PHYTOTHERAPY RESEARCH

Phytother. Res. 16, 98–116 (2002)

Published online in Wiley InterScience (www.interscience.wiley.com). DOI: 10.1002/ptr.1098

REVIEW ARTICLE
Ethnobiology of the Nilgiri Hills, India

S. Rajan,1 M. Sethuraman2 and Pulok K. Mukherjee3*

1
Survey of Medicinal Plants and Collection Unit, Central Council for Research in Homeopathy, Udhagamandalam - 643 002, Tamil Nadu,
India
2
Tribal Research Center, Tamil University, Thanjavur - 613 005, India
3
Jadavpur University, Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, Kolkata 700032, India

The Nilgiri is a popular massif towering high in the Western Ghats in South India with an altitude of
2623 m. Nature has been magnanimous in bestowing Nilgiri district with rich evergreen temperate to
tropical forests. A high degree of biodiversity, marked by varied flora and fauna of good therapeutic
potential as well as the varied number of indigenous groups of people in this area, makes it very popular
among herbalists. The district has six anthropologically well defined ethnic groups namely Todas, Kotas,
Kurumbas, Irulas, Paniyas and Kattunayakas living here possibly since 1200 B.C. The present review high-
lights the ethnobiological profile of six indigenous populations and their dependence on ambient flora and
fauna for traditional health care needs. It has been observed that about 2700 therapeutically potent plant
species are available in this hill station of which almost all have come from local medicine. Some have been
explored scientifically. However, about 150 plant species are still to be explored for their therapeutic
potential. The ethnography, phytochemical and therapeutic uses as well as the anthropological perspec-
tives of the local medicines have been discussed in this review. Copyright # 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Keywords: ethnobiology; Nilgiri Hills; ethnic medicine; Tamil Nadu; India.

INTRODUCTION these flora and fauna (Breeks, 1873; Raghunathan, 1976;

The Nilgiri or the Blue mountain is characterized by rich
diversified flora and fauna that are distributed over the
tropical to temperate zones harbouring both indigenous
and introduced species of therapeutic potential. The
district, a part of the Western Ghats, lies between 11°12'
and 11°43' north and 76°14' and 77 °1' east in the north-
western part of Tamil Nadu (Fig. 1). It constitutes a
veritable treasure house for ethnobiological and anthro-
pological research.
The district comprises six taluks (components of a
district) namely, Udhagamandalam, Coonoor, Kotagiri,
Gudalur, Manjoor and Pandalur occupying an area of
2542 Km2. The annual rainfall of this region is 1600–
1800 mm encouraging the growth of rain forests, leading
to a high degree of biodiversity. Nilgiri is 300–2623 m
above sea level. The district has three well-marked
climatic tracts, i.e. tropical, sub-tropical and temperate
zones. It is believed that the heterogeneity in the vege-
tation pattern of the Nilgiris is mainly due to climate,
altitude and other edaphic factors.
For the past few decades, diverse scientific contribu-
tions have been made regarding this hill station in general
and particularly in connection with its anthropology,
ethnobiology and aspects related to the presence of so
many medicinal plant species as well as their traditional
significance. Comprehensive medico-ethnobiological
studies form the basis for establishing the potential of
* Correspondence to: P. K. Mukherjee, Jadavpur University, Department of
Pharmaceutical Technology, Kolkata 700032, India.
E-mail: pulokm@yahoo.com.
Copyright # 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Hockings, 1975, 1989). Notwithstanding the above facts,
no comprehensive review has been made on the medico-
ethnobiological data of the Nilgiri flora and fauna. Hence,
an approach has been made through the present review on
the traditional medicinal plant usage based on the
indigenous population and their medicinal usage of
plants. The present review provides a concise account
of the uses of plants as medicine employed by the six
Nilgiri ethnic groups. It delineates the groups in question
with details on their ethnography, plant-lore, magico-
religious practices and their specifications relating to
various indigenous therapies. A catalogue of local plants
and their botanical names with citations, local and family
names and their medicinal uses is presented.
ETHNOGRAPHY
The Nilgiri district constitutes a kaleidoscope of the
cultural heritage of six ethnic communities living here.
They are the Todas, Kotas, Kurumbas, Irulas, Paniyas
and the Kattunayakas. The origin of the above-mentioned
peoples in the Western Ghats has evoked different views
(Garner, 1976; Allchin and Allchin, 1968). According to
Hockings (1975), the above groups settled in the Nilgiri
in 1200 BC. The total population of ethnic minorities in
the Nilgiri as reported in 1981 was 21 400, of which the
numbers of different groups is shown in Table 1.
Furthermore, in 1991 the total population of these groups
in Nilgiri District was 25 000 (Anonymous, 1991) con-
stituting 4.8% of the district population as per the census
Received 16 March 2001
Revised 15 September 2001
Accepted 15 December 2001
 ETHNOBIOLOGY OF NILGIRI HILLS 99

Figure 1. Map of Nilgiri district showing the distribution of six ethnic groups.

1991. A brief description of these indigenous groups is
provided in the subsequent section.
Todas
They are professional dairymen and pastoral people
living in traditional houses called ‘munds’. The commu-
nity has two exogamous divisions called Tarthar and
Teiveli. There are five socially distinguishable clans
namely the Peiki, Pekkan, Kutan, Kenna and Jodi (Rajan
and Sethuraman, 1992). Todas tenaciously maintain their
rich cultural patrimony and religious identity. There are
nearly 60 Toda munds located in the various parts of the
district. A two stage funeral ceremony, green funeral and
dry funeral are popular with them. Todas worship
buffaloes and their culture and religion are primarily
organized around aspects of this animal. The community
medicine man is called Utpol or Utkorin who prescribes
herbal medicine for the treatment of all ailments. The
traditional hut (mund) along with the Toda medicine man
is shown in Fig. 2.
(Fig. 1). Each village has three keri (row of houses)
known as Kizhkeri, Nadukeri and Melkeri. Members
living in the same keri are considered as a brotherly clan
and hence no marriages are permissible. Keri exogamy is
noteworthy among the Kotas. They have elaborate ritual
practices of their own. Kotas worship their own family
deities (Rajan and Sethuraman, 1991).
Irulas
They are distributed in the lower altitudes of the hill.
Their chief occupation is wage earning as plantation
workers in tea estates. The community is divided into as
many as ten clans. Clan exogamy is common among
them. Irulas are good herbalists and are proficient in
magico-religious cures for several ailments. They believe
in supernatural elements and attribute disease causes to
taboo violations (Rajan and Sethuraman, 1993a).
Kurumbas
They practise hunting and have a food gathering

Kotas

Kotas are musicians and excellent craftsmen having

mastery over iron working. Traditionally, their distribu-
tion in the Nilgiri District is confined to seven villages

Table 1. Minority groups of Nilgiri (Anonymous, 1981)

Name of the group Population size

Irulas 5900
Kattunayakas 1400
Kotas 1800
Kurumbas 4800
Paniyas 5700
Todas 1600 Figure 2. Local healer (`Todas') in front of the traditional
hamlet (`mund ').
Copyright # 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Phytother. Res. 16, 98–116 (2002)
100 S. RAJAN ET AL.
Figure 3. Traditional hamlet of the `Kurumbas'.
economy. They are well-versed in honey collection
techniques. Kurumbas live in the interior jungles of
Nilgiri forests. Their staple foods are roots, tubers, wild
fruits and other forest produce. Kurumbas are considered
to be experts in magico-religious and witchcraft prac-
tices. They are a highly heterogeneous group consisting
of divisions such as Halu, Betta, Mullu, Jenu and Urali
Kurumbas. The medicine man resorts to incantations,
charms, amulets and animal sacrifices to treat the sick
(Rajan et al., 1997). Their hamlets are called mottas and
the medicine man is called ‘madhukara’ (Fig. 3).
Kattunayakas
They are another group of forest dwellers who are
nomadic in nature. Their staple foods are honey, fruits
and tubers. Eating bison flesh is a cultural taboo. Their
villages are called padi. They abandon the settlements in
which death occurs. The social custom and religious
practices of Kattunayakas are similar to kurumbas.
Paniyas
They live in bamboo huts at the junction of bordering
places in Kerala and Tamil Nadu. They work as labourers
with Wynad Chettis. The society comprises simple
nuclear families. Clan organization is absent in them.
Figure 4. Local healer of the `Paniyas'.
Copyright # 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Figure 5. Medicine woman wearing the ear ring of medicinal
plant Pandanus odoratissimus leaf.
But there are many exogamous lineages that regulate
marriage patterns in their society. The medicine man—
‘vaithiya’ —who treats ailments with folk remedies is
very famous amongst all the medicine men and women in
South Indian ethnic groups (Figs 4–5).
DATA COLLECTION AND FIELD METHODS
Systematic field surveys have been carried out (Rajan and
Sethuraman, 1991, 1992, 1993a, 1993b; Rajan, 2001) in
various settlements at regular intervals for a period of one
decade. Data for the present study have been collected
from six ethnic groups living in this district. A map is
provided to indicate the distribution of this population
(Fig. 1). The help of senior members of the community or
medicine men who have knowledge of plant and animal
medicines was sought during the fieldwork. Bilateral
discussion and open-ended interviews with the people
were conducted in various settlements to elicit maximum
ethnomedical information from them. As far as the plants
are concerned, the method, time of collection, their
composition, mode of application, dosage, food restric-
tion during the treatment period were also noted. The
plants were collected as exsiccate (herbarium) and
photographed after recording their ethnomedical applica-
tions. All the collected plant specimens particularly
belonging to Irulas and Paniyas have been identified and
deposited in the herbarium of Survey of Medicinal Plants
and Collection Unit, Udhagamandalam, India.
Some rare and endangered plant species of Nilgiri
In recent times, there has been a rapid decline in the
overall biodiversity of the world. For example, in the
Nilgiri district of Tamil Nadu, the forest areas have been
converted to tea cultivation lands. This has resulted in an
enormous loss of biodiversity over a short span of time.
Conservation is the organized method of management
of land resources to maintain a balance between natural
resources and evolutionary changes (Lincoln et al.,
1982). It enables us to identify the components of
biodiversity in a region for conservation and sustainable
development. It promotes in situ and ex situ conservation
in the efficient management of the ecosystem. It
Phytother. Res. 16, 98–116 (2002)
 ETHNOBIOLOGY OF NILGIRI HILLS 101

Figure 6. Endangered medicinal plant of the Nilgiri- Urginea

indica.

preserves traditional ethnic knowledge and utilization of

natural resources by human groups. The western ghats in
general and the Nilgiris in particular showed a short fall
in a number of plant species and some of them may
become rare, endangered and threatened in nature.
Rauvolfia serpentina, Rhododendron nilagiricum, Hemi- Figure 8. Rare medicinal plant available in the Nilgiri-
Zingiber roseum.
desmus indicus, Piper nigrum, Urginea indica (Fig. 6),
Gloriossa superba, Santalum album (Fig. 7) Sesamum
indicum, Lobelia nicotianaefolia and Drosera peltata are
some of the highly significant endangered and rare plants
of this region that require urgent conservation for future of the traditional medicine of the different ethinic groups.
generations. The phytochemical identity of many plant species has
Beside these there are other important rare plant been reported. Similarly the therapeutic potential in terms
species used medicinally by the tribes. Bacolepis of the pharmacological characteristics of different plants
nervosa, Leucas rosemarinifolia, Brunella vulgaris, has been screened (Table 2) and may provide new lead
Zingiber roseum (Fig. 8), Smilax zeylanica, Flemingia compounds for disease treatment.
wallichii, Spermacoce latifolia, Millettia splendens (Fig.
9), Curculigo orchioides etc. are among the potent
species in this class (Rajan, 2001), some of which are
only available in these hills and therefore require proper
conservation for the future.

Phytochemical and pharmacological research on

Nilgiri plants

Several workers have investigated the scientific validity

Figure 9. Rare medicinal plant available in the Nilgiri- Mil-

Figure 7. Endangered medicinal plant of the Nilgiri- Santa- lettia splendens used by Irulas medicine man at Kozhikarai
lum album. settlement.

Copyright # 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Phytother. Res. 16, 98–116 (2002)
Copyright # 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

102
Table 2. Botanical and local nomenclature of Nilgiri medicinal plants, along with selected information reported in the literature

Botanical name and family Local name Selected Chemical constituents Therapeutic uses (from literature) References

Abrus precatorius L. (Fabaceae) Gulugangi, Abrine, hypaphorine, choline and Anticancer Chopra et al., 1980; Asolkar et al., 1992
gundumani trigonelline
Acalypha indica L. (Euphorbiaceae) Kuppaigida Acalypline Cardiac stimulant Chopra et al., 1980; Nisteswar et al.,
1982
Achyranthes aspera L. Uttarane, Naivelai Acyranthine Antiimplantation and wound healing Chopra et al., 1980; Asolkar et al., 1992
(Amaranthaceae) soppu
Acorus calamus L. (Araceae) Baajai, Baji Acorin, calamenol, calamenon, Anticonvulsive, hypertension Chopra et al., 1980; Asolkar et al., 1992
asarone and volatile oil
Adhatoda vasica Nees (Acanthaceae) Adhathodai Vasicine and essential oil Thrombopoietic Chopra et al., 1980; Atal et al., 1982
Aegle marmelos (L.) Correa (Rutaceae) Bilpathini, Marmalosin, aegelenine Antimicrobial, and coumarin Antiviral Chopra et al., 1980; Banerji and
Vilvathiri, Vilvam Kumar, 1980; Dhar et al., 1968
Ailanthus excelsa Roxb. Doddamara Marmalosin, aegelenine and coumarin Antitumour Chopra et al., 1980; Asolkar et al., 1992
(Simarubaceae)
Allium cepa L. (Liliaceae) Irrulli, Nirulli Allicin Atherosclerosis reduction Vatsala and Singh, 1982
Allium sativum L. (Liliaceae) Bellulli, Bila bengai Allicin Hypertension Foushee et al., 1982
Alstonia scholaris R. Br. Pala Echiternie, ditamine, echitamine, Tumours and cancer Chopra et al., 1980; Asolkar et al., 1992
(Asclepiadaceae) echitamidine
Anacardium occidentale L. Geru bija, Anacardic acid Antiin¯ammatory Swarnalakshmi et al., 1981; Asolkar et
(Anacardiaceae) Munthirimara al., 1992

Andrographis paniculata Wall. Ex
Ness (Acanthaceae)
Areca catechu L. (Arecaceae)
Argemone mexicana L.
(Papaveraceae)
Artemisia nilagirica (C.B. Clarke)
Pamp. (Asteraceae)
Asclepias curassavica L.
(Asclepiadaceae)
Azadirachta indica A. Juss.
(Meliaceae)
Bauhinia racemosa Lam.
(Caesalpiniaceae)
Boerhavia diffusa L. (Nyctanginaceae)
Phytother. Res. 16, 98–116 (2002)
S. RAJAN ET AL.
Nilabevu Kalmeghin, andrographolide Antifertility, antimicrobial Chopra et al., 1980; Asolkar et al., 1992
Dakkae mara Choline, isoguvocine, arecaine, Antimicrobial, antiimplantation, Chopra et al., 1980; Asolkar et al., 1992
arecaidine, arecoline, guvacine antifertility
Dathuri Nayegida Berberine, protopine Antifungal, anthelmintic Chopra et al., 1980; Asolkar et al., 1992
Ureuvalu Inositol Antibacterial,antifungal Agarwal and Singh, 1994; Asolkar et
al., 1992
Kakathigida Asclepiadin, vincetoxin Anticancer Chopra et al., 1980; Asolkar et al., 1992
Bevu, Vembu Azadirachtin, nimbidin, nimbidol Anti in¯ammatory, antipyretic Okpanyi and Ezeukwu, 1981; Asolkar
et al., 1992
Banne Amyrin, sitosterol Anticancer and CNS depressant Dhar et al., 1968; Asolkar et al., 1992
Mukarattae soppu Punarnavine Antiviral Chopra et al., 1980; Verma and
Awasthi, 1980

Caesalpinia bounducella Flem. Kalachi kaai Caesalpin, bonducellin, aminoacids, Hypoglycaemic Anonymous, 1992; Rao et al., 1994
(Caesalpiniaceae) protines
Cajanus cajan L. (Fabaceae) Togarae Cajanin, concajanin, antisickling agent Anonymous, 1992
Phenylalanine
Calotropis gigantea (L.) R. Br. Arkagida Akundarin, calotropin Antiimplantation, anticancer Anonymous, 1992; Asolkar et al., 1992
(Asclepiadaceae)
Camellia sinensis (L.) Kunze Tea soppu, Tea Caffeine, polyphenols, essential oils Antibacterial, antiin¯ammatory Anonymous, 1992; Asolkar et al., 1992
(Theaceae) gidda
Cannabis sativa L. (Cannabinaceae) Kanja soppu Cannabinol, pseudo cannabinol, Antiepileptic, hypotension Anonymous, 1992; Asolkar et al., 1992
cannabinin
Copyright # 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Table 2. continued
Botanical name and family Local name Selected Chemical constituents Therapeutic uses (from literature) References

Capsicum annuum L. (Solanaceae) Milakai Capsaicin, capsorubin Reducing blood glucose Monsereenusorn, 1980; Asolkar et al.,
1992
Capsicum frutescens L. (Solanaceae) Kanalmilagai, Capsicin Antitumour Trease and Evans, 1978; Asolkar et al.,
Kattumilakai 1992
Cardiospermum helicacabum L. Chodakku kai Apigenin, luteolin, inositol Diuretic Santhakumari et al., 1981; Asima
(Menispermaceae) Chatterjee and Pakrashi, 1991
Carica papaya L. (Caricaceae) Parangimara Papain, pectin Antiimplantation Krishnamurthy and Natarajan, 1982;
Singh and Singh, 1992
Cassia ®stula L. (Fabaceae) Kakkae, Sennidin, sennosides A and B, Abortifacient, antifertility, antifungal Trease and Evans, 1978; Asolkar et al.,
Sarakonnai barbaloin, rhein, leucoanthocyanidin 1992
Centella asiatica (L.) Urban (Apiaceae) Elekadhu illi Asiaticoside, sitosterol, tannin and Anticancer Chopra et al., 1980; Babu and
resinous substances Padikkala, 1993
Coffea arabica L. (Rubiaceae) Cappi gida Caffeine, theobromine Hypoglycaemic, antimitotic Raffauf, 1970; Asolkar et al., 1992
Costus specious L. (Costaceae) Diosgenin (steroids) Antimicrobial Kunjthapadam, 1982; Asolkar et al.,
1992

ETHNOBIOLOGY OF NILGIRI HILLS

Cryptostegia grandi¯ora R. Br. Malamukki Rhodexin B, gitoxigenin Hypoglycaemic Asolkar et al., 1992
(Asclepiadaceae)
Cucumis trigonus Roxb. Attangaai Alnuseenol, alnusenone Diuretic Naik et al., 1981 ;Rastogi and
(Cucurbitaceae) Mehrotra, 1991
Cuminum cyminum L.(Apiaceae) Seera Cuminin, apigenin Antibacterial and antifungal Baslas and Kumar, 1980; Asolkar et
al., 1992
Curcuma longa L. (Zingiberaceae) Arasana Curcumin Antiin¯ammatory Rao et al., 1981; Asolkar et al., 1992
Datura metel L. (Solanaceae) Oomathae Tropane Antispasmodic Sarin, 1982; Prabhakar and
Nandakumar, 1994
Eclipta alba (L.) Hassk. (Asteraceae) Garagada soppu Ecliptine Antiviral Dhar et al., 1968; Chopra et al., 1980
Embelia ribes Burm. f. (Myrsinaceae) Vayu vilagam Embelin Antifertility Krishnaswamy and Purushothaman,
1980; Asolkar et al., 1992
Euphorbia hirta L. (Euphorbiaceae) Amman Choline, shikimic acid Antidiarrhoeic Galvez et al., 1993; Asolkar et al., 1992
palaisoppu
Gloriosa superba L. (Liliaceae) Agnisikhae Colchicine Antiimplantation; abortifacient Chaudhuri, 1993; Asolkar et al., 1992
Glycosmis pentaphylla (Retz.) Correa Gurada gida Acronycine, glycorine, glycosmicine CNS depressent Raffauf, 1970; Asolkar et al., 1992
(Rutaceae)
Gymnema sylvestre R. Br. Kodibevu Gymnemagenin Antidiabetic, Hypoglycaemic Rathi et al., 1981; Srivastava et al.,
(Asclepiadaceae) 1981; Rastogi and Mehrotra, 1993
Hemidesmus indicus L. Sogada Hemidescine, emidine Antileprotic Chandra et al., 1994; Gupta, 1981
Phytother. Res. 16, 98–116 (2002)

(Asclepiadaceae)
Jatropha curcas L. (Euphorbiaceae) Adaluharalu, Jatrophine, mecranthine Cancer; antileukaemic Raffauf, 1970; Asolkar et al., 1992
Kathukottai
Lawsonia innermis L. (Lythraceae) Ukuru soppu Lawsone Antiin¯ammatory Gupta et al., 1993; Chopra et al., 1980
Lobelia nicotianaefolia Heyne Kattu hoge, Upperi Lobeline Antispasmodic Mukerji and Ghosh, 1945; Chopra et
(Lobeliaceae) soppu al., 1980
Michelia champaca L. (Magnoliaceae) Chempagae Michelia base, agnoline, Diuretic, antispasmodic Raffauf, 1970; Dhar et al., 1974
magno¯orine, berberine
Mimosa pudica (Mimosaceae) Thothae jegri, Lajja Mimosine Hypoglycaemic, diuretic, anticancer Bhakuni et al., 1969; Chopra et al.,
cancer and antiviral 1980

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Table 2. continued
Botanical name and family Local name Selected Chemical constituents Therapeutic uses (from literature) References

Momordica charantia L. Hagal Momoridicine Antidiabetic Akhtar et al., 1981; Sharma et al.,
(Cucurbitaceae) 1960; Chopra et al., 1980
Moringa oleifera Lam. (Moringaceae) Nuggee, Nuggee Moringine Antibiotic, antiin¯ammatory, wound Raffauf, 1970; Eilert et al., 1981; Udupa
soppu healing et al., 1994
Mucuna pruriens Baker (Fabaceae) Poona kachi Mucunine, mucunadine Aphrodisiac Ananthakumar et al., 1994; Chopra et
al., 1980
Murraya koenigii L. (Rutaceae) Karibevu, kari Nicotine, nicotimine, anabasine Hypoglycaemic Bhakuni et al., 1969; Narayana and
soppu sastry, 1975; Chopra et al., 1980
Nicotiana tabacum L. (Solanaceae) Pogalae Nicotine, nicotyrine, anabasine Antiviral Bredon et al., 1982; Rastogi and
Mehrotra, 1993
Ocimum sanctum L. (Lamiaceae) Kari thulasi, Sri Eugenol, caryophllene Hypoglycaemic Chattopadhyay, 1993; Rastogi and
thulasi Mehrotra, 1993
Piper nigrum L. (Piperaceae) Menasu, Milagu Piperettine, piperine, piperedine Antibiotic, insecticidal Raffauf, 1970; Rastogi and Mehrotra,
1993
Plumbago zeylanica L. Thellu gida Plumbagin Antifertility Chowdhury et al., 1982; Rastogi and
(Plumbaginaceae) Mehrotra, 1993
Psidium guajava L. (Myrtaceae) Sebe annu, Koyya Gallocatechin Antidiarrhoeal Matsuo et al., 1994; Ghosh et al., 1993
annu
Pterocarpus marsupium Roxb. Gulimara, Honne Kinotanic acid Antidiabetic Sheehan et al., 1983; Chopra et al.,

S. RAJAN ET AL.
(Fabaceae) bange 1980
Punica granatum L. (Punicaceae) Pachari annu, Coniine, pelletierine, Antifertility Raffauf, 1970; Gujral et al., 1960
Dalimba Pseudopelletierine, isopelletrine,
Ricinus communis L. (Euphorbiaceae) Haralu, Amanakku Agmatine, ricinine Liver protection Raffauf, 1970; Rastogi and Mehrotra,
1993
Ruta chalepensis L. (Rutaceae) Nagadali soppu Rutin Antimicrobial Antimicrobial Ezmirly and Wilson, 1980; Ulubelen et
al., 1994
Sapindus trifoliatus L. (Sapindaceae) Soppukai Saponin Antispermatogenic, antiandrogenic Dixit and Gupta, 1982; Chopra et al.,
1980
Sida cordifolia L. (Malvaceae) Hethuthu, Ephedrine Depresses the blood pressure Chopra et al., 1980; Anonymous, 1981
Nilathuthi
Solanum nigrum L. (Solanaceae) Sukkatti soppu Solasodine, solasonine, solamargine Reduces the blood pressure, antiseptic Anonymous, 1981
Solanum torvum Sw. (Solanaceae) Kadu sundai, Steroline (sitosterol-d- glycoside), Antiin¯ammatory Chopra et al., 1980; Bhattacharya et
Sundae gida solasonine al., 1980
Solanum xanthocarpum Schrad & J.C. Mullu badanae Solanocarpine, solanine, solanidine Antiin¯ammatory Bhattacharya et al., 1980
Wendl. (Solanaceae)
Phytother. Res. 16, 98–116 (2002)

Strychnos nux-vomica L. Kanjira, Hemmush, Icajine, brucine, vomicine, strychnine, Convulsion, chronotropic Bratati and Bisset, 1991; Rastogi and
(Loganiaceae) Ittangi Mehrotra, 1991
Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels Nerialannu, Nerial Jambosine Hypoglycaemic Chopra et al., 1980; Rastogi and
(Myrtaceae) mara Mehrotra, 1990
Tectona grandis L. f. (Verbenaceae) Tadi, Sagwani Anthraquinone-2- carboxylic acid Antiulcer Pandey et al., 1982
Tephrosia purpurea (L.) Pers. Koggiti, Nari pairu Purpurin, rutin Antifertility Gupta et al., 1980; Rajan et al., 2001
(Fabaceae)
Copyright # 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Table 2. continued
Botanical name and family Local name Selected Chemical constituents Therapeutic uses (from literature) References

Terminalia chebula Retz. Karkadaga singi Chebulinic acid Hypolipidaemic Khanna et al., 1993; Rastogi and

ETHNOBIOLOGY OF NILGIRI HILLS

(Combretaceae) Mehrotra, 1993
Tinospora cordifolia (Wild.) Hook. f. & Seenthi kodi Berberine, giloin, giloinin Antiin¯ammatory Gulati and Pandey, 1982; Chopra et al.,
Thom. (Menispermaceae) 1980
Toddalia asiatica (L.) Lam. (Rutaceae) Masikae soppu Berberine, toddaline, toddalinine, Abortion Chopra et al., 1980; Rastogi and
Mehrotra, 1993
Tribulus terrestris L. (Zygophylaceae) Sannaneggilu Chlorogenin, gitogenin Antiurolithiatic Anand et al., 1994; Chatterjee and
Pakrashi, 1994
Tridax procumbens L. (Asteraceae) Seelakothi, Arachidic, behenic, lauric, linileic acid Wound healing Diwan et al., 1982; Rastogi and
Paikothi Mehrotra, 1995
Trigonella foenum-graecum L. Venthaya Diosgenin (steroids) Hypocholesterolaemic Kunjthapadam, 1982; Singhal et al.,
(Fabaceae) 1982
Tylophora indica (Burm. f.) Merr. Kurinja Tylophorine, tylophorinine CNS depression, antiin¯ammatory Chopra et al., 1980; Rastogi and
(Asclepiadaceae) Mehrotra, 1991
Vitex negundo L. (Verbenaceae) Lakki gida, Nakkilu, Nishindine, vitricine Anticancer, antibacterial Raffauf, 1970; Anonymous, 1982
Nekki
Zingiber of®cinale L. (Zingiberaceae) Injee Zingiberene, gingerol Antiemetic Trease and Evans, 1978; Kawai et al.,
1994
Phytother. Res. 16, 98–116 (2002)

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106 S. RAJAN ET AL.
ANTHROPOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES OF THE
LOCAL MEDICINE SYSTEMS
The different communities have their own idiosyncrasies
with regard to food, plants, animals and perclined causes
of disease. They ascribe diseases to spirits, evil eye and to
many other supernatural forces. Their food habits vary
widely according to their cultural taboos and beliefs. The
classification of food items in terms of the hot–cold
hypothesis is common (Rajan and Sethuraman, 1993a).
Among Irulas, pregnant women are forbidden to eat
Solanum melangena and Lycopersicon esculentum as
these plants, according to their ethos, induce cold. The
juice of Tamarindus indicus in the form of cooked juice
(‘Rasam’) is given to nursing mothers to improve
lactation. The plant Mahonia leschenaultii is considered
highly useful for ritual and medicinal purposes by Todas
(Rajan and Sethuraman, 1993a). The seeds of Bryonopsis
lacinosa are crushed with buttermilk and used by the
Kurumbas as a spray to increase the fruit yield of the
Cucurbitaceae plant, (Raghunathan, 1976). The fruit of
Carica papaya is best avoided during pregnancy because
it is considered heat producing in the body and this
condition is believed to cause abortion and haemorrhage;
it is used to cure hypomenorrhoea (Ferro-Luzzi, 1980).
Das (1980) reported that Carica papaya is reported to be
good galactogogue by the ‘Oraon’ tribe. The following
are some other plants said to be best avoided during
pregnancy: Mangifera indica, Artocarpus integrifolia,
Ananas sativa, Borassus flabellifer, Musa sapientum,
Amorphophyllus companulatus, Ipomea batatas, Hibis-
cus esculentus, Macrotyloma uniflorum, Setaria italica,
Sesamum indicum (Ferro-Luzzi, 1980).
ETHNOMEDICINE AND CROSS - CULTURAL
STUDIES
The medicinal plants of six ethnic communities living in
the Nilgiri Hills, India is shown in Table 3. Some of the
noted uses are routinely documented in the literature and
the rest is first-hand information. The potent uses and
salient features of the collected data have been high-
lighted (Table 3).
Among them, the antifertility claim for the plant
Ailanthus excelsa (Simarubaceae) by the Nilgiri Irulas is
noteworthy (Abraham, 1981). The antifertility effect of
Ailanthus excelsa stem bark extract has been pharmaco-
logically screened in albino rats (Dhanasekaran et al.,
1993). It is pertinent to note here that a parallel local
knowledge claim for this plant has been recorded in the
Yenadi tribe of Chittor district (AP) who are found to use
the stem bark of the plant for fertility regulation
(Vedavathy et al., 1997). Furthermore, the fruits of the
allied species of A. altissima are considered useful for
fertility regulation in Chinese traditional medicine
(YunCheung Kong et al., 1986).
Calotropis gigantea (Asclepiadaceae) leaf extract has
been proved to have antiimplantation activity (Asolkar et
al., 1992) in albino rats and its use as an abortifacient has
been practised by the Niligiri Paniyas for a long time.
This is not only analogous to the local uses of this plant
by Yenadis of Chittor district, Andhra Pradesh (Vedav-
athy et al., 1997), but also by the tribal groups of
Copyright # 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Hazaribagh and Ranchi districts of Bihar (Tarafdar,
1983). The use of Carica papaya (Caricaceae) as an
abortifacient by the Niligiri Irulas is similar to its uses by
the Yenadi tribal of Chitoor district (Vedavathy et al.,
1997). The antifertility effect of this plant in Chinese
traditional medicines is wellestablished (Yun Cheong
Kong et al., 1986). The plant Ficus religiosa is
considered useful for fertility regulation by the Nilgiri
Paniyas which corroborates the antifertility claim re-
ported for different allied species of this plant in Chinese
traditional medicine (Yua Cheung Kong et al., 1986).
The plant Moringa concanensis is used as an antifertility
agent by the Nilgiri Irulas. This claim reflects a similar
practice in vogue among the Yenadi tribals of Chittoor
district who employ stem bark to induce abortion
(Vedavathy et al., 1997). Moreover, the leaf extract of
this plant is believed to improve lactation; the leaf paste
of the allied species Moringa oleifera is applied to treat
poisonous bites by the Irulas, while the Yenadi tribals of
Chittoor district use the stem bark extract of M. oleifera
orally to treat poisonous insect bites (Reddy et al., 1989).
The leaf extract is orally consumed by Fiji Indians to
induce vomiting in cases of oral poisoning (Singh, 1986).
According to the common perception of the Nilgiri
Irulas, Musa paradisica (stem) is used as an antifertility
agent. A similar use has been recorded among the Yenadi
community of Chittoor district who administer the root of
this plant for sterilization purposes (Vedavathy et al.,
1997). Likewise, the allied species Musa basjoo (flowers)
are said to possess antifertility effects in Chinese
traditional medicine (Yun Cheung Kong et al., 1986).
Vedavathy et al., (1997) reported the abortive effect of
Bambusa arundinacea leaves used by the Nakkala
community of Chittoor district which is in consonance
with a similar local use by the Nilgiri Kurumbas.
Artemisia nilagirica, known as Indian wormwood, is
extensively used by the Nilgiri Paniyas as a febrifuge and
it has also been reported for the same activity by Asolkar
et al. (1992). Thunbergia fragrans root extract is given
orally as a remedy for snake-bite by the Kattunayaka
group of Nilgiri. This traditional use agrees with the use
of T. alata for treating snake-bites in Rwanda (Chagnon,
1984). The plant Erythroxylum monogynum is considered
highly useful for treating chronic skin diseases. The oil of
the dried wood is applied as a remedy. A congruous local
use of this plant has been recorded in the Yenadi
community of Chittoor district. In addition, the wood
extract on oral use is said to cure peptic ulcer (Reddy et
al., 1989). The Nilgiri Irulas and Paniyas use the plant
Sida rhombifolia and Sida acuta respectively as a remedy
for snake-bite. It is significant to note that a comparable
local use of Sida rhombifolia has been observed to treat
snake-bite in Tanzania, East Africa (Hedberg et al.,
1983). The hot water extract of stem bark of Tectona
grandis is said to ease childbirth in the folklore of Nilgiri
Irulas and Paniyas (Rajan et al., 1997).
CONCLUSION
This review highlights the rich heritage of the usage of
plant species by the different ethinic minority groups of
the Nilgiri Hills. The same plants are put to similar or
different uses as detected from cross-cultural relationship
studies. It is suggested that the identical use of different
Phytother. Res. 16, 98–116 (2002)
Copyright # 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Table 3. The medicinal uses of local plants by the ethnic groups of the Nilgiri Hills

Botanical name Family Irulas Kattunayakas Kotas Kurumbas Paniyas Todas

Abrus precatorius L. Fabaceae Wound healing*1 Ð Ð Cold and cough²4 Ð Ð

Acacia sinuata (Lour.) Merr. Mimosaceae Skin diseases Ð Ð Purgative³4 Ð Ð
Acalypha indica L. Euphorbiaceae Skin diseases}1 Ð Ð Skin diseases}4 Ð Ð
Achyranthes aspera L. Amaranthaceae Boils||1 Cuts and Cuts and Piles and urinary Ð Cuts and wounds6
wounds**2 and wounds{{3 infection4 Muscle
sprain{{10 sprain7 Labour
pain10
Achyranthes bidentata Blume Amaranthaceae Boils1 Ð Skin diseases8 Ð Ð
Acorus calamus L. Araceae Stomachache1 Headache2 Ð Diarrhoea4 Ð Stomach pain
Adenostemma lavenia (L.) O. Kuntze Asteraceae Abortion3 Ð Ð Ð
Ageratum conyzoides L. Asteraceae Cuts and wounds1 Cuts and wounds2 Cuts and wounds3, Cuts7, cough Headache Cuts and wounds6
Scabies11 cold10 fracture1
Ailanthus excelsa Roxb. Simarubaceae Antifertility and Ð Ð Antifertility and Ð Ð
headache1 dysentery4
Allium cepa L. Alliaceae Scorpion bite Stomach pain2 Ð Jaundice4 Headache1 Stomachache6

ETHNOBIOLOGY OF NILGIRI HILLS

chicken pox1
Allium sativum L. Alliaceae Skin diseases1 Ð Ð Gastritis4 Ear pain1 Wound healing
gastric problem6
Alternanthera pungens H.B. & K. Amaranthaceae Boils1 Ð Ð Menstrual Ð Ð
problems4
Amaranthes spinosus L. Amaranthaceae Laxative1 Ð Ð Eczema4 Ð Ð
Anacardium occidentale L. Anacardiaceae Ð Astringent2 Ð Foot cracks4 Fever Ð Ð
and warts1
Anamirta cocculus Wight and Arn. Menispermaceae Ð Ð Ð Skin Ð Ð
in¯ammation4
Anaphalis neelgerryana DC. Asteraceae Ð Ð Ð Cuts and wounds4 Ð Ð
Andrographis paniculata Wall. ex Acanthaceae Snake-bite and Ð Ð Snake-bite, Ð Ð
Nees skin diseases1 antifertility and
jaundice4
Annona squamosa L. Annonaceae Ð Worms in Ð Purgative4 Vermifuge10 Ð
children2
Arachis hypogea L. Fabaceae Ð Ð Ð Contraceptive4 Ð Ð
Arisaema leschenaultii Blume Araceae Snake-bite1 Ð Ð Snake-bite4 Ð Abortifacient,
snake-bite6
Aristolochia indica L. Aristolochiaceae Snake-bite7 Ð Ð Snake-bite4, Ð Ð
Phytother. Res. 16, 98–116 (2002)

diarrhoea,
dysentery7
Artemisia nilagirica (C. B. Clarke) Asteraceae Ð Ð Ð Asthma and insect Fever and insect Ð
Pamp. repellent4 repellent1
Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam. Moraceae Lactation1 Ð Ð Snake-bite and Ð Ð
rheumatism4
Asclepias curassavica L. Asclepiadaceae Sores and wound2 Ð Leucorrhoea Ð Wound healing6
Asparagus racemosus Willd. Asparagaceae Fertility Toothache2 Headache3 Stomachache and Increase lactation Ð
regulation1 rheumatism4 and toothache1

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108
Table 3. continued
Botanical name Family Irulas Kattunayakas Kotas Kurumbas Paniyas Todas

Azadirachta indica A. Juss. Meliaceae Toothache, Rheumatism2 Ð Fever and Rheumatic pain Ð
scabies1 wounds4 and post-natal
antiemetic9 complications1
Bacolepis nervosa (Wight & Arn.) Periplocaceae Boils and warts1 Ð Rheumatis3 Ð Ð Ð
Decne
Bauhinia racemosa Lam. Caesalpiniaceae Boils1 Ð Ð Dysentery and Ð Ð
fever4
Brassica juncea (L.) Czern. & Coss. Brassicaceae Earache, Stomach pain2 Purgative4 Ð Ð
headache1 Fever, dysentry9
Stomachache,
dysentery, fever9
Calotropis gigantea (L.) R. Br. ex Ait. Asclepiadaceae Snake-bite and Snake-bite and Ð Leucoderma and Abortifacient and Ð
wound healing1 scorpion sting2 snake-bite4 fever1
Cansjera rheedii Gmel. Opiliaceae Fever7 Ð Ð Fever7 Ð Ð
Capparis sepiaria L. Capparaceae Headache1 Ð Ð Skin eruptions4 Ð Ð
Capsicum annum L. Solanaceae Earache1 Ð Ð Rheumatism4 Ð Ð
Cardiospemum helicacabum L. Sapindaceae Body pain1 Ð Ð Menstrual Ð
disorders4
Carica papaya L. Caricaceae Toothache and Abortifacient2 Ð Abortifacient Abortifacient1 Ð

S. RAJAN ET AL.
abortifacient1
Cassia ®stula L. Caesalpiniaceae Stomach pain and Ð Ð Constipation and Diarrhoea1 Ð
diarrhoea1 purgative4
Cassia tora L. Caesalpiniaceae Ð Indigestion2 Ð Purgative and skin Ð Ð
trouble4
Catharanthus roseus G. Don Apocynaceae Swellings1 Ð Ð Diabetes4, boils7 Ð Ð
Centella asiatica (L.) Urban Apiaceae Venereal diseases1 Toothache10 Headache3 Gonorrhoea and Jaundice and Reduce body
Stomachache8 venereal diseases4 ichithiotoxic1 heat11, Giddiness6
Chenopodium ambrosioides L. Chenopodiaceae Stomach pain1 Cough2 Ð Stomach disorder4 Ð Ð
Chromolaena odorata (L.) King & Asteraceae Ð Ð Ð Fever7 Wound healing1 Ð
Robinson
Cipadessa baccifera (Roth.) Miq. Meliaceae Stomachache1,7 Toothache2 Ð Fever7 Ð Ð
Cissampelos pareira L. Menispermaceae Skin diseases7 Stomach pain2 Ð Dropsy and Cuts and wounds1 Ð
Stomach pain and indigestion4
snake-bite9
Cissus quadrangularis L. Vitaceae Cough1 Ð Stomachache and Ð Ð
Phytother. Res. 16, 98–116 (2002)

rheumatism4
Clematis gouriana Roxb. Ranunculaceae Headache1; Sinus Wound2 Ð Ð Ð Ð
trouble7
Coccinia grandis (L.) J. Voigt Cucurbitaceae Skin diseases and Ð Ð Eye sore and Ð Ð
diabetes1 diabetes4
Cocos nucifera L. Arecaceae Contraceptive1 Ð Ð Nervous disorder4 Ð Ð
Coculus hirsuts (L.) Diels Menispermaceae Stomach pain1 Ð Ð Eczema and Ð Ð
stomachache4
Cuminum cyminum L. Apiaceae Stomach pain1 Ð Ð Ð Labour pain11
Curculigo orchioides Gaertn. Hypoxidaceae Dog-bite and Ð Ð Diarrhoea and Ð Ð
headache7 jaundice4
Copyright # 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Table 3. continued
Botanical name Family Irulas Kattunayakas Kotas Kurumbas Paniyas Todas

Curcuma longa L. Zingiberaceae Headache and Earache, cuts and Ð Cough and skin Ð Ð
cold1 wounds2 diseases4
Cynodon dactylon L. Poaceae Dysentery2 Vomiting8 Asthma and Skin diseases, Fever6
diabetes4 wound healing1
Cynoglossum zeylanicum (Vahl ex Boraginaceae Stomachache7 Ð Cuts, wounds3 Ð Ð Ð
Honem.) Thunb.
Dalbergia sissoides Grah. Fabaceae Diarrhoea1 Ð Ð Diarrhoea and Ð Ð
dysentery4
Datura stramonium L. Solanaceae Abortion2 In¯ammation3 Ð Ð Ð
wound healing10
Diplocyclos palmatus (L.) C. Jeffrey Cucurbitaceae Boils1, Ð Body pain7 Ð Ð
stomachache7
Dodonea viscosa L. Sapindaceae Headache1 Ð Wounds, sprain8,11 Ð Ð Wounds11,
headache6
Eclipta prostrata (L.) L. Asteraceae Styptic agent5 Ð Ð Snake-bite and Ð Ð

ETHNOBIOLOGY OF NILGIRI HILLS

purgative4
Elaegnus kolaga Schlecht. Elaeagnaceae Fever7 Ð Ð Fever7 Ð Ð
Erythrozylum monogynum Roxb. Erythroxylaceae Scabies1 Ð Ð Skin diseases4 Ð Ð
Eucalyptus globulous Labill. Myrtaceae Ð Ð Headache and Ð Ð Fever, headache,
rheumatism3 body pain6
Eupatorium glandulosum H.B. & K. Asteraceae Ð Ð Cuts and wounds3 Ð Ð Toothache cuts
and wounds11
Euphorbia hirta L. Euphorbiaceae Ð Ð Ð Boils and warts4 Ð Ð
Scabies7
Euphorbia pulcherrima Willd. Ex Euphorbiaceae White patches1 Ð Ð Warts4 Ð Ð
Klotzsch
Euphorbia rothiana Spreng. Euphorbiaceae Ð Sore2 Giddiness8 Ð Ð Wound healing6
Evovulus alsinoides (L.) L. Convolvulaceae Ð Ð Ð Stomachache4 Ð Ð
Foeniculum vulgare Mill. Apiaceae Stomach Ð Ð Stomachache4 Gastric problems1 Ð
problems1
Ficus benghalensis L. Moraceae Ð Ð Ð Diarrhoea and Ð Ð
dysentery4
Ficus racemosa L. Moraceae Urinary disorders1 Ð Ð Fertility Muscle sprain1 Ð
regulation7
Ficus religiosa L. Moraceae Toothache1 Ð Ð Fertility Fertility Ð
Phytother. Res. 16, 98–116 (2002)

regulation4 regulation1
Gloriosa superba L. Liliaceae Ð Ð Ð Abortifacient and Stomachache and Ð
rheumatism4 diarrhoea1
Glycosmis mouritiana (Lam.) Tanaka Rutaceae Abortion and Ð Ð Fever and skin Ð Ð
swellings7 diseases4
Glycosmis pentaphylla (Retz.) Correa Rutaceae Fever1 Stomach pain 2,10
Ð Stomachache and Stomachache and Ð
prickly sensation7 diarrhoea1
Grewia hirsuta Vahl Tiliaceae Headache7 Ð Ð Diarrhoea and Ð Ð
stomachache7
1
Gymnema sylvestre R.Br. Asclepiadaceae Diabetic problem Ð Ð Diabetes4 Ð Ð

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110
Table 3. continued
Botanical name Family Irulas Kattunayakas Kotas Kurumbas Paniyas Todas

Helicteres isora L. Sterculiaceae Stomach pain1 Stomach pain 2

Ð Earache and Ð Ð
cough4
Hemidesmus indicus R. Br. Asclepiadaceae Urinary problems1 Stomach pain 2
Ð Skin disease and Wound healing1 Ð
rheumatism4
Hemiontis arifolia (Burm.f.) Moore Hemionitidaceae Stomachache7 Ð Ð Skin disease2 Ð Ð
Hibiscus rosaÐsinensis L. Malvaceae Ð Prevents dandruff2 Ð Diabetes and Ð Ð
blood pressure4
Hydrocotyle javanica Thunb. Apiaceae Ð Wound healing2 Ð Skin disease and Ð In¯ammation
dysentery4 wound healing6
Jasminum auriculatum Vahl Oleaceae Wound healing1 Ð Ð Chest pain4 Snake bite, wound Ð
healing1
Jatropha curcas L. Euphorbiaceae Toothache and Ð Ð Skin disease and Toothache1 Ð
burns1 abortifacient4
Jatropha glandulifera Roxb. Euphorbiaceae Eye diseases2 Ð Purgative and Ð Ð
paralysis4
Justicia adhatoda L. Acanthaceae Fertility Cold and cough2 Ð Rheumatism and Ð
regulation1 abortifacient4
Lablab purpureus (L.) Sweet Fabaceae Boils1 Ð Galactogogue4 Ð Ð
Lantana camara L. Verbenaceae Wound healing1 Wound healing2 Gum bleeding10 Cold7 Cuts and wounds1 Ð

S. RAJAN ET AL.
Cuts, wounds7 Toothache, Skin
diseases11
Lantana indica Roxb. Verbenaceae Cuts, wounds1 Ð Bleeding gum3 Abortion, fever Ð Ð
vomiting7 and vomiting7
Leucas aspera Spreng. Lamiaceae Ð Ð Stomachache and Skin eruptions, Ð Headache, small
skin diseases3 fever, cough and pox and rabies11
cold4
Lobelia nicotianaefolia Heyne Lobeliaceae Ð Ð Gastric problem11 Wound healing4 Sore, wound Toothache11
healing1
Maesa indica Wall. Myrsinaceae Stomach pain1, Ð Ð Stomachache1 Ð Ð
boils, cold and
sexual diseases7
Mallotus philippensis Muel.-Arg. Euphorbiaceae Stomach pain and Ð Ð Skin diseases4 Ð Ð
diarrhoea1
Stomachache7
Mangifera indica L. Anacardiaceae Stomach pain1,7 Ð Ð Scorpion sting4 Ð Ð
Phytother. Res. 16, 98–116 (2002)

Mimosa pudica L. Mimosaceae Snake-bite1 Headache 2

Piles and urinary Skin af¯ictions
infection4 and headache1
Mirabilis jalapa L. Nyctaginaceae Ð Ð Boils3 Cuts, Boils and wound Ð Ð
wounds10 healing4
Momordica charantia L. Cucurbitaceae Stomach pain2 Ð Diabetes, Indigestion and Ð
stomachache and stomach pain1
ulcer4
Moringa oleifera Lam. Moringaceae Antifertility11 Abortion2 Ð Headache and Galactogogue and Ð
fertility regulation4 wound healing1
Mucuna pruriens Baker Fabaceae Cuts and wounds1 Ð Ð Ð Scorpion bite and Ð
wound healing1
Copyright # 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Table 3. continued
Botanical name Family Irulas Kattunayakas Kotas Kurumbas Paniyas Todas

Murraya koenigii L. Rutaceae Fever and boils1 Diarrhoea2 Ð Ð Ð Ð

Murraya paniculata (L.) Jack. Rutaceae Toothache1,7 Paralysis2 Ð Cough, diarrhoea Ð Ð
and dysentery4
Musa paradisica L. Musaceae Wound healing Ð Ð Ð Scorpion bite, Ð
and antifertility1 wound healing
and diarrhoea1
Mussaenda frondosa L. Rubiaceae Ð Ð Ð Cough and worm4 Ð Ð
Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn. Nelumbonaceae Ð Ð Ð Diarrhoea and Ð
dysentery4
Ocimum gratissimum L. Lamiaceae Cold and Ð Ð Tooth and Ð Ð
bronchitis1 earache4
Ocimum tenui¯orum L. Lamiaceae Stomach pain2 Ð Stomachache and Ð
skin diseases4
Oxalis corniculata L. Oxalidaceae Fever and piles9 Fever and piles2 Postnatal Ð Ð Antidote for
problems3 poison6

ETHNOBIOLOGY OF NILGIRI HILLS

Antiemetic8
Phyllanthus debilis Buch.-Ham. Euphorbiaceae Headache and Ð Ð Body swellings Ð Ð
fever1 and jaundice7
Phyllanthus emblica L. Euphorbiaceae Diarrhoea1 Dysentery 2
Ð Ð Ð Mouth sore6
Phyllanthus rheedii Wight Euphorbiaceae Jaundice1 Jaundice2 Ð Ð Ð Ð
Phyllanthus amarus Schum. & Euphorbiaceae Jaundice and Ð Ð Jaundice and Ð Ð
Thonn. night blindness1 stomachache4
ache4
Piper nigrum L. Piperaceae Toothache1 Fever2 Ð Ð Wound healing1 Ð
Plantago erosa Wall. Plantaginaceae Chest pain and Ð Skin disease, cuts In¯ammation4 Ð Cuts and wounds6
cold7 wounds 3,8
Polygonum chinense L. Polygonaceae Giddiness and Ð Paralysis3 Fever11 Ð Ð Ð
stomachache7
Pongamia pinnata Forst. & Forst. f. Fabaceae Fever and Ð Ð Vomiting7 Ð Ð
vomiting7
Portulaca oleracea L. Portulacaceae In¯ammation1 Heart disease2 Ð Ð Ð Ð
Psidium guajava L. Myrtaceae Diarrhoea1, and Diarrhoea2 Ð Toothache and Gastric trouble Dysentery6
toothache7 diarrhoea4 and ulcer10
Pterocarpus marsupium Roxb. Fabaceae Abortifacient1 Ð Ð Fertility regulation, Ð Ð
piles and
Phytother. Res. 16, 98–116 (2002)

dysentery4
Punica granatum L. Punicaceae Diarrhoea1; Ð Ð Bronchitis and Ð Ð
Stomachache7 diarrhoea4
Rhamnus wightii Wight & Am. Rhamnaceae Ð Ð Diarrhoea and Ð Cuts and wounds6
toothache4
Raphanus sativus L. Brassicaceae Piles1 Ð Ð Ð Ð Gastric problems6
Rhodomyrtus tomentosa Wight Myrtaceae Ð Dysentery11 Diarrhoea and Ð Dysentery6
stomachache4
Ricinus communis L. Euphorbiaceae Constipation and Eye diseases2 Burns, headache, Piles, wound Paralysis and Stomachache
uteroactive1 jaundice3 healing and sprain1 ache and
purgative4 dysentery6

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112
Table 3. continued
Botanical name Family Irulas Kattunayakas Kotas Kurumbas Paniyas Todas

Rubia cordifolia L. Rubiaceae Skin diseases1; Wound healing2 Jaundice10 Antiseptic and Ð Ð
Postnatal stomachache
disorder7,10
Ruta chalepensis L. Rutaceae Febrifuge9 Ð Epilepsy3; Skin protection4 Cold1 Fever6
Convulsion10 Giddiness7
Scoparia dulcis L. Scrophulariaceae Ð Dysentery2 Ð Bronchitis, cough Ð Ð
and fever4
Senna auriculata (L.) Roxb. Caesalpiniaceae Skin diseases1 Ð Ð Skin diseases4 Ð Ð
Setaria italica (L.) P. Beauv. Poaceae Ð Ð Abortifacient11 Ð Ð Ð
Sida acuta Burm.f. Malvaceae Fever and snake- Ð Ð Fever and nervous Snake-bite1 Ð
bite1 disorder4
Sida cordata (Burm.f.) Bross. Waalk. Malvaceae Skin diseases2 Ð Cuts, buries and Ð
fever4
Sida cordifolia L. Malvaceae Snake-bite9 Snake-bite2 Ð Dysentery and Snake-bite10 Ð
leucorrhoea4
Sida rhombifolia L. Malvaceae Snake-bite1 Rheumatism2 Rheumatism Ð Scabies and Ð
stomachache3 paralysis1
Smilax zeylanica L. Smilacaceae Body pain1 Ð Ð Skin disease and Ð Ð
body swellings4

S. RAJAN ET AL.
Solanum nigrum L. Solanaceae Mouth sore1; nose Stomach pain2 Stomach disorder, Cough, fever and Ð Stomachache11,
blisters, skin disease8 skin diseases4 mouth sore6
stomachache7
Solanum erianthum D. Don Solanaceae Diarrhoea, Ð Ð Fever and Ð Ð
dysentery, sexual diarrhoea7
disease7
Solanum giganteum Jacq. Solanaceae Diarrhoea and Ð Ð Ð Ð Ð
dysentery7
Solanum sisymbrifolium Lam. Solanaceae Ð Ð Stomachache3 Antifertility4 Ð Ð
Solanum surattense Burm. f. Solanaceae Ð Cold and Ð Asthma, fever and Ð Ð
diarrhoea2 cough4
Solanum torvum Sw. Solanaceae Fever1 Asthma2 Ð Cough and liver Ð Ð
problem4
Solanum violaceum Ortega sp. Solanaceae Ð Ð Stomachache3 Ð Chest pain1 Ð
Multi¯orum (C.B.Clarke) K.M.
Metthew
Phytother. Res. 16, 98–116 (2002)

Solanum violaceum Ortega sp. Solanaceae Toothache and Ð Ð Ð Ð Toothache6

violaceum (C. B. Clarke) K. M. hippain1
Metthew
Spermacoce hispida L. Rubiaceae Ð Ð Ð Diarrhoea, Cuts, wounds1 Ð
dysentery4
Stephania japonica (thunb.) Miers Menispermaceae Reducing body Dental problems2 Ð Fever and Diarrhoea1 Ð
heat1 diarrhoea4
Strychnos nux-vomica L. Loganiaceae Stomach pain1 Ð Nervous disorder, Ð Ð
wound healing4
Copyright # 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Table 3. continued
Botanical name Family Irulas Kattunayakas Kotas Kurumbas Paniyas Todas

Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels Myrtaceae Toothache1 Ð Cough, Ð Ð

leucorrhoea and
diabetes4
Tamarindus indica L. Caesalpiniaceae Galactogogue skin Laxative2 Ð Rheumatism and Ð Ð
diseases1 cooling4

ETHNOBIOLOGY OF NILGIRI HILLS

Tectona grandis L. f. Verbenaceae Constipation1 Labour pain2 Ð Ð Labour pain10 Ð
Tephrosia purpurea (L.) Pers. Fabaceae Stomach pain, Ð Ð Eczema, fever Ð Ð
antifertility1 bronchitis;
stomachache4
Labour pain10
Terminalia chebula Retz. Combretaceae Toothache1 Ð Ð Cold, fever, Galactogogue1 Ð
laxative and piles4
Thunbergia fragrans Roxb. Thunbergiaceae Cuts, wound1 Snake-bite10 Ð Abortion, fever Ð Ð
Abortion, and paralysis7
headache7
Toddalia asiatica (L.) Lam. Rutaceae Eczema1; Ð Stomachache3 Ð Ð Toothache6
Toothache7 Body pain11
Triumfetta pilosa Roth Tiliaceae Cuts7 Ð Ð Cuts7 Ð Ð
Vernonia divergens (Roxb.) Edgew. Asteraceae Cold7 Ð Ð Cuts and wounds7 Ð Ð
Wrightia tinctoria (Roxb.) R. Br. Apocynaceae Toothache1 Ð Ð Aphrodisiac and Ð Ð
wound healing4
Ziziphus mauritiana (Burm. f.) Wight Rhamnaceae Stomach pain1 Ð Ð Astringent and Ð Ð
& Am. antidote4
1
Rajan, 2001; 2 Cyril Nayagam, 1998; 3 Johnson, 1991; 4 Angannan, 1999; 5
Rajan et al. 2001; 6
Kandhaswamy, 1995; 7
Hosagouder and Henry, 1996; 8
Rajan and Sethuraman, 1991;
Phytother. Res. 16, 98–116 (2002)

9
Rajan and Sethuraman, 1993a; 10 Rajan et al., 1997; 11 Abraham, 1981.

113
114 S. RAJAN ET AL.
plants by different groups may be a predictable indicator
for their therapeutic efficacy. This not only proves the
heterogeneity of the knowledge of medicinal plants by
the Nilgiri indigenous groups but also explores the
diverse knowledge about medicinal plants in their
surroundings. Some of the rare and endangered species
require proper preservation depending on the great
biodiversity of this important hill location.
The ethnomedical claims reported here are merely an
indication of our present state of knowledge on the
traditional usage of herbal drugs by the groups studied.
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