
design provided moment-rotation data were avail-
able. If this data were not available expensive and
time-consuming laboratory tests had to be
performed. Methods for the prediction of the initial
tangent semi-rigid connection factor, Z, using elastic
restraint equations were proposed by Lothers t21) in
1951. He applied the analysis to web angle connec-
tions after which this work was extended to other
connection types at Oklahoma State Univer-
sity(22'23"24) during the 1950s. Lothers's analysis
yields initial tangent connection factors which are in
good agreement with Rathbun's experimental
results (9) for similar connections. These elastic
- a state-of-the-art report 5
of Z and so provide a linear moment-rotation
relationship, which is, of course, subject to the usual
limitations of this simplifying assumption.
2.5 Developments in the field of structural
engineering (1950-1960) affecting semi-rigid
connection analysis
Fasteners
During this period development of fasteners
occurred as a result of two factors, (25) firstly the
development of high strength structural materials
connections.
Riveting had largely been replaced by the use of
bolts; in some cases by the use of High Strength
Friction Grip (HSFG) bolts. Reasons for the change
from rivets to HSFG bolts are discussed by Munse et
ai.(26) HSFG bolts develop high clamping forces of
more than twice the maximum developed by rivets
as a result of shrinkage during cooling. The clamping
force of a HSFG bolt does not depend on shrinkage
and a consistent clamping force may be applied to
any length of bolt. The advantages of HSFG bolts
over rivets may be summarised as follows:
(b) installation does not require expensive heating
equipment
(c) reduced site fire risk
(d) bolting crews require less training to operate
simpler equipment
(e) field erection costs are lower.
For these reasons the HSFG bolt became more
competitive than the rivet and so to a large extent
replaced it.
Welding methods also advanced during this period
due to research. Welding also became more
common as a principal method of fastening.
These developments to fasteners and methods of
using them provide more consistent and predictable
beam-to-column connection behaviour. Detailed
discussion of the behaviour of various fastener types
is given by Fisher and Struik. (27~
Electronic digital computers
The existing methods of incorporating semi-rigid
end restraint in a structural analysis become tedious
and cumbersome for even medium sized frames, and
when the frames are large the analysis becomes far
too arduous for most designers. The electronic
digital computer was developed during the early
1950s and was applied to structural analysis in the
later 1950s and early 1960s. The application of
computers using matrix stiffness methods to the
analysis of large structural frames became well
known. Computers also made it possible to incorpo-
rate systematic procedures into methods of analysis
6 Journal of Constructional Steel Research: Vol. 3, No. 2:1983
to give a better representation of connection
behaviour. Iterative methods of correcting connec-
tion stiffness and end restraint values produced even
better representations of the real connection
behaviour.
2.6 Stability analysis of frames with semi-rigid
connections
The stability of frames using matrix methods has
been a n a l y s e d by m a n y a u t h o r s , n o t a b l y
Halldorsson and Wang (28) and Prizemieniecki, (29)
assuming rigid connections. The stability of a frame
can be measured by the determinant of the overall
stiffness matrix of the structure. The stiffness matrix
of a member is composed of two separate member
stiffness matrices: (i) the normal stiffness matrix
depending on terms such as E, 1, A and L and (ii)
the geometrical stiffness matrix depending on
length, L, and axial load, P, alone. The geometrical
stiffness matrix allows for the destabilising effect of
axial loads. For the whole frame the overall stiffness
matrix, summed for all members, is the sum of the
normal and geometric stiffness matrices.
K = Ks + Kc (5)
The point of frame instability occurs when the
determinant of this overall stiffness matrix becomes
equal to zero.
Det K = 0 (6)
In 1970, Romstad and Subramanian (3°) investi-
gated the effects of semi-rigid end restraint on the
buckling capacity of simple frames. They incorpo-
rated modified end connection stiffnesses into the
matrix stability analysis outlined above and used
computer techniques to determine loads creating a
condition of bifurcation. This analysis was used to
study the behaviour of a single-storey single-bay
frame with semi-rigid beam-to-column connections
both with and without sidesway. They suggested that
it would seem beneficial to incorporate end restraint
condition into effective length calculations to deter-
mine the allowable stresses in compressed members.
Romstad and Subramanian t3°; assumed a bi-linear
model of the connection moment-rotation curve.
They used computational procedures for locating
eigenvalues and eigenvectors; the load being incre-
mentally applied followed by repeated calculations
to detect determinant sign changes using a Regula-
Falsi interpolation procedure to find the critical
load. They analysed the stability problem using a
bifurcation approach and so were unable to find the
effect of a non-linear moment-rotation curve on the
buckling capacity of frames.
2.7 The effective length of columns with semi-
rigid end restraint
The effective length of a compressed member
depends on the end restraining conditions at the
ends of its unbraced length. In structural frames
these end restraint conditions depend on the stiff-
ness of connecting members and of the connections
themselves. The Column Research Council's align-
ment charts (3~) can be used to find the effective
length of columns with rigid connections. Methods
of modifying the alignment charts for use with
semi-rigid end restraint were first proposed by De
Falco and Marino (32) in 1966. This method uses the
initial tangent semi-rigid connection factor, Z, and
so assumes linear moment-rotation characteristics.
In 1976, Driscoll (33) developed this work to allow for
frames both with and without sidesway. Wood, (34) in
1974, also considered the effective length of
members with semi-rigid connections.
The draft B.20 proposals of the British Standards
Institution give an empirical method of determining
the effective length of continuous columns in multi-
storey braced frames. The effective length, !, is
calculated by
l = L(1.0 - el - e2) (7)
where L is the actual length of the column and el and
e2 are the end factors at each end. The end factors
are determined from the equation
e = 0.25/'/(250 + / ) (8)
where j is the joint ratio depending on the ratio of
beam stiffness to column stiffness at the connection.
Conditions for the proportioning of connections
have to be satisfied before the empirical method may
be used. These proposals are based on the design
recommendations of the final report of the Steel
Structures Research Committee of Great Britain. (7)
Driscoll (33) discusses the problems arising due to
the use of the initial tangent semi-rigid connection
factor, Z, in effective length calculations by
recognising that the M-q~ characteristics of typical
structural connections are non-linear over the
complete loading range so that the initial tangent
factor is only correct when zero end moment exists.
This connection stiffness varies as the end moment
varies and so the effective length of columns
connected to such connections are also varying. In
bifurcation type buckling problems it is the instan-
taneous ability to resist deformation which must be
determined and if it is assumed that no moment
exists at the connections until the point of bifurca-
tion then the initial tangent stiffness factor is
applicable in this idealised case. In frame situations,
moments do exist at connections before the bifurca-
tion condition is reached and so the initial tangent
factor is not representative of the connection stiff-
ness and this may lead to overestimates of the frame
buckling capacity.
 The analysis of frames with semi-rigid connections - a state-of-the-art report
2.8 Other connection deformation to be
investigated
In-plane behaviour
All the experimental and analytical methods
described so far have only considered the in-plane
flexural deformations of a connection. Connections
may also have flexible deformation characteristics
relating to other degrees of freedom, such as axial or
shear deformation. This topic was first investigated
by Lightfoot and Le Messurier, (35) in 1974, who
extended the analysis to allow for connections in
which members are constrained elastically against
axial and shearing forces as well as against flexural
moments. Linear force-deformation relationships
were assumed in all cases. This work was applied to
the analysis of scaffold structures but the principles
are easily applied to multi-storey structural frames
using matrix methods suitable for computer
procedures.
Out-of-plane behaviour
Very little work seems to have been done investigat-
ing semi-rigid end restraints for the out-of-plane
degrees of freedom, such as lateral shears, twisting
and lateral bending. The nature of the end restraint
provided in these degrees of freedom may be
important in the three-dimensional behaviour of
members.
The twisting degree of freedom was introduced
into Monforton and Wu's analysis(~4) assuming a
linear torque-twist relationship. Lightfoot and Le
Messurier (35) also considered the analysis of space
frames incorporating every possible degree of
freedom's end restraint as a linear elastic spring
support; correction matrices for use with rigidly
connected frame programs were presented. Very
little experimental data appears to be available for
degrees of freedom at connections, apart from the
substantial data for the in-plane flexural behaviour
as summarised in the following section.
3 EXPERIMENT DATA AVAILABLE ON THE
BEHAVIOUR OF BEAM-TO-COLUMN
CONNECTIONS
3.1 Introduction
Numerous investigations into the behaviour of
beam-to-column connections have been reported
during the past fifty years. Riveted, bolted and
welded connection data are summarised in Section
3.2 in tabular form.
The flexural behaviour of a connection is best
described by the relationship between M, the
moment transmitted by the connection (e.g. from
beam to column), and q~, the relative rotation of the
two members fastened by the connection (see
Section 3.3). Figure 3 shows typical moment
response curves and can be used to explain connec-
tion behaviour.
7
N
Moment
3
1
Rotation ¢
Figure 3 Typical moment-rotation curves
Curve 1 runs along the horizontal 'rotation' axis
and represents the idealised pinned connection
where zero moment is developed for all values of
rotation. Curve 2 represents the idealised fully rigid
connection where no joint rotation occurs for all
values of moment development. These are two
extreme cases and in practice all moment-rotation
curves will lie in the range between these extremes.
Curves 3, 4 and 5 represent semi-rigid connections of
differing degrees of rigidity. Curve 3 would repre-
sent the moment-rotation relationship produced by
a flexible connection such as a single or double web
cleated connection, as shown in Figure 4(a). Curve 5
would represent a much more rigid connection such
as that made using T-stubs attached to the top and
bottom flanges, as in Figure 4(b). Curve 4 represents
a connection of intermediate rigidity such as a top
and seat angle connection, as shown in Figure 4(c).
The slope of the moment-rotation curve is a
measure of the rigidity or stiffness of the connection
at any particular value of rotation. From this fact it
can be seen that the rigidity of the three connections
decrease as the rotation increases, and it confirms
graphically that the connection represented by curve
5 is more rigid than those represented by curves 4 or
3.
Due to the complex nature and behaviour of these
connections the moment-rotation curves are usually
non-linear over the complete range of the curve.
This non-linearity is produced by decreasing connec-
tion stiffness as loading increases. The reduced
stiffness is due to various factors as discussed by
Lewitt, Chesson and Munse (36) and many other
researchers as summarised in tabular form in the
"w-A,--"
• a-t.
(o) "~ (b} (cl
" --'-'k"- --
.,,-.-,1,-
Figure 4 Typical connection types
8 Journal of Constructional Steel Research: Vol. 3, No. 2:1983

following section. Detailed explanations of reduced 3.2 Experimental data on semi-rigid

stiffness, connection behaviour and the various connections
modes of failure have been described by these Numerous tests on semi-rigid connections have been
researchers. The important factors determining the reported during the past fifty years. The data
rigidity of common types of connection can be listed available for each type of connection are given in
as follows: Table 3.
(a) depth and length of connected beams 3.3 The measurement of joint rotation
(b) cross-centre distance between bolt holes Analytical procedures are based on the ideal model
(c) type and size of fasteners of a system in which the structural members are
(d) whether connection is to a column web, column represented by their centrelines. The connections
flange or a girder web are assumed to be concentrated at the intersection of
(e) thickness of connecting angles these centrelines. A comparison of the idealised
(f) physical properties of angles, members and model and the real structural arrangement is shown
fastener material in Figure 5.
(g) end plate yield load The total joint rotation (~)TOTAL)is the relative
(h) column stiffener yield rotation between a point A and point C and has
(i) local beam flange buckling essentially three components; (i) that due to beam
(j) column web yield flexure for a length B to C ( ~ c ) , (ii) the flexural
(k) beam and column contact during deformation. component of the half width of the column which is

Table 3 Available connection data

Country No. Type Column axis

Type of Reference of of of of restrained by
connection experimental data Date origin tests fastener connection

Web cleats Single cleat

Johnston + Deits (5°~ 1942 USA 4 Welded Major
-4 Sommer(39~ 1967 Canada 4 Bolts Major
Lipson( ~ 1968 Canada 8 Bolts Major
Lipson(45~ 1977 Canada 43 Bolts Major
D o u b l e cleats
Batho + Rowan (6) 1934 UK 3 Rivets Major
Rathbun (9~ 1936 USA 7 Rivets Major
Munse et al. (26~ 1959 USA 4 Rivets/Bolts Major
Mathison (62) 1959 Canada 4 Bolts Major
Howe t63) 1961 Canada 4 Bolts Major
Leon ( ~ 1961 Canada 6 Bolts Major
Lewitt et a1.(36) 1969 USA 9 Rivets/Bolts 7-Major/2-Minor
Bergquist (43) 1977 USA 3 Bolts Minor

Header plate Sommer(39) 1967 Canada 16 Bolts Major

I}
Top and seat
angle cleats
4
Batho + Rowan (~"
Batho + Rowa# *)
1934
1934
UK
UK
7
3
Rivets
Black bolts
Major
Major
Rathbun ej) 1936 USA 3 Rivets Minor
Hechtman + Johnston ~j'° 1947 USA 19 Rivets 14-Major/7-Minor

! i
 The analysis of frames with semi-rigid connections - a state-of-the-art report 9

End plate no Sherbourne ~46J 1961 UK 1 Bolted Major

column stiffeners Ostrander {47~ 1970 Canada 11 Bolted Major
Bailey {'*a~ 1970 UK 3 Bolted Major

-I- I
Suttees + Mann 149~
Zoetemeijer16~
1970
1974
UK
Holland
5
6
Bolted
Bolted
Major
Major

ll 4 Zoetemeijer + Kolstein166~
Grundy et al. {67}
1975
1980
Holland
Australia
14
2
Bolted
Bolted
6-Minor/8-Major
Major

Welded top plate Young + Jackson taJ 1934 Canada 10 Welded Minor
and seat Johnston + Deits {~°~ 1942 USA 2 Welded Major
Brandes + Mains t-~3) 1944 USA 17 Welded 5-Major/12-Minor
Pray + Jensen {54~ 1956 USA I Welded Major
Johnson ~55~ 1959 UK 1 Welded Major
Johnson et al. {5~ 1960 UK 1 Welded Major

i,
,r
r
I

T-Stub Batho + R o w a n {6~ 1934 UK 2 Rivets Major

Rathbun {9~ 1936 USA 6 Rivets 5-Minor/l-Major
Douty {57~ 1964 USA 3 Bolted Major
Bannisterc~6~ 1966 UK 5 Bolted Major
Zoetemeijer{6-~ 1974 Holland 4 Bolted Major
.,,,j

Combined web and Batho + R o w a n {6~ 1934 UK 2 Rivets Major

top and bottom cleats Young + Jackson {a~ 1934 Canada 4 Welded 2-Major/2-Minor
Rathbun {'~ 1936 USA 2 Rivets Minor

'K
4
Combined web Batho + Rowan {6~ 1934 UK 1 Rivets Major
cleats and T-stubs Young + Jackson {~ 1934 Canada 4 Rivets 2-Major/2-Minor
Young + Jackson {~ 1934 Canada 4 Welded 2-Major/2-Minor
Zoetemeijer{6~ 1974 Holland 13 Bolted Major
L~ J

assumed to be part of the idealised system (~Aa) and procedure. The total rotation of point C relative to
(iii) the additional rotation due to the connection point A, which has been assumed by many investi-
itself and local distortions of the beam centreline gators, is not correct.
and the column face due to the connection
q~connE~-rton = ~'OTAL -- qbaB -- qN~c (9)
(~COnNE~I'ION). Although not ideal the third of
these three components should give a close repre- Equation 9 gives the rotation at point B whereas
sentation of joint rotation for use in an analytical analytical procedures assume the joint rotation to
10 Journal of Constructional Steel Research: Vol. 3, No. 2:1983
r M
(a) Ideotisedmodel
(b) Real arrangement
t Figure 7 Moment-rotation representations
Figure 5 Joint rotation measurement
occur at point A. This induces another source of
error into joint rotation measurement.
Care must therefore be taken, before incorpo-
rating m o m e n t - r o t a t i o n data into analytical
procedures, to ensure that an accurate representa-
tion of connection rotation is used. Experimenters
should arrange their rotation measurement equip-
ment so that flexural rotation may be allowed for
and sufficient measurements .are taken so as to
enable the true relative rotation, tPCONNECrION, to
be deduced. Much of the material reviewed in the
previous section is incomplete in that insufficient
data has been produced to allow for these flexural
effects within the measurement zone. Test layouts
should be carefully designed before data intended to
represent semi-rigid connection behaviour is
produced.
4 END RESTRAINT MODELLING
4.1 Linear methods
The influence of semi-rigid joints on frame be-
haviour was first seriously studied in the 1930s and
was largely based on the assumption that the joints
could be modelled by a linearly elastic moment-
rotation characteristic, thus making the overall
structural response linearly elastic. Using this
approach the joint stiffness (or flexibility) could be
represented by a short section of beam (adjacent to
the now rigid joint) possessing a flexural rigidity
smaller than the parent member. The equivalent
spring model was an alternative representation in
which the beam is assumed to be attached to the now
rigid joint by rotationally coiled springs. Both
representations are shown in Figure 6.
These linear models are applicable to the modi-
fied 'slope--deflection', 'moment-distribution' and
'matrix-stiffness' methods of analysis as described in
Locallyweakenedmodel Equivalentspringmodel
Figure 6 Linear connection models
Moment
~ J ~ ~ A . I A_ Linear
i
MT ....y f B - ~,ineor
//C C- Experimentat
~// MT- Transit=onmoment
Rotation
Section 2.2. This linear model is usually assumed in
the form of an initial tangent stiffness factor, Z, for
the connection which is only strictly correct for zero
end moment; as the end moment increases this
initial tangent becomes less representative and
increasingly optimistic.
In an attempt to improve the straight line repre-
sentation, bi-linear models were used by Lion-
berger (37'3s) and by Romstad and Subramanian (3°)
within matrix stiffness analysis methods. The slope
of the linear M - ¢ curve is reduced at a certain
transition moment to follow the experimental M - ¢
curves more closely, as shown in Figure 7.
4.2 Polynomial curve fitting models
The experimental moment-rotation curve, although
not following any simple mathematical function,
may be approximated to a polynomial type function
using curve fitting techniques. Sommer (39) in 1967,
first fitted moment-rotation data to standardised
moment-rotation curves in the form of non-
dimensional polynomial series. This work was
applied to header plate connections. The form of the
polynomial series function is
tp = f(CM) (10)
where C is a factor to allow for the size effects or
dimensions of the connection. The standardised
moment-rotation function is applicable to all
connections of the same type; the influence of
different sizes and dimensions is accounted for by
the size effect factor, C. Sommer's (39) work is
discussed by Kennedy°°) and compared to experi-
mental data for header plate connections.
Frye (4~) and Frye and Morris (42) extended the
work on standardised moment-rotation curves to
allow for seven different types of connections. Using
previously available experimental data, as sum-
marised in Section 3, they produced standardised
moment-rotation functions for the following types
of connection
(i) double web angles
(ii) single web angles
(iii) header plates
(iv) top and seat angles
(v) end plates - no column stiffeners
 The analysis of frames with semi-rigid connections - a state-of-the-art report
(vi) end plates - with column stiffeners
(vii) T-stubs.
In all the functions produced for the above
connections the variation in sizes of similar types of
connection are allowed for by the term C. The size
effect factor, C, is the product of various size
parameters raised to powers of constants, which
have been previously determined by fitting to
experimental data. For example for a double web
angle connection
C = d -2"4 t -0"23 gO.16 (11)
where d = depth of angle
t = angle thickness
g = connection gauge
and the standardised moment-rotation equation for
this connection is
q~ = 3.66(CM) x 10 -4 + 1.15(CM) 3 x 10 -~
+ 4.57(CM) x 10 -8 (12)
Similar expressions for all the above connections are
given by Frye and Morris (42) and these were all
shown to give good agreement with the original
experimental curves. Sommer's standardisation
method may be applied to any type of connection
provided sufficient experimental data are available.
Frye O~ successfully used these standardised
moment-rotation equations within a matrix stiffness
program for the analysis of multibay-multistorey
frames. This analysis is used to calculate the extra
overall frame deformations due to the partial rigidity
of the connections as opposed to the completely
rigid case. It is shown that due to certain types of
semi-rigid connection the overall frame sway may be
increased by as much as 21 per cent.
4.3 B-spline curve-fitting techniques
In the stiffness approach to the analysis of a
structure the slope of the m o m e n t - r o t a t i o n
characteristic at any load level is of paramount
significance as this defines the current joint stiffness.
Since it is the nature of polynomial curve-fitting
techniques to produce characteristics which peak
and trough, it is not surprising that they can produce
unsatisfactory descriptions of joint response. In
extreme cases the first derivative can become
negative which would clearly be unacceptable in
conventional analytical procedures.
A more accurate representation of the true
connection behaviour may be achieved by using
cubic B-spline curve-fitting techniques. This method
requires the division of the range of connection
rotations into a finite number of smaller ranges, then
within each of these ranges a cubic function is fitted
in turn, but first and second derivative continuity is
maintained between ranges. This method has been
shown to produce close and smooth curve repre-
sentations of experimental moment-rotation data.
11
B-spline curve-fitting yields a numerical descrip-
tion of the moment-rotation function; this function
may be used directly within numerical differentia-
tion procedures. These methods produce corrected
values of connection stiffness which can then be used
in the modified matrix stiffness method to analyse
frames with semi-rigid connections. Thus, the frame
analysis is performed using very close representa-
tions of the true connection behaviour.
5 NEEDS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH
Much data has been published relating to the
in-plane flexural behaviour of ,a connection. To
perform a complete analysis of a structure consider-
ing only in-plane behaviour data is also required
describing the behaviour of the axial and shear end
restraining forces. If the analysis considers full
three-dimensional behaviour then data is required
for the extra three out-of-plane degrees of freedom.
These are lateral shear, lateral bending and twisting
of the connection. The effects of end warping should
also be considered. The significance of the end
restraint provided by all these degrees of freedom is
as yet unknown.
Improved methods are required for incorporating
more realistic connection behaviour into design
procedures so that full advantage may be taken of
this semi-rigid end restraint provided by the com-
monly used structural connections. Methods have to
be adapted for use in the design office, without the
need to use large and expensive computer
procedures.
Investigations are required into the effects of
semi-rigid end restraint on the behaviour of (i)
individual beam-column members and (ii) complete
frames. The amount by which semi-rigid connections
influence the buckling capacity and the load-
deflection behaviour of these structures is as yet
unknown.
The number of variables influencing the behaviour
of a structural connection would make an analysis to
predict the complete moment-rotation relationship
very complex. Methods using empirical and non-
dimensional curve-fitting techniques have been
used, but as yet no method appears to exist for the
theoretical prediction of the complete moment-
rotation curve. Lothers (21) successfully predicted the
initial tangent semi-rigid connection factor, but this
only gives the slope of the moment-rotation curve at
zero applied moment. If such a theoretical method
were to be devised for the complete curve it would
eliminate the need for expensive laboratory tests for
each type of connection to be used in an analysis.
Methods of predicting a connection's behaviour
using a finite element analysis have been proposed.
KrishnamurthytS~'5~'ea~) considered the behaviour of
bolted end-plate connections and Lipson and
Hague t61) recently analysed a single angle web cleat
12 J o u r n a l o f Constructional Steel Research: Vol. 3, No. 2 : 1 9 8 3
connection. A prediction of moment-rotation
b e h a v i o u r of a connection by such a finite element
analysis would be very useful.
6 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
(1) The importance of the end restraint provided by
semi-rigid connections was realised over fifty years
ago.
(2) M o s t early investigations assume a linear
m o m e n t - r o t a t i o n relationship.
(3) Possible e c o n o m i e s of as m u c h as 20 per cent
have been estimated f r o m early investigations.
(4) M a n y conventional m e t h o d s of f r a m e analysis
have been modified to allow for semi-rigid end
restraint. These m e t h o d s include: slope deflection,
moment-distribution and matrix stiffness m e t h o d s .
(5) T h e beam-line m e t h o d uses the actual m o m e n t -
rotation relationship and so finds an accurate value
of end restraint without assuming linear m o m e n t -
rotation behaviour, but the m e t h o d requires experi-
mental data to be available for every c o n n e c t i o n
analysed.
(6) M u c h research and d e v e l o p m e n t has b e e n
c o n d u c t e d into structural fasteners during the past
thirty years. Riveting has b e e n replaced by bolting
both 'black' and H S F G , and welding has b e e n
d e v e l o p e d to b e c o m e a principal f o r m of m a k i n g
structural connections.
(7) Existing m e t h o d s of analysis have p r o v e d to be
too tedious and c u m b e r s o m e for m o s t designers.
T h e advent of the electronic digital c o m p u t e r stimu-
lated research in the 1960s using matrix m e t h o d s and
m a d e it p o s s i b l e to i n c o r p o r a t e systematic
p r o c e d u r e s into m e t h o d s of analysis and to give a
better representation of true c o n n e c t i o n behaviour.
(8) The stability of frames and the effective lengths
of m e m b e r s within frames with semi-rigid connec-
tions have been considered recently.
(9) E x p e r i m e n t e r s have r e p o r t e d m u c h data on the
in-plane flexural b e h a v i o u r of connections, h o w e v e r ,
little data appears to be available on c o n n e c t i o n
b e h a v i o u r in all o t h e r degrees of f r e e d o m .
(10) The three-dimensional b e h a v i o u r of m,,mbers
with semi-rigid c o n n e c t i o n s has received little
investigation.
(11) T h e load-deflection and stability b e h a v i o u r of
s t r u c t u r e s c o n t a i n i n g semi-rigid c o n n e c t i o n s is
generally u n k n o w n and investigation is required to
take full advantage of any possible e c o n o m i e s due to
real end restraint conditions.
(12) T h e best description of the flexurai b e h a v i o u r of
a connection is its m o m e n t - r o t a t i o n curve.
(13) T h e b e h a v i o u r of a c o n n e c t i o n is very c o m p l e x
and its m o m e n t - r o t a t i o n relationship is rarely linear.
Most m o m e n t - r o t a t i o n curves are non-linear over
the c o m p l e t e loading range.
(14) M o m e n t - r o t a t i o n relationships have been
modelled by linear or bi-linear curves for m a n y
years. R e c e n t l y a t t e m p t s to i m p r o v e the modelling
of the true connection behaviour, using polynomial
and B-spline fitting techniques, have been p r o p o s e d .
(15) Care must be taken to ensure that correct
c o n n e c t i o n r o t a t i o n v a l u e s are m e a s u r e d in
experiments.
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Contributions discussing this paper should be received by the
Editor before 1 September 1983.