2 Physical Chemistry 18

Slide
SECTION 2:
PHYSICAL
CHEMISTRY
Heng Joe Shen (DIMENSION HIGH SCHOOL)

Slide 2
TOPICS LAYOUT
Chapter 5 – Electricity and Chemistry
Chapter 6 – Chemical energetics
Chapter 7 – Chemical reactions
Chapter 8 – Acids, Bases and Salts
We would start with Chapter 8, then Chapter 7

(small part), then Chapter 5, 6 and 7.

Slide 3
CHAPTER 5
Electricity and chemistry
5.1 Electrolysis
5.2 Application of electrolysis
5.3 Electrochemical reaction

Slide 4
LESSON OBJECTIVES
1. Define electrolysis, describe the electrode products and the
observations made during the electrolysis
2. State the general principle that metals or hydrogen are formed at
the negative electrode (cathode), and that non-metals (other than
hydrogen) are formed at the positive electrode (anode)
3. Describe electrolysis in terms of the ions present and reactions at
the electrodes in the examples given
4. Relate the products of electrolysis to the electrolyte and electrodes
used; and Predict the products of the electrolysis of specified
binary compound in molten state and halide in aqueous solution
5. Construct ionic half-equations for reactions at the cathode
Simulation
Video: Electrolysis
Slide 5
5 ELECTRICITY AND CHEMISTRY
1. Electrolytic cell
• Electrolytic cell is the cell where electrolysis takes place.
• Electrolysis is the process of breaking down an ionic
compound, molten or in aqueous solution, by the passage of
electricity
• Electrolyte is the molten or aqueous ionic compound which
undergoes electrolysis. This is because ions are free to move in
these states.

Slide 6
1. Electrolytic cell
• Electrodes are the pieces of carbon or metal which are placed in
the electrolyte and connected to a DC power source.
• PANIC (Positive is Anode, Negative is Cathode).

Slide 7
2. Electrolysis
• In external circuit, electrons flow from positive terminal to
negative terminal of battery.
• Within the electrolyte, the flow of ions towards the electrodes
constitutes the flow of electric current.
• Anions go to Anode, while Cations go to Cathode.
Electrical In metals
In electrolyte
conduction or graphite
Flow of
Method Movement of ions
electrons
Electrolyte
Effect of Chemically
decomposed to form
conduction unchanged
new substance
Slide 8
2. Electrolysis
• Anions give up electrons and oxidised at anode. Thus, non-
metals are discharged and formed.
• Cations receive electrons and reduced at the cathode. Thus, metal
or hydrogen are discharged and formed.

Slide 9
Sodium
chloride
solution

Slide 10
Electrolyte: PbBr2 (l) NaCl (aq)

Ions present: Pb2+ Br– Na+ Cl– H+ OH–
Cathode: Pb2+ Na+ H+
Anode: Br– Cl– OH–

Slide 11
3. Factors affecting selective discharge: type of electrolytes
Electrolyte 1 Electrolyte 2
Electrode Carbon Carbon
Electrolyte PbBr (l) NaCl (aq)
+ – + –
Ions present Pb2+ Br– Na Cl H OH
+ +
Cathode Pb2+ Na H
– –
Anode Br– Cl OH
Ionic equation at
cathode
Ionic equation at
anode
Reactivity series Electrochemical series Slide 12
Reactivity Element
Most reactive Potassium
Sodium
Calcium
Magnesium
Aluminium
Carbon
Zinc
Iron
Tin
Lead
Hydrogen
Copper
Silver
Least reactive Gold Heng Joe Shen (DIMENSION HIGH SCHOOL)
Reactivity Element Mnemonic 1 Mnemonic 2 Slide 13
Most reactive Potassium Please Please

Sodium Stop Send
Calcium Calling Cats
Magnesium Me Monkeys
Aluminium A And
Carbon Cute
Zinc Zebra Zebras
Iron Instead Into
Tin Try The
Lead Learning Lovely
Hydrogen How Hot
Copper Copper Countries
Silver Saves Signed
Least reactive Gold Gold General
Slide 14
3. Factors affecting selective discharge: concentration
Electrode Carbon Carbon
Electrolyte Conc. Pb(NO3)2 (aq) Conc. NaCl (aq)
+ – + –
Ions present Pb2+ NO3 – H+ OH– Na Cl H OH
+ +
Cathode Pb2+ H+ Na H
– –
Anode NO3 – OH– Cl OH
Ionic equation at
cathode
Ionic equation at
anode
Slide 15
3. Factors affecting selective discharge: type of electrodes
Electrode Carbon Copper
Electrolyte CuSO4 (aq) CuSO4 (aq)
2+ 2– + –
Ions present Cu2+ SO4 2– H+ OH– Cu SO4 H OH
Cathode Cu2+ H+ Cu2+ H+
Anode SO42– OH– SO42– OH–
Ionic equation at 2+ –
Cu2+ (aq) + 2e– → Cu(s) Cu (aq) + 2e → Cu (s)
cathode
Ionic equation at OH– (aq) → H2O (l) + O2 2+ –
Cu (s) → Cu (aq) + 2e
anode (g) + 4e–
Type of Slide 16
electrolyte
Aqueous
Molten, XY (l)
solution, XY (aq)
Type of
Inert Type of X
Anode
Type of Y
Reactive H+, Na+ Cu2+ or
or K+ ions Ag+ ions
Cl- , Br- SO42- or Anode: Cathode:

or I- ions NO3- ions Y2 X
Anode: Anode: Anode Cathode: Cathode:

Y2 O2 dissolves HHeng
2 Joe Shen
X (DIMENSION HIGH SCHOOL)
Slide 17
Carbon Copper
NaCl (aq) Conc. NaCl (aq) Heng Joe

CuCl Shen (DIMENSION
2 (aq) HIGH
CuCl SCHOOL)
2 (aq)
Slide
PRACTICE 5.1
1. Name the parts shown.
D.C.
1
current
Positive
+ -
3
Anode 2
Electrodes Negative
4
Cathode
Aqueous / molten
5
salt

Slide 19
PRACTICE 5.1
2. Complete the table.
Electrolyte Half equation
A Molten sodium chloride Anion:
Cation:
B Aqueous hydrochloric acid Anion:
Cation:
C Dilute zinc hydroxide Anion:
Cation:
D Molten potassium bromide Anion:
Cation:
E Aqueous silver nitrate Anion:
Cation:

Electrolyte Half equationSlide 20
F Concentrated magnesium nitrate Anion:
Cation:
G Aqueous calcium (II) fluoride Anion:
Cation:
H Molten lead sulfide Anion:
Cation:
I Concentrated sodium chloride Anion:
Cation:
J Dilute iron (II) sulfate solution Anion:
Cation:
Concentrated copper (II)
K Anion:
chloride
Cation:
L Molten aluminium oxide Anion:
Cation:
Slide 21
PRACTICE 5.1
Earl & Wilford (2014)
3. Explain why solid lithium chloride is a nonconductor of
electricity, whereas molten lithium chloride and lithium chloride
solution are good conductors of electricity.
4. A student carries out the electrolysis of molten lead (II) iodide in
a fume cupboard.
a) Draw a diagram to show a suitable apparatus the student could
use to carry out this experiment.
b) Write anode and cathode reactions to represent the processes
taking place during the electrolysis.
c) Why does this experiment need to be carried out in a
fume cupboard?
d) Find uses for the anode product of this cell.
Slide 22
5. The diagram was used to investigate the gases produced when a
concentrated KCl was electrolysed.
a) Name a non-metal suitable for use as electrodes.

b) Write down the equations which describe the production of the
gases at the electrodes in A and B.
c) Describe how you would test the gases collected.
d) In what ratio would you expect these gases to be produced?
e) The volume of gas collected in B was slightly less than that
collected in A. The teacher said the volumes should have been
equal but gave a simple explanation of the ‘missing’ gas in B.
Explain. (Assume apparatus was working perfectly).
Slide 23
EXERCISE
• Tan & Chen (2000) – Page 6
• Sunley & Goodman (2014) – Page 108, 115 & 117

Slide 24
LESSON OBJECTIVES
1. Describe the transfer of charge during electrolysis
2. Describe and outline the uses of electroplating of metals
3. Describe in outline, the extraction of aluminium from bauxite
including the role of cryolite and the reactions at the
electrodes
4. Describe the manufacture of: aluminium from pure
aluminium oxide AND chlorine, hydrogen and sodium
hydroxide from concentrated aqueous sodium chloride

Slide 25
• Application
i) Extraction of reactive metals (e.g. Al from bauxite)
ii) Purification of metal
iii) Electroplating is the process of depositing a layer of metal on
another substance using electrolysis.
iv) Production of NaOH and Cl

Slide 26
Extraction of aluminium
• Bauxite: Al2O3(l)
• At the cathode (- electrode)
Al3+ (l) + 3 e- → Al (l)
• At the anode (+ electrode)
2 O2- (l) → O2 (g) + 4 e-
• Since it is at high temperature,
the anode would burns off.
C (s) + O2 (g) → CO2 (g)
• Why must it be in liquid form?

• Why not aqueous state?
• What are the two allotropes of carbon?
Slide 27
Purification
• Electrolyte: Copper salt
Cu2+ (aq) + 2 e- → Cu (s)
Cu (s) → Cu2+ (aq) + 2 e-
.
Compare with using carbon as electrode
Cu2+ (aq) + 2 e- → Cu (s)
4 OH- (aq) → O2 (g) + 2 H2O (l) + 4 e-
Slide 28
Electroplating
• Electrolyte: Copper salt
Cu2+ (aq) + 2 e- → Cu (s)
Cu (s) → Cu2+ (aq) + 2 e-

Slide 29
Production of NaOH, Cl2 and H2
• Brine is concentrated NaCl. The ions presents are: Na+ H+ Cl- OH-
• At the cathode (- electrode): 2H+ (aq) + 2 e- → H2 (g)
• At the anode (+electrode): 2 Cl- (aq) → Cl2 (g) + 2 e-
• At the end, the remaining ions are Heng
sodium hydroxide: Na + OH-
Joe Shen (DIMENSION HIGH SCHOOL)
Slide 30
Cl2 H2
Na+ NaOH
NaCl
Cl – OH –
H2O

Slide 31
PRACTICE 5.2
1. During the electrolysis of molten aluminium oxide (Al2O3) the
carbon anodes are burned away. Explain why this should happen
and write balanced chemical equations for the reactions.
2. Concentrated sodium chloride can be electrolysed using inert
electrodes.
a) Why is it advantageous to use inert electrodes in the electrolysis?
b) Predict the products at the anode and cathode.
c) Describe a test for the gas produced at each of the electrode
respectively. Explain what would be observed in the tests.
d) Explain the difference if molten sodium chloride is electrolysed
using inert electrode instead.

Slide 32
PRACTICE 5.2
3. Copper is purified by electrolysis.
Some dilute sulfuric acid is added into
the electrolyte.
a) Identify A, B, C and D.
b) Write half-equations for the reactions which take place.
c) Draw a labelled diagram to show the cell after electrolysis has
taken place.
d) Why has electrolyte C to be acidified with dilute sulfuric acid?
e) Why does copper have to be 99.99% pure for use in electrical
cables?

Slide 33
PRACTICE 5.2
4. Electrolysis of impure aluminium oxide is used to extract
aluminium in the industry.
a) Why is it necessary to melt the aluminium oxide?
b) Suggest why cryolite has to be added to aluminium oxide.
c) Melting point of pure aluminium is 660oC and bauxite is around
2072oC. After addition of cryolite, the melting point decreases to
1010oC. Explain why it is important to recycle aluminium.
d) Construct half-equations for the reaction at the electrode.
e) Name two allotropes of carbon. Identify the allotrope used to
make the carbon electrodes. Justify your answer.
f) Explain why it is necessary to replace the carbon anode regularly.
g) Suppose 1478 kg of aluminium was extracted from 4220 kg of
bauxite and that the yield of aluminium from aluminium oxide
was 90.5 %. Calculate percentageHeng
purity
Joeof this(DIMENSION
Shen batch of HIGH
bauxite.
SCHOOL)
Slide 34
PRACTICE 5.2
5. An element E is soft and conducts electricity. It is highly reactive
and reacts readily with water. Its chloride form, ECl, occurs
naturally and dissolves readily in water.
a) State the ions formed when ECl dissolves in water. Hence, state
the Group number of Periodic Table to which E belongs to.
b) Oxide of E reacts violently with water, forming an aqueous
hydroxide solution. Write the balanced chemical equation.
c) When 2.40 g of the oxide of E reacted with water, 2.86 g of the
soluble hydroxide is formed. Calculate the relative atomic mass,
RAM of E.
d) Using periodic table, identify E.
e) Briefly explained how E can be extracted from ECl.

Slide 35
EXERCISE
• Tan & Chen (2000) – Page 6
• Sunley & Goodman (2014) – Page 120

Slide 36
LESSON OBJECTIVES
1. Describe production of electrical energy from simple cells
2. Describe the use of hydrogen as a fuel reacting with oxygen
to generate electricity in a fuel cell (6.2).
Simulation
Video: Fuel cell

Slide 37
5. Simple electrochemical cell (Electric / Galvanic / Voltaic)
• Simple cell is a device that converts chemical energy into
electrical energy.
It is made by placing two different metals in contact with an
electrolyte.
The more reactive metal (negative) would donate electrons to the
less reactive metal (positive).
Example
• Zn and Cu cell
Zn would give electrons to Cu2+
• Mg and Cu cell
Mg would give electron to Cu2+
Slide 38
• The potential difference produced can be measured using a
voltmeter.
• The amount of electrical energy produced is determined by how
far apart the metals in the reactivity series.
• A membrane / barrier or salt bridge is used to prevent mixing of
the two different electrolytes.
Example:
Zinc-copper battery: 1.10 V
Magnesium-copper battery: 2.72 V

Slide 39
Zn (s)
Cu2+ (aq)

Electrochemical cell Electrolytic cell Slide 40
Reaction Oxidation at anode and reduction at cathode.
Electrons Move from anode to cathode in the external circuit
The two half-cells are set up Both the electrodes are
in different containers, being placed in a same container in
Set up
connected through the salt the solution of molten
bridge or porous partition. electrolyte.
Spontaneous and is Not spontaneous and
Redox
responsible for production of electrical energy has to be
reaction
electrical energy. supplied.
Energy
Chemical to electrical Electrical to chemical
conversion
Electrode Must be different Same (or different)
Anode is positive and
Anode and Anode is negative and
cathode is the negative
Cathode cathode is positive electrode.
electrode.
Electrons Electrons are supplied by the The external battery supplies
source Heng Joe Shen the
species getting oxidized. (DIMENSION HIGH SCHOOL)
electrons.
Slide 41
6. Fuel cell
• Fuels are substances that produce energy.
• Fuel cell is a chemical cell in which the reactants are
continuously supplied to produce electricity directly.
• Unlike battery, the reactants are not contained within the cell but
instead are continuously supplied from an external reservoir.

Slide 42
• At the cathode (- electrode) • Overall equation

H2 (g) → 2 H+ (aq) + 2 e – 2 H2 (g) + O2 (g) → 2 H2O (g)
O2 (g) + 2 e – → O2–
Slide 43
EXTRA FACTS!
Fuel Hydrogen Petrol
• Renewable energy resource
• Cheap and easily
• No carbon dioxide or sulfur
available
Pros dioxide emission
• Small fuel tank due
• Efficient and produces a large
to high density
amount of energy
• Expensive
• Larger storage or fuel tank is • Non-renewable
Cons required due to smaller density • Produces pollutants
• Has to be compressed and stored
safely

Slide 44

Slide 45
PRACTICE 5.3
Heyworth (2010)
A HCl B PbBr2 C CuCl2 Heng D

JoeCuBr
Shen (DIMENSION HIGH SCHOOL)
2
Slide 46
PRACTICE 5.3

Slide 47
PRACTICE 5.3
Metal A Metal B
Solution of Am+ Solution of Bn+

A B Electron flow Equation at anode Equation at cathode
A Zn2+ Cu2+ A to B
B Cu2+ Mg2+
2+ 3+
C Pb Fe
2+ 2+
D Zn Sn
+
E Cu2+ Ag
F Fe2+ Br2
G KMnO4 KI Heng Joe Shen (DIMENSION HIGH SCHOOL)
Slide 48
PRACTICE 5.3
Heyworth (2010)
2. Diagram shows a simple cell to produce electricity.
a) Suggest a suitable substance which can be used as the solution.
b) Label the negative electrode in the cell.
c) Write an half equations for the reaction at each electrode.
d) What would be the effect on the voltmeter reading if the following
changes were made in the apparatus:
i. Zinc was used in place of magnesium
ii. Copper was used in place of magnesium
iii. Silver was used in place of copper
Slide 49
PRACTICE 5.3
3. Table shows the reading on the voltmeter when the different metal
were used in turn.
a) Rank the metal in decreasing order of reactivity.
b) Which two metals, among the five would produce the largest
voltage reading?
c) Explain why deionised water is not used as the electrolyte.
d) Write the half-equations and ionic equation when metal A and B is
used as the electrode. Heng Joe Shen (DIMENSION HIGH SCHOOL)
Slide 50
PRACTICE 5.3
4. A student wanted to purify a piece of impure copper. The apparatus
was set up as shown.
a) Correct two mistakes in the set-up.
b) Write two half-equations for the correct set-up.
c) Initial mass of pure and impure copper are 15 g and 25 g
respectively. After some time, mass of impure copper is 21.5 g.
Sketch a graph showing how both masses changes with time.
d) What would be observed on electrodes?
e) If both electrodes are changed to graphite,
write the half-equation at anode.

Slide 51
5. Study the following scheme.
a) Name and state formulae of A to F.
b) Write balanced chemical equations for the
reactions in which:
i. Black solid A was formed,
ii. C and B were formed,
iii. Colourless solution D was formed.
c) Write anode and cathode reactions for the
processes which take place during the
electrolysis of molten D.
d) Suggest a use for:
i. Brown solid B
ii. Silvery metal E
iii. Green gas F.
Slide 52
EXERCISE
• Tan & Chen (2000) – Page 6
• Sunley & Goodman (2014) – Page 124 & 126

Slide 53
CHAPTER 6
Chemical energetics
6.1 Energetics of reaction
6.2 Energy transfer

Slide 54
LESSON OBJECTIVES
1. Describe the meaning of exothermic and endothermic
reactions
2. Describe the release of heat energy by burning fuels
3. Describe radioactive isotopes as source of energy
4. Interpret, draw and label energy level diagrams showing
exothermic and endothermic reactions

Slide 55
6 CHEMICAL ENERGETICS
1. Energy changes
• Energy cannot be created nor destroyed, but it can change from
one form to another.
• All chemical reaction involves energy change.
• This is because it involves bond breaking before new bonds can
be formed.

Slide 56
2. Exothermic reaction
• Exothermic reaction is reaction that gives out heat to the
surrounding.
• Since the energy out is more than energy in, there is net energy
going out.
• The energy absorbed for bond breaking is less than the energy
absorbed in bond making.
• Temperature of the reaction mixture rises
• Examples: Dissolving anhydrous salts, neutralisation, diluting
concentrated acids, combustion, corrosion of metals and
respiration

Slide 57
2. Maximum temperature reached,
Temperature (°C)
reaction is completed.
maximum temperature
1. Temperature rises to 3. Temperature
a maximum as drops to room
reaction takes place. temperature.
room temperature
0 Time (min)
Example of exothermic reaction is combustion, corrosion of

metal dissolving anhydrous salt, neutralization and respiration.
Slide 58
3. Endothermic reaction
• Endothermic reaction is reaction that absorbs heat from the
surrounding.
• Since the energy out is less than energy in, there is net energy
going in.
• The energy absorbed for bond breaking is more than the energy
absorbed in bond making.
• Temperature of the mixture falls.
• Examples: Dissolving certain ionic compound in water, thermal
decomposition, photosynthesis and action of light on silver
bromide in photographic film.

Slide 59
Temperature (°C)
room temperature
1. Temperature drops
to a minimum as
3. Temperature
reaction takes place.
rises to room
temperature.
minimum temperature
Time (min)
2. Minimum temperature reached,
reaction is completed.
Example of endothermic reaction is dissolving certain ionic
compound (e.g. NH4Cl or Na2CO3), thermal decomposition and
photosynthesis. Heng Joe Shen (DIMENSION HIGH SCHOOL)
Slide 60
4. Enthalpy change, ∆H
• Enthalpy change is the difference in energy content of the
reactants and products.
The unit is kJ or kJ/mol.
• ∆H = energy in to break bonds – energy out to make bonds
∆H = total energy in the product – total energy in the reactant
• Energy level diagram shows the energy changes in a reaction.

Slide 61
5. Bonds
• Bond breaking requires energy being absorbed from surrounding.
Bond breaking is endothermic.
• Bond making requires energy being released to the surrounding.
Bond making is exothermic.
• In chemical reactions, both bond breaking (in reactants) and bond
making (to form products) occurs during chemical reactions.
• In exothermic reaction, ∆H bond breaking < ∆H bond forming.
• In endothermic reaction, ∆H bond breaking > ∆H bond forming.

Slide 62
PRACTICE 6.1
1. Explain the meaning of the terms endothermic and exothermic.
2. State which of the following processes is endothermic and which
is exothermic.
a) Combustion f) Respiration
b) Gas to liquid g) Rusting
c) Solid to liquid h) Sublimation
d) Neutralisation i) Breaking of a chemical bond
e) Photosynthesis j) Forming of a chemical bond

Slide 63
PRACTICE 6.1
3. NaOH reacts with HCl as shown.
NaOH (aq) + HCl (aq) → NaCl (aq) + H2O (l) ∆H = –57 kJ/mol
a) Is this reaction endothermic or exothermic?
b) Draw an energy level diagram for the reaction.
c) Calculate the energy change associated with this reaction if 2
moles of sodium hydroxide were neutralised by excess
hydrochloric acid.
4. Water can be electrolyzed as show in the reaction.
2 H2O (l) → 2 H2 (g) + O2 (g) ∆H = +575 kJ/mol
a) Is this endothermic or exothermic?
b) Draw an energy profile diagram for the reaction.
c) Calculate the energy change for this reaction if only 9 g of water
were converted into hydrogen and oxygen.
Slide 64
LESSON OBJECTIVES
1. Describe bond breaking and bond forming process
2. Interpret, draw and label energy profile diagrams showing
exothermic and endothermic reactions

Slide 65
6 CHEMICAL ENERGETICS Level B
Level A
This is the change in

energy level before
and after the reaction
Level C

Slide 66

Slide 67

Slide 68
5. Energy profile diagram
• Energy profile diagram shows the enthalpy change and
activation energy of a reaction.
• Activation energy, Ea is the minimum amount of energy
required for a reaction to occur. A reaction occur when reactant
particles possess energy equal to or more than the activation
energy.

Slide 69
Level B
Level A
Level C

Slide 70

Slide 71
5. Energy profile diagram
• Energy profile diagram shows the enthalpy change and
activation energy of a reaction.
• Activation energy, Ea is the minimum amount of energy
required for a reaction to occur. A reaction occur when reactant
particles possess energy equal to or more than the activation
energy.

Slide 72
Reaction Exothermic Endothermic
Energy content of the reactants is Energy content of the products is
Energy greater than the energy content of greater than the energy content of
content the products the reactants
Bond breaking < bond forming Bond breaking > bond forming
∆H Negative Positive
Heat flow Given out to surroundings Absorbed from the surroundings
Temperature Increase in the mixture Decrease in the mixture
Condensation, freezing, Evaporation, melting and
Physical
dissolving anhydrous salts and dissolving of some ionic
process
acids compounds (KCl or NH4Cl)
Combustion, respiration, Photosynthesis, thermal
Chemical
neutralisation and corrosion of decomposition and
reactions
metals photochemical reaction of AgBr

Slide 73
PRACTICE 6.2
1. Calculate ∆H.
a) H2 + F2 → 2 HF
b) N2 + O2 → 2 NO
c) I2 + Cl2 → 2 ICl
d) H2 + Cl2 → 2 HCl
e) 2 H2 + O2 → 2 H2O
f) C3H6 + Br2 → C3H6Br2
g) C3H8 + Cl2 → C3H7Cl + HCl

Slide 74
PRACTICE 6.2
1. Calculate ∆H.
h) 2 NH3 → N2 + 3 H2
i) C4H8 + H2 → C4H10
j) CH4 + 2 O2 → CO2 + 2 H2O
k) NH3 + 3 Cl2 → NCl3 + 3 HCl
l) C 3H8 + 5 O2 → 3 CO2 + 4 H2O
m) C2H5OH + 3 O2 → 2 CO2 + 3 H2O
n) CH3COOH + 2 O2 → 2 CO2 + 2 H2O

Slide 75
PRACTICE 6.2
2. Nitrogen reacts with hydrogen to form ammonia.
N2 (g) + 3 H2 (g) → 2 NH3 (g) ∆H = –92 kJ/mol
a) Is this reaction endothermic or exothermic?
b) Explain the temperature change in the surrounding.
c) Which bonds are broken and which bonds are formed?
d) Which energy change is larger, bond breaking or bond forming?
Explain.
e) Draw the energy profile diagram for the reaction.
f) Calculate the energy change when 0.56 g of nitrogen reacts
completely with excess hydrogen.

Slide 76
EXERCISE
• Tan & Chen (2000) – Page 6
• Sunley & Goodman (2014) – Page 129, 130, 131, 134, 139 &
141

Slide 77
CHAPTER 7
Chemical reactions
7.1 Redox
7.2 Rate of reaction
7.3 Reversible reaction

Slide 78
LESSON OBJECTIVES
1. Define redox in terms of oxygen loss/gain
2. Define redox in terms of electron transfer

Slide 79
7 CHEMICAL REACTIONS
1. Redox (= Reduction + Oxidation)
• Redox reaction is a chemical reaction which involves the
oxidation of a substance and reduction of another substance.
• Both oxidation and reduction always take place together.
• Oxidation is the process where a substance increases its
oxidation state after a reaction. There is also a gain of oxygen,
loses in hydrogen or loses in electrons.
• Reduction is the process where a substance decreases its
oxidation state after a reaction. There is also loses in oxygen,
gain of hydrogen or gain of electrons.

Slide 80
i) Gain or loss of oxygen
• 2 Ca (s) + O2 (g) → 2 CaO (s)
• S (s) + O2 (g) → SO2 (g)
• Mg (s) + H2O (g) → MgO (s) + H2 (g)
• Zn (s) + CuO (s) → ZnO (s) + Cu (s)
• Fe2O3 (s) + 3CO (g) → 2Fe (l) + 3CO2 (g)
ii) Gain or loss of hydrogen
• H2S(g) + Cl2(g) → 2HCl(g) + S(s)
• 2NH3(g) + 3CuO(s) → N2(g) + 3Cu(s) + 3H2O(g)
• H2(g) + Cl2(g) → 2HCl(g)
• N2(g) + 3H2(g) → 2NH3(g)

Slide 81
iii) Gain or loss of electrons
• Mg → Mg2+ + 2e–
• Fe2+ → Fe3+ + e–
• Cu2+ + 2e– → Cu
• O2 + 4e– → 2 O2–
iv) Increase or decrease in oxidation state

• Sodium metal to sodium ions
• Chlorine gas to chloride ions
• Iron (II) ions to Iron (III) ions
• Manganate (VII) ions to Manganate (II) ions
• Chromate (VI) ions to Chromate (III) ions
Slide 82
• Half-equations represent reduction and oxidation respectively.
• The two half-equations combined to provide overall ionic
equation.
Word: Beryllium + hydrochloric acid → beryllium chloride + hydrogen
Chemical: Be (s) + 2 HCl (aq) → BeCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)
Be (s) + 2 H+ + 2 Cl- → Be 2+ + 2 Cl- + H2 (g)
Ionic: Be (s) + 2 H+ (aq) → Be2+ (aq) + H2 (g)
Half-equation
Oxidation: Be → Be2+ + 2 e–
Reduction: 2 H+ + 2 e– → H2

Slide 83
• Redox reaction involves electron transfer.
• Neutralisation and precipitation reactions involves proton
transfer and ion exchange, thus they are not redox reaction.
Mg + HCl
MgO + HCl
MgCl2 + AgNO3
KMnO4 + HCl
Reaction Reduction Oxidation

Oxygen Loss Gain
Hydrogen Gain Loss
Electrons Gain Loss
Oxidation state Decreases Heng JoeIncreases
Slide 84
PRACTICE 7.1
1. State the oxidation and reduction in the following reaction.
a) CH4 (s) + 2 O2 (g) → CO2 (g) + 2 H2O (l)
b) 2 CuO (s) + C (s) → 2 Cu (s) + CO2 (g)
c) Fe2O3 (s) + 3CO (g) → 2 Fe (s) + 3 CO2 (g)
d) 2 Mg (s) + CO2 (g) → 2 MgO (s) + C (s)
e) SiO2 (s) + C (s) → Si (s) + CO2 (g)
f) Fe (s) + CuO (s) → FeO (s) + Cu (s)
Reaction Reduction Oxidation

Oxygen Loss Gain
Hydrogen Gain Loss
Electrons Gain Loss
Oxidation state Decreases Heng JoeIncreases
Slide 85
PRACTICE 7.1
2. Write the ionic and half-equations for the following:
a) Iron (s) + Nitric acid (aq)
b) Magnesium (s) + Sulfuric acid (aq)
c) Lithium (s) + Phosphoric acid (aq)
d) Zinc (s) + copper (II) chloride (aq)
e) Barium (s) + Magnesium nitrate (aq)
f) Caesium iodide (aq) + Bromine (l)
g) Magnesium astatide (aq) + Chlorine (g)
h) Francium chloride (aq) + Fluorine (g)

Slide 86
PRACTICE 7.1
3. Combining two half-equations.
Reduction Oxidation Ionic equation

A Ni2+ + 2 e– → Ni Li → Li+ + 2 e–
B 2 H+ + 2 e– → H2 Al → Al3+ + 3 e–
C Cl2 + 2 e– → 2 Cl– Fe2+ → Fe3+ + e–
D Hg2+ + 2 e– → Hg S2O32– → S4O62– + 2 e–
3H++NO3–+ 2e– → 3 H2O + I– → IO3– + 6 H+
E + 6 e–
HNO2 + H2O
MnO4– + 8 H+ + 5 e– → Fe → Fe3+ + 3 e–
F
Mn2+ + 4 H2O
Cr2O72– + 14 H+ + 6 e– 2 Br– → Br2 + 2 e–
G
→ 2 Cr3+ + 7 H2O

Slide 87
PRACTICE 7.1
4. Write the half-equations, then the ionic for the following:
a) Hydrogen peroxide and potassium iodide to water and iodine
b) Potassium manganate (VII) and iron (II) sulfate to manganese (II)
and iron (III) ions
c) K2Cr2O7 and Na2S2O3 to Chromiun (III) ions

Slide 88
LESSON OBJECTIVES
1. Identify redox reaction by changes in oxidation state and
colour changes
2. Define and identify oxidising and reducing agent from simple
equations

Slide 89
2. Oxidation state
• Oxidation state is the charge an atom of an element would have
if it existed as an ion in a compound.
• This is true even if the atom is covalently bonded.
i) Oxidation state of a free element is zero.
ii) Oxidation state of a simple ion is the same as charge on the ion.
iii) Fixed oxidation state for Group I, II, H and O.
Exception for H when combined with group I and O in H2O2.
iv) Oxidation states of all the atoms in a compound add up to zero.
v) Sum of oxidation number of all the atoms in a polyatomic ion is
the same as the charge on the polyatomic ion (e.g. SO42–).

Slide 90
3. Oxidising and reducing agent
• Oxidising agent is a substance that causes another substance to
be oxidised by giving oxygen, removing hydrogen or accepting
electrons. The agent is reduced at the end of reaction.
• Reducing agent is a substance that causes another substance to
be reduced by removing oxygen, giving hydrogen or donating
electrons. The agent is oxidised at the end of reaction.
• Test for oxidising agent: Add aqueous potassium iodide, KI to
the unknown solution. A brown solution is formed where iodide
is oxidised to iodine.
• Test for reducing agent: Add acidified potassium
manganate(VII), KMnO4 to the unknown solution. The solution
turns from purple to colourless.
MnO4–(aq) + 8H+(aq) + 5e– → Mn 2+(aq) + 4H O(l)
Heng Joe Shen (DIMENSION
2 HIGH SCHOOL)
Slide 91
Identifying Oxidising and Reducing Agents
Cl2(g) + H2S(g) → 2HCl(g) + S(s)
• Cl2 has been reduced. • H2S has been oxidised.

• Cl2 has gained hydrogen. • H2S has lost hydrogen.
• It has oxidised H2S to S. • It has reduced Cl2 to HCl.
Thus, Cl2 is an Thus, H2S is a

oxidising agent. reducing agent.
Slide 92
Common Oxidising and Reducing Agents
Oxidising agents Reducing agents
bromine (Br2) carbon (C)
chlorine (Cl2) carbon monoxide (CO)
concentrated sulfuric acid (H2SO4) hydrogen (H2)
nitric acid (HNO3) hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
oxygen (O2) metals
potassium manganate(VII)
potassium iodide (KI)
(KMnO4)
potassium dichromate(VI)
sulfur dioxide (SO2)
(K2Cr2O7)
hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) ammonia (NH3)

Reactivity series Electrochemical series Slide 93
Reactivity Element
Most reactive Potassium
Sodium
Calcium
Magnesium
Aluminium
Carbon
Zinc
Iron
Tin
Lead
Hydrogen
Copper
Silver
Least reactive Gold Heng Joe Shen (DIMENSION HIGH SCHOOL)
Reactivity Element Acronym 1 Acronym 2 Slide 94
Most reactive Potassium Please Please

Sodium Stop Send
Calcium Calling Cats
Magnesium Me Monkeys
Aluminium A And
Carbon Cute
Zinc Zebra Zebras
Iron Instead Into
Tin Try The
Lead Learning Lovely
Hydrogen How Hot
Copper Copper Countries
Silver Saves Signed
Least reactive Gold Gold General
Slide 95
PRACTICE 7.2
1. Find the oxidation state of element in the following compounds.
Substance Element Oxidation state
a) S S
b) Na2S S
c) MgSO4 S
d) SO2 S
e) HCl Cl
f) NaClO Cl
g) HClO2 Cl
h) HClO3 Cl
i) KClO4 Cl
j) NH3 N Heng Joe Shen (DIMENSION HIGH SCHOOL)
Slide 96
PRACTICE 7.2
Substance Element Oxidation state
k) CO2 C
l) CH4 C
m) NaHCO3 C
n) P4O10 P
o) PCl5 P
p) Ca3(PO4)2 P
q) KH2PO3 P
r) NaHPO4 P
s) MnO2 Mn
t) KMnO4 Mn
u) K2Cr2O7 Cr
Slide 97
PRACTICE 7.2
2. State the oxidizing and reducing agent in the following reaction.
a) CH4 (s) + 2 O2 (g) → CO2 (g) + 2 H2O (l)
b) 2 CuO (s) + C (s) → 2 Cu (s) + CO2 (g)
c) Fe2O3 (s) + 3CO (g) → 2 Fe (s) + 3 CO2 (g)
d) 2 Mg (s) + CO2 (g) → 2 MgO (s) + C (s)
e) SiO2 (s) + C (s) → Si (s) + CO2 (g)
f) Fe (s) + CuO (s) → FeO (s) + Cu (s)
g) 2 H2S (s) + SO2 (g) → 3 S (s) + 2 H2O (l)

Slide 98
PRACTICE 7.2
3. In some redox titration, there is a colour change in the substance
before and after reaction. This remove the need for using
indicator. State the colour change in the following reaction.
Reaction Oxidation / reduction Colour change
A Fe2+ → Fe3+ + e–
B I2 + 2 e– → 2 I–
C Cu2+ + 2 e– → Cu
D 2 Br– → Br2 + 2 e–
MnO4– + 8 H+ + 5 e– →
E
Mn2+ + 4 H2O
Cr2O72– + 14 H+ + 6 e–
G
→ 2 Cr3+ + 7 H2O

Slide 99
PRACTICE 7.2
4. What is the volume of 0.016 mol/dm3 KMnO4 required to react
with 20 cm3 of 0.10 mol/dm3 of Na2S2O3?
Reduction: MnO4– + 8 H+ + 5 e – → Mn2+ + 4 H2O
Oxidation: 2 S2O32– → S4O62– + 2 e–
5. 0.42g of iron ore were dissolved in acid, so that all of the iron
present in the original ore was then present as Fe2+ (aq). The
solution obtained was titrated against 0.04 moldm–3 KMnO4(aq).
The titre was 23.50 cm3.
6. In a titration, 25.00 cm3 of an solution containing Cu+ (aq) ions
was completely oxidised by 15.30 cm3 of 0.001 moldm–3
potassium dichromate (VI) solution.

Slide100
EXERCISE
• Problem attics – Worksheet 6 Redox
• Tan & Chen (2000) – Page 6

Slide101
LESSON OBJECTIVES
1. Identify physical and chemical changes, and understand the
differences between them
2. Devise and evaluate a suitable method for investigating the
effect of a given variable on the rate of a reaction; and
Interpret data obtained from experiments concerned with rate
of reaction
3. Describe and explain the effect of concentration, particle
size, catalysts (including enzymes) and temperature on the
rate of reactions in terms of collisions between reactants
4. Describe the application of the factors in rate of reaction to
the danger of explosive combustion
Simulation
Video: Catalyst
Slide102
4. Changes
• Physical changes involves changes in display without changing
composition. These includes texture, colour, temperature, shape,
states of matter and other physical properties such as solubility.
• Chemical changes involves changes in composition (and even
mass) when bonds are broken and new ones are formed. These
includes change in colour, temperature and formation of
precipitate, bubbles and noticeable odour.

Slide103
4. Changes:
• Physical changes involves changes in display without changing
composition. These includes texture, colour, temperature, shape,
states of matter and other physical properties such as solubility.
• Chemical changes involves changes in composition (and even
mass) when bonds are broken and new ones are formed. These
includes change in colour, temperature and formation of
precipitate, bubbles and noticeable odour.

Slide104
5. Rate of reaction
• Rate = Amount / time
• The amount measured can be the amount of product formed in a
certain time (e.g. volume of hydrogen gas).
• The amount measured can be the amount of reactant used up in a
certain time (e.g. mass of magnesium).
gas syringe
conical flask
dilute
hydrochloric
acid retort stand
magnesium ribbon
stopwatch
Slide105
Time/min 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0
Volume of H2 / cm3 0 10 20 25 30 32 34 35 35 35 35
Volume of hydrogen/cm3
3.5 minutes: Reaction stops
Total volume of H2 produced = 35 cm3
35
30
1−2 minutes:
25 Volume of H2 produced = 30 – 20
= 10 cm3
20
15
0−1 minutes:
10 Volume of H2 produced = 20 cm3
5
0 1 2 3 4 5 Time/min
Slide106
Volume of hydrogen/cm3
• Gradient = 0
• Reaction has stopped
35
30
• Gradient is less steep
25 • Reaction is slowing down
20
15
• Gradient is steep
10 • Reaction is fast
5
0 1 2 3 4 5 Time/min

Slide107
cotton wool
• allows CO2 to escape
thread • prevents acid spray
small test tube conical flask

marble chip dilute hydrochloric acid
shows change in mass
when CO2 escapes from
the flask.

Slide108
Mass of reaction
mixture/g • Gradient is steepest
60 • Reaction is fastest
• Gradient decreases
59 • Reaction is slowing down
58
• Gradient = 0
• Reaction has stopped
57
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Time/min

Slide109
sodium thiosulfate and
hydrochloric acid
conical flask
paper with a
cross
stopwatch
Na2S2O3(aq) + 2HCl(aq) → 2NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) + SO2(g) + S(s)
sodium thiosulfate heated to sulfur precipitate causes

different temperatures solution to turn cloudy

Slide110
6. Collision theory
• Particles must collide with correct orientation and with sufficient
energy for a chemical reaction to occur.
• Effective collision is the collision that results in the formation of
product.

Slide111
6. Collision theory
• There is a risk of explosion when the rate of reaction is too high.
i) In flour mills Flour particles are tiny, so flour has a very large
surface area. It can also catch fire. In a flour mill, if there is a lot
of flour dust in the air, a spark from a machine could be enough
to cause an explosion.
Red: IGCSE only Heng Joe Shen (DIMENSION HIGH SCHOOL)

Slide112
7 CHEMICAL REACTIONS (IGCSE)
6. Collision theory
ii) For the same reason, explosions are a risk in wood mills, from
wood dust, and in silos where wheat and other grains are stored.
And in factories that make custard powder, and dried milk. The
dust from all these will burn.
iii) In coal mines, methane (CH4) and other flammable gases collect
in the air. At certain concentrations they form an explosive mix
with the air. A spark is enough to set off an explosion.

Slide113
7. Factors affecting rate
i) Concentration
ii) Temperature
iii) Particle size / surface area of solid reactant
iv) Pressure of gaseous reactant
v) Catalyst
*Rate = yield

Slide114

Slide115
PRACTICE 7.3
1. The following results were obtained when excess magnesium
stripe is added to 40 cm3 of 1.0 mol/dm3 sulfuric acid .
Time/min 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0
Volume of H2 / cm3 0 15 24 28 31 33 35 35 35 35 35
a) Sketch the results.

b) Write the balanced chemical reaction.
c) Calculate the mass of magnesium reacted.
d) If the experiment is repeated as below, sketch the results on your
answer in (a).
i) Excess Mg stripe is added to 40 cm3 of 1.0 mol/dm3 sulfuric acid
at higher temperature.
ii) Excess Mg stripe is added to 10 cm3 of 2.0 mol/dm3 sulfuric acid.
iii) Excess Mg stripe is added to 80 cm3 of 0.6 mol/dm3 sulfuric acid.
Slide116
2. A flask containing dilute hydrochloric acid was placed on a digital
balance. An excess of limestone chippings was added to this
acid, a plug of cotton wool was placed in the neck of the flask
and the initial mass was recorded.
Time/min 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Mass / g 10 7.9 7.0 6.9 6.4 6.2 6.0 6.0 6.0
a) Plot the results of the experiment.

b) How long does it takes for the reaction to complete?
c) Predict the mass loss at 7 minutes.
d) At which point is the rate of reaction fastest?
e) How does the rate of reaction change during this reaction?
Explain this using particle theory.
f) Why was the plug of cotton wool used?
g) Write the chemical equation to represent the reaction taking place.
h) Why did the mass of the flask and its contents decrease?
i) Determine the volume of gas produced at room
Heng Joe temperature.
Slide117
3. Zinc can reacts with nitric acid. Two different reactions are
carried out.
Reaction I: Zinc granules + dilute nitric acid
Reaction II: Zinc powder + dilute nitric acid
a) Which reactions will produce hydrogen more quickly? Why?
b) Suggest two other methods by to increase the rate.

Slide118
EXERCISE
• Tan & Chen (2000) – Page 6
• Sunley & Goodman (2014) – Page 145, 148, 152 & 156

Slide119
LESSON OBJECTIVES
1. Describe and explain the effect of concentration, particle
size, catalysts (including enzymes) and temperature on the
rate of reactions in terms of collisions between reactants
2. Devise and evaluate a suitable method for investigating the
effect of a given variable on the rate of a reaction; and
Interpret data obtained from experiments concerned with rate
of reaction
Simulation
Video: Catalyst

Slide120
8. Catalyst
• Catalyst is a substance that increases the speed of a chemical
reaction and remains chemically unchanged at the end of the
reaction.
i) It increases the speed but not the yield.
ii) It is not used up during the reaction. It may change in physical
appearance, but the total amount would remain the same.
iii) Only a small amount is needed in a reaction.
iv) It lowers the activation energy of the reaction.
v) It is selective in action. Different catalyst speed up different
reaction.
vi) It can be poisoned or inactivated by impurities.

Slide121
• Catalyst provides an alternative pathway for the reaction to
proceed.
• The catalyzed reaction has a lower level of activation energy.
• As a result, more particles possess the energy equal to or greater
than activation energy.
Energy
uncatalysed reaction
Ea
catalysed reaction
reactants E’a
ΔH = negative
products
Progress of reaction
Slide122
• The frequency of effective collision increases and there is higher
rate of formation of product.
• Thus, the speed of reaction is higher.
Energy
uncatalysed reaction
Ea
catalysed reaction
reactants E’a
ΔH = negative
products
Progress of reaction
Slide123
9. Enzyme
• Enzyme is a biological catalyst that speeds up chemical reaction
in plants and animals (e.g. amylase).
i) It is a protein.
ii) It is specific in their actions.
iii) It is sensitive to pH changes.
iv) It is sensitive to temperature changes.
It is inactive when temperature is too low and denatured when
temperature is too high.

Slide124
9. Enzyme
• Uses of enzyme
i) Manufacture of wine and other alcoholic drinks. It converts
sugar or starch to ethanol.
ii) Added into modern detergents to remove stains caused by
protein-based substances such as food and blood.

Slide125
PRACTICE 7.4
1. A student performed 2 experiments to establish how effective
manganese (IV) oxide was as a catalyst for the decomposition of
hydrogen peroxide. The results below were obtained by carrying
out with two different quantities of manganese (IV) oxide.
Time/min 0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210
Volume for 0.3 g/cm3 0 40 60 70 75 78 80 80
Volume for 0.5 g/cm3 0 45 70 75 80 85 88 90
a) Draw a diagram of the apparatus you could use to carry out these
experiments.
b) Write a balanced chemical equation for the decomposition of
hydrogen peroxide.
c) Describe the chemical test for the gas produced.
d) Is the manganese (IV) oxide acts as a catalyst in this reaction?
Explain.
Slide126
PRACTICE 7.4
2. In an experiment, 50 cm3 of 1.0 mol/dm3 sulfuric acid (in excess)
is added to 10 g of zinc pieces and 0.1 g of a substance suspected
of being a catalyst. Six experiments are conducted and the time
taken to collect 60 cm3 of gas in each experiment are recorded.
No Cu
Experiment Cu foil CuSO4 CuCl2 NaCl
substance powder
Time taken to collect
75 s 20 s 65 s 12 s 16 s 75 s
60 cm3 of gas
a) Write the chemical equation for the reaction in the flask.

b) Identify the gas produced in the reaction and describe a test for it.
c) Which of the added substances acted as a catalyst for the
reaction? Explain.
d) Name one factor (not mentioned above) which must be controlled
to make this a fair investigation. Explain.
Slide127
LESSON OBJECTIVES
1. Demonstrate understanding of the concept of equilibrium
2. Understand that some chemical reactions can be reversed by
changing the reaction conditions; and Predict the effect of
changing the conditions (concentration, temperature and
pressure) on other reversible reactions
3. Describe and explain the essential conditions for the
manufacture of ammonia by the Haber process including the
sources of the hydrogen and nitrogen
4. Describe and explain the role of light in photochemical
reactions and the effect of light on the rate of these reactions.
5. Describe the use of silver salts in photography; and
photosynthesis (VIDEO)

Slide128
10. Reversible reaction
• Reversible reactions are reactions where the reactants are
constantly forming products, and the products are constantly
reforming the reactant.
• Double arrow sign is used to indicate a reversible reaction.
• Forward reaction is the reaction from left to right.
• Backward reaction is the reaction from right to left.

Slide129
• Dynamic equilibrium is a state when the rate of the forward and
backward reactions is the same.
• Examples of reversible reactions are reaction of hydrated copper
sulfate, hydrated cobalt (II) chloride, ammonium chloride and
ethane with water.

Slide130
11. Le Chatelier’s principle
• Le Chatelier’s principle states that when there is a change in a
reversible reaction that is in dynamic equilibrium, the system acts
to oppose the change and restore equilibrium.

Slide131
• The position of equilibrium can be changed through
concentration, pressure and temperature.
Reaction Enthalpy Pressure Yield

1 3 O2 (g) 2 O3 (g) ∆H < 0 Increases Increases
2 N2 (g) + 3 H2 (g) 2 NH3 (g) ∆H < 0 Increases Increases
3 N2O4 (g) 2 NO2 (g) ∆H > 0 Increases Decreases
4 H2 (g) + F2 (g) 2 HF (g) ∆H < 0 Increases No effect
5 CO2 (g) + C (s) 2 CO (g) ∆H > 0 Increases Decreases

Slide132
• The position of equilibrium can be changed through
concentration, pressure and temperature.
Reaction Enthalpy Temp Yield

1 3 O2 (g) 2 O3 (g) ∆H < 0 Increases Decreases
2 N2 (g) + 3 H2 (g) 2 NH3 (g) ∆H < 0 Increases Decreases
3 N2O4 (g) 2 NO2 (g) ∆H > 0 Increases Increases
4 H2 (g) + F2 (g) 2 HF (g) ∆H < 0 Increases Decreases
5 CO2 (g) + C (s) 2 CO (g) ∆H > 0 Increases Increases

Slide133
Factor Rate Yield
Concentration Yes (for liquid) Yes (for liquid)
Increase if endothermic
Temperature Yes
decrease if exothermic
Only for gaseous substances
Pressure Yes (for gas) Increase if reactants > products
Decrease if reactants < products
Catalyst Yes No
Surface area Yes (for solid) No

Slide134

Slide135
12. Haber process
• N2 (g) + 3 H2 (g) 2 NH3 (g) ∆H = exothermic
Condition: 450oC, 250 atm and finely divided iron as catalyst
• Raw materials: N2 comes from fractional distillation of air while
H2 comes from reaction between hydrocarbon and steam.
1. Nitrogen and hydrogen

are mixed in the
proportion 1:3 by
volume.
2. The mixture of gases is
compressed to 250 atm.
3. The gases are heated to 450°C and passed over finely divided iron.
• Reaction is exothermic.
• Only 10–15% of nitrogen and hydrogen
Hengis Joe Shen (DIMENSION
converted to ammonia.HIGH SCHOOL)
135
Slide136
12. Haber process
• N2 (g) + 3 H2 (g) 2 NH3 (g) ∆H = exothermic
• The reaction is reversible and exothermic. Thus, there is a need to
maximize rate and yield with minimum cost.
• Higher pressure produces higher rate and yield, but very costly.
• Higher temperature produces higher rate but lower yield.
Yield of
ammonia/ %
50 450°C
40 500°C
30
20 600°C
10
Pressure/atm
100 200 300 400
Slide137
12. Haber process
• Catalyst is added to speed up the rate of reaction.
• Unreacted reactants are also recycled back to increase the yield.
1. Nitrogen and hydrogen

are mixed in the
proportion 1:3 by
volume.
2. The mixture of gases is
compressed to 250 atm.
3. The gases are heated to 450°C and passed over finely divided iron.
• Reaction is exothermic.
• Only 10–15% of nitrogen and hydrogen is converted to ammonia.

Slide138
12. Haber process
• Ammonia is used in the production of fertilizer. NPK fertilizer
promotes new cells, root growth and fruit formation in crops.

Slide139
13. Photochemical reactions
• Photochemical reaction is a chemical reaction that requires light
(visible light or UV).
• Examples
i) In photography, the film is made of silver halide. Silver ions are
reduced to silver when exposed to light.

Slide140
ii) In photo chromic lenses, the silver and copper ions are reduced
when exposed to light.
iii) In photosynthesis, plants produce glucose and oxygen from
carbon dioxide and water in the presence of chlorophyll and
sunlight.

Slide141
PRACTICE 7.5
Reaction ∆H Changes Yield

A 3 O2 (g) 2 O3 (g) ∆H < 0 P increases
T increases
B N2 (g) + 3 H2 (g) 2 NH3 (g) ∆H < 0 P decreases
T decreases
C N2O4 (g) 2 NO2 (g) ∆H > 0 P increases
T decreases
D H2 (g) + F2 (g) 2 HF (g) ∆H < 0 P decreases
T increases
E CO2 (g) + C (s) 2 CO (g) ∆H > 0 P increases
T increases
Slide142
PRACTICE 7.5
Reaction ∆H Changes Yield

F 2 SO2 + O2 (g) 2 SO3 (g) ∆H < 0 P increases
T increases
G X2 (g) + O2 (g) 2 XO (g) ∆H > 0 P decreases
T decreases
H 2 XO (g) + O2 (g) 2 XO2(g) ∆H > 0 P increases
T decreases
I N2O4 (g) 2 NO2 (g) ∆H > 0 P decreases
T increases
J CaCO2 (s) CaO (s) + CO2 (g) ∆H > 0 P increases
T increases
Slide143
PRACTICE 7.5
Gallagher & Ingram (2011)
2. Explain the following terms: (a) reversible reaction and (b)
dynamic equilibrium.
3. H2 (g) + Br2 (g) 2 HBr (g) ∆H < 0
a) How to increase the yield of hydrogen bromide?
b) Explain why increasing the pressure will have no effect on
the amount of product formed.
c) However, the pressure is likely to be increased, when the
reaction is carried out in industry. Suggest a reason for this.

Slide144
PRACTICE 7.5
4. The dichromate ion Cr2O72– and chromate ion CrO42– exist in
equilibrium, like this:
Cr2O72– (aq) + H2O (l) 2 CrO42– (aq) + 2H+ (aq)
orange yellow
a) What would you see if you added dilute acid to a solution
containing chromate ions?
b) How would you reverse the change in (a)?
c) What is the oxidation state of Cr in Cr2O72– and CrO42–?

Slide145
5. Ammonia gas is made industrially by the Haber process, which
involves the reaction between the gases nitrogen and hydrogen.
• The graph shows how the amount of ammonia produced from
the reaction changes with both temperature and pressure.
• The percentage yield of ammonia indicates the percentage of the
nitrogen and hydrogen gases that are actually changed into
ammonia gas.
a) Write the chemical equation

for the Haber process.
b) What is yield (actual yield)?
c) Based on the graph, is the
forward reaction endothermic
or exothermic?
Slide146
d) Complete the table.
Changes Rate Yield

i Adding catalyst
ii Increase pressure
iii Increase temperature
e) Why is the reaction carried out at 450°C rather than at a lower

temperature to obtain higher yield?
f) Why the pressure is set at 250 atm rather than at 400 atm?
g) Since the reaction between nitrogen and hydrogen is reversible,
this causes a problem for the ammonia factory. Why?
g) What can be done to extract pure ammonia from the mixture of
H2, N2 and NH3?

Slide147
EXERCISE
• Tan & Chen (2000) – Page 6
• Sunley & Goodman (2014) – Page 158, 163, 164 & 166

Slide148
LESSON OBJECTIVES
1. Describe the characteristic properties of acids and bases
2. Define acids and bases in terms of proton transfer
3. Describe the meaning of weak and strong acids and bases
4. Describe neutrality and relative acidity and alkalinity in
terms of pH
5. Describe and explain the importance of controlling acidity in
soil
6. Classify oxides as either acidic, basic or amphoteric
Simulations: Which food is acidic / alkaline?

Simulations: Acid base (strong and weak)

Slide149
CHAPTER 8
Acids, bases and salts
8.1 Characteristic properties of acids and bases
8.2 Types of oxides
8.3 Preparation of salts
8.4 Identification of ions and gases

Slide150

Slide151
Arrhenius theory of dissociation:

• Acids is compound that produces hydrogen ions, H+ in water.
• Alkali is compound that produce hydroxide ions, OH– in
water.
• Thus, H+ + OH– → H2O (l). From here, we know that all
acids react with alkali.
• That is why we can measure the strength of an acid using pH
or pOH.
• However, later on, we discover that some acids or alkali that
do not produce H + or OH–.
• Example, Ammonia NH3 (aq). However, it can reacts with
acid. NH3 + HCl → NH4Cl
Slide152
8 ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS

Slide153

Slide154

Slide155

Slide156
• Note that not all substances that contain hydrogen are acids.
Organic acids Mineral acids
Hydrochloric
Tartaric acid
acid
Citric acid Sulfuric acid Nitric acid
Lactic acid

Slide157
1. Acids and bases
• Acid is a proton donor. Base is a proton acceptor.
• Base is any metal oxide or hydroxide that reacts with an acid.
However, not all bases are soluble. Alkali is a soluble base.
Example:
i) Acid – HCl, CH3COOH, H2SO4, H3PO4
Not an acid – CH4, NH3
When HCl is dissolved in organic solvent or in gaseous state, it
does not ionise. Thus, it is not acid in these states.
ii) Base – CaO, FeO, ZnO Cu(OH)2
iii) Alkali – Na2O, NaOH, KOH, Ca(OH)2
Slide158
Acid Alkali
Electrical Dissolves in water to form solution
conductivity that conduct electricity
Proton Donor Acceptor / Receiver
In aqueous Produces hydrogen ions, Produce hydroxide ions,
+ –
solution H OH
Taste / feel Sour Bitter and soapy
pH Less than 7 More than 7
Litmus test Blue to red Red to blue
Solubility in Only some
Yes
water (known as alkali)
With base With acid
Reaction With metal With ammonium salt
With carbonate With metal salt
Slide159
2. Chemical reactions:
i) Acid with reactive metal to produce salt and hydrogen
ii) Acid with bases (metal oxides or hydroxide) to produce salt and
water. This reaction is known as Neutralisation.
iii) Acid with carbonates (or hydrogen carbonate) to produce salt,
water and carbon dioxide.
iv) Alkali reacts with acid.

v) Alkali with ammonium salt to produce salt, water and ammonia.
vi) Alkalis with metal salt to produce another metal salt and metal
hydroxide.

Slide160
PRACTICE 8.1
1. Write chemical and ionic equations for the following reactions:
a) Acid + reactive metal d) Alkali + acid
b) Acid + base e) Alkali + ammonium salt
c) Acid + carbonate f) Alkali + metal salt

Slide161
Chemical reactions:
i) Acid with bases = Alkali with acid
a) Potassium oxide + sulfuric acid

b) Rubidium hydroxide + phosphoric acid
c) Copper (II) oxide + sulfuric acid
d) Iron (II) hydroxide + hydrochloric acid
e) Lead (II) oxide + nitric acid

Slide162
Chemical reactions:
ii) Acid with reactive metal to produce salt and hydrogen
f) Calcium + hydrochloric acid

g) Magnesium + sulfuric acid
h) Lithium + ethanoic acid
i) Sodium + phosphoric acid
j) Zinc + nitric acid

Slide163
Chemical reactions:
iii) Acid with carbonates (or hydrogen carbonate) to produce salt,
water and carbon dioxide.
k) Barium carbonate + nitric acid

l) Sodium hydrogen carbonate + sulfuric acid

Slide164
Chemical reactions:
iv) Alkalis with ammonium salt to produce salt, water and ammonia.
v) Alkalis with metal salt to produce salt and metal hydroxide
m) Ammonium chloride + sodium hydroxide

n) Ammonium nitrate + potassium hydroxide
o) Iron (II) sulfate + sodium hydroxide
p) Copper (II) bromide + potassium hydroxide

Slide165
3. pH scale
• pH scale is a set of number from 0 to 14.
It indicates if a solution is acid, neutral or alkaline.
It is related to the concentration of H+ or OH– present in a
solution.
• pH meter measures pH electrically. It is more accurate and
reliable.

Slide166
2. pH scale
• Indicator is substance which shows different colours in acidic
and alkaline solutions.
Indicator Acidic Alkaline

Litmus paper Red Blue
Universal indicator Red Purple
Methyl orange Red Yellow
Screened methyl orange Violet Green
Phenolphthalein Colourless Pink

Slide167
4. Strengths of acids and bases
• Strong acid is an acid that is completely ionised in aqueous
solution
• Weak acid is an acid that is only partially ionised in aqueous
solution.
• Strength of acid refers to the extent of ionisation of an acid.
Strength of acid is not affected by concentration but the type of
substance.
• Concentration of acid refers to the amount of acid dissolved in
the solution.
Acid Base
Weak Ethanoic acid Ammonia
Strong Hydrochloric acid Sodium hydroxide
Slide168
5. Oxides
• Oxides are compounds of oxygen.
• Metallic oxide is ionic compound, which can form basic or
amphoteric oxide.
• Non-metallic oxide is covalent compound, which can form
either neutral or acidic oxide.
Oxides
Metallic Non-metallic
Amphoteric Neutral
Basic Al2O3, ZnO Acidic CO, NO and
and PbO Heng Joe Shen (DIMENSION
H2OHIGH SCHOOL)
Slide169
5. Types of oxide
i) Acidic oxide reacts with alkali to form a salt and water only. It
dissolves in water to form acid (e.g. SO2, SO3 and CO2).
ii) Basic oxide reacts with acid to form salt and water only. It can
be soluble or insoluble in water (e.g. Na2O, MgO and CuO).
iii) Amphoteric oxide reacts with both acids and alkalis to form a
salt and water (e.g. Al2O3, PbO and ZnO).
iv) Neutral oxide does not react with acids nor alkalis. It is
insoluble in water (e.g. H2O, NO and CO).

Slide170
6. Applications
• H2SO4 is used in manufacture of detergents (convert
hydrocarbons into organic acids) and fertilisers (e.g. ammonium
sulfate and superphosphate), and as a battery acid (reacts with
lead plates to generate electrical energy).
• HCl is used to remove impurities such as rust or scale from
metals and aluminium alloys.
• H3PO4 is added to food and beverages to give them a sour taste.
• CH3COOH acts as food preservatives and flavour enhancer.
• MgO relieves gastric pain and used in making refractory bricks.
• NaOH and KOH is used in preparation of soap.
• CaO and Ca(OH)2 reduces acidity in soil for agriculture. The
acidity of the soil affects the growth and development of plants.
Slide171
PRACTICE 8.1
2. Explain, with the aid of examples, what you understand by the
following terms:
a) Strong acid e) Titration
b) Weak acid f) Basic oxide
c) Concentrated acid g) Amphoteric oxide
d) Neutralisation
3. a) Classify the following: Type of oxide Example
Acidic oxide
Na2O MgO Al2O3 CO Basic oxide
SiO2 SO2 Cl2O7 P4O6 Amphoteric oxide
PbO NO ZnO H2O Neutral oxide
b) Which would react with (i) HCl, (ii) NaOH or (iii) Both?
c) SO2 and SiO2 have similar ratio of oxide but different types of
structure. How are their structures and properties different?
Slide172
PRACTICE 8.1
4. Calculate the percentage by mass of water in the following salt
hydrates (Ar: H = 1; O = 16; Na = 23; S = 32; Cu = 64):
a) CuSO4.5H2O
b) Na2CO3.10H2O
c) Na2S2O3.5H2O.
5. 24.2 cm3 of a solution containing 0.20 mol dm−3 of hydrochloric
acid just neutralised 25.0 cm3 of a potassium hydroxide solution.
What is the concentration of this potassium hydroxide solution?
6. 22.4 cm3 of a solution containing 0.10 mol dm−3 of sulfuric acid
just neutralised 25.0 cm3 of a sodium hydroxide solution. What is
the concentration of this sodium hydroxide solution?
7. 0.8 g of an impure sample of sodium chloride was treated with
excess silver nitrate.1.2 g of silver chloride precipitate was
produced. Determine the purity ofHeng
sodium chloride.
Joe Shen (DIMENSION HIGH SCHOOL)
Slide173
LESSON OBJECTIVES
1. Describe the characteristic properties of acids
as reactions with metals, bases, carbonates and
effect on litmus and methyl orange
2. Describe the characteristic properties of bases as reactions
with acids, ammonium salt and strong alkali

Slide174

Slide175
7. Titration
• Titration is a volumetric analysis of reaction to determine
concentration of a solution
• Titrant is solution of known concentration while analyte is the
solution of unknown concentration
• Equivalence point is the point in titration at which the amount
of titrant added is just enough to completely neutralize the
analyte solution.
• Endpoint is the point at which the indicator changes colour in an
acid-base titration.
• Firstly, a solution of known concentration (titrant) is placed in
the burette. Another solution of unknown concentration is
measured using pipette and placed in the conical flask. An
indicator is added. Titrant is added until end-point is reached.
Slide176
PRACTICE 8.2
1. In a titration involving 24.0 cm3 potassium hydroxide solution
against a solution containing 1 mol dm−3 of sulfuric acid, 28.0
cm3 of the acid was found to just neutralise the alkali completely.
a) Write the balanced chemical equation for the reaction.
b) Name a suitable indicator and state the colour change.
c) Calculate the concentration of the alkali in moldm−3.
2. (w08_qp3) Sodium benzoate is a salt with the formula
C6H5COONa. It is a widely used food pickling agent, with an E
number of E211.
a) Deduce the formula of benzoic acid.
b) Name two compounds that would react with benzoic acid to form
sodium benzoate.
c) Write the chemical equation for the reaction between benzoic
acid and calcium hydroxide. Heng Joe Shen (DIMENSION HIGH SCHOOL)
Slide177
3. The colours of some indicators in solutions at various pH values

are shown in the table below.
a) A solution of ethanoic acid has pH 5. What colour would be
shown by the following three indicators?
b) Sodium carbonate solution is added slowly into the solution of
ethanoic acid slowly, whilst stirring until present in excess. Write
the chemical and ionic equations.
c) The endpoint of each titration happens when the indicator
changes colour. The pH of the titration is around pH 10. Explain
which indicators would be used to give accurate titration volume.
State the observation based on the indicator chosen.
Slide178
PRACTICE 8.2
4. Write the balanced chemical equation for the following.
a) Aluminium oxide and hydrochloric acid
b) Aluminium oxide and sodium hydroxide to form AlO2–
c) Zinc oxide and sodium hydroxide to form salt with ZnO22–
d) Calcium oxide and silicon dioxide to form salt that contains
silicate ions, SiO32–
e) Beryllium hydroxide and sodium hydroxide to produce water and
a salt that contains beryllate ions, BeO22–
f) Oxalic acid, C2O4H2 and potassium hydroxide to produce water
and a salt that contain oxalic ions, C2O42–
g) Sulfamic acid, H2NSO3H and calcium carbonate to produce
water, carbon dioxide and salt with sulfamate ions, H2NSO3–
h) Citric acid, C6H8O7 and potassium to produce hydrogen and salt
that contains citrate ions, C6H5O73− or C3H5O(COO)33−
Slide179
EXERCISE
• Tan & Chen (2000) – Page 6
• Sunley & Goodman (2014) – Page 179, 182 & 186

Slide180
LESSON OBJECTIVES
1. Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of preparation,
separation and purification of salts
2. Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the preparation
of insoluble salts by precipitation
3. Suggest a method of making a given salt from a suitable
starting material, given appropriate information

Slide181
8. Salts
• Salt is an ionic compound formed when hydrogen ion in acid is
replaced by metallic ion or an ammonium ion.
• Hydrated salt can be heated to produce anhydrous salt and
water.
• It is made up of two parts: Cation and anion.
The cation is metallic ion or ammonium ion that comes from
base.
The anion is non-metallic ion that comes from acid.

Slide182
8. Salts
• Solubility of salts in water
i) All salts containing Na+, K+ and NH4+ ions are soluble in water.
ii)All nitrate salts (NO3–) are soluble in water.
All chloride salts (Cl–) are soluble except for PbCl2 and AgCl
iii)
iv)All sulfate salts (SO4–) are soluble except for BaSO4, CaSO4 and
PbSO4.
v) All carbonate salts (CO32–) are insoluble except Na +, K + and
NH4+

Slide183
9. Preparation of salts
• Method 1 (soluble salt): Add acid to metal / insoluble base or
carbonate
• This method is suitable for moderately reactive metals.
Some metals reacts too violently with acid (e.g. Na, K and Ca)
while some metals do not react with acid (e.g. Cu and Ag).
Example
• Acid + metal
• Acid + insoluble base
• Acid + carbonate

Slide184
Method 1 (Soluble salt): Acid + metal
i) Add excess Zn powder into dilute H2SO4. Stir until
effervescence stops. Why?
ii) Filter to remove excess Zn powder. Collect the filtrate, ZnSO4
solution.
iii) Heat filtrate to obtain concentrated ZnSO4 solution.

Slide185
Method 1 (Soluble salt):
iv) Leave the solution to cool and crystallise. Filter to obtain
crystals.
v) Wash with cold, distilled water. Dry between pieces of filter
paper.

Slide186
Method 2 (soluble salt): Titration
HNO3(aq) + NaOH(aq) → NaNO3(aq) + H2O(l)
i) Fill up a burette with dilute HNO3.
Note the initial burette reading (V1 cm3).
ii) Pipette 25.0 cm3 of aqueous NaOH
solution into a conical flask.
iii) Add few drops of methyl orange retort burette
(indicator) to the NaOH solution. stand
Add dilute HNO3 slowly from the
burette until the solution just turns
orange.
iv) Record final burette reading (V2 cm3). conical
v) Repeat the experiment with the volume flask
recorded without using indicator to
obtain pure salt. Heng Joe Shen (DIMENSION HIGH SCHOOL)
Slide187
Indicator Acidic Alkaline

Litmus paper Red Blue
Universal indicator Red Purple
Methyl orange Red Yellow
Screened methyl orange Violet Green
Phenolphthalein Colourless Pink
Slide188
Method 3 (Insoluble salt): Precipitation
• General equation: AB (aq) + CD (aq) → AD (s) + CB (aq)
i) Add Na2SO4 solution to Ba(NO3)2 in a beaker.
ii) A white precipitate of BaSO4 forms.
Filter to obtain the precipitate.

Slide189
Method 3 (Insoluble salt): Precipitation
iii) Wash the precipitate with some cold, distilled water to remove
impurities.
iv) Leave the precipitate of BaSO4 to dry.
Can we prepare insoluble salt using acid and metal?

Slide190
Method 1 2 3
Soluble acid + Soluble acid + Soluble reactant
Reactant insoluble soluble reactant + soluble
reactant reactant
Example
Soluble salt +
Soluble salt + Insoluble salt +
Product insoluble
water soluble reactant
reactant
Filtration Yes No Yes
Crystallisation Yes Yes No
Slide191
PRACTICE 8.3
1. Group the salts as either soluble or insoluble.
AgCl Ag2CO3 AgNO3 Ag2SO4 KOH
BaCl2 BaCO3 Ba(NO3)2 BaSO4 Ca(OH)2
KCl K2CO3 KNO3 K2SO4 K2O
CaCl2 CaCO3 Ca(NO3)2 CaSO4 CaO
NH4Cl (NH4)2CO3 NH4NO3 (NH4)2SO4 CuSO4
PbCl2 PbCO3 Pb(NO3)2 PbSO4 PbO
Soluble salt Insoluble salt

Slide192
PRACTICE 8.3
2. Name the reactants that can be used to prepare the following salt.
Then, write the balanced chemical equation.
a) Sodium chloride
b) Magnesium nitrate
c) Potassium phosphate
d) Zinc chloride
e) Copper (II) sulfate
f) Calcium sulfate
g) Lead chloride
h) Silver iodide
3. Metals can react with acid.
a) Why copper does not react with acid?
b) Why barium appeared not to reactHeng
with sulfuric
Joe acid? HIGH SCHOOL)
Shen (DIMENSION
Slide193
PRACTICE 8.3
4. Study the following scheme.

a) Give the names and formulae
of substances A to E.
b) Write balanced chemical equations for the reactions taking place
in the scheme.
c) Write an ionic equation for production of the white precipitate D.

Slide194
PRACTICE 8.3
5. (s07_qp_3) Choose one of the following methods below for the
preparation of the following salt. Name the additional reagent or
reactant and write the chemical equation.
Method 1 – add an excess of base or a metal to a dilute acid and
remove the excess by filtration.
Method 2 – use a burette and an indicator.
Method 3 – mix 2 solutions and obtain the salt by precipitation.
a) Zinc sulfate from zinc oxide
Method:
Reagent:
Equation:
b) Lead sulfate from lead nitrate
c) Potassium chloride from potassium hydroxide
Slide195
Barker & Knapp (1990)
6. There are different methods of making nickel (II) nitrate.
• Method I: 25 cm3 of 2 M nitric acid was placed in a beaker and
green nickel (II) carbonate was added until it was in excess. After
filtration, green nickel (II) nitrate solution was obtained.
• Method II: Nickel (II) oxide was dissolved in nitric acid.
• Method III: Nickel (II) chloride solution was added to lead (II)
nitrate solution.
a) Write the balanced chemical equations for three methods.
b) In method I, why was excess nickel (II) carbonate used?
c) In method II, what mass of nitric acid would be required to
neutralise 7.5 g of nickel (II) oxide?
d) In method III, outline the main steps required to obtain nickel (II)
nitrate crystals from 1 M of nickel (II) chloride solution and 1 M
lead (II) nitrate solution.

Slide196
EXERCISE
• Tan & Chen (2000) – Page 6

Slide197
LESSON OBJECTIVES
1. Describe the following tests to identify:
• aqueous cations such as aluminium, ammonium, calcium,
chromium(III), copper(II), iron(II), iron(III) and zinc (using
aqueous sodium hydroxide and aqueous ammonia as
appropriate).
• cations: use of the flame test to identify lithium, sodium,
potassium and copper(II)
• anions: carbonate, chloride, bromide and iodide, nitrate,
sulfate and sulfite
• gases: ammonia, carbon dioxide, chlorine, hydrogen, oxygen,
and sulfur dioxide
Experiment: Practical 19 Identifying cation and anion
Slide198
10. Analytical chemistry:
• Qualitative analysis (QA) is a process used by chemist to
identify the cations and anions in an unknown solution.
i) Water test:
Condensation of water vapour
Anhydrous copper (II) sulfate changes from white to blue
Cobalt (II) chloride paper changes from blue to pink
ii) pH test:
Litmus paper (red or blue)
Universal indicator (red, green or purple)

Slide199
10. Analytical chemistry:
iii) Colour test: Colour vs white solid or colourless solution
Group I and II compounds are white solids that dissolved in
water to form colourless solution.
Substance Colour
Copper Brown (pink when freshly cut)
Copper (II) oxide Black
Copper (II) sulfate Blue
Iron (II) compounds Green
Iron (III) compounds Reddish-brown
Iron powder Black
Magnesium ribbon Silvery white
Sodium chloride White solid
Slide200
2 QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS
Copper Copper (II) sulfate Copper (II) oxide Iron powder
Iron (II) compounds Iron (III) compounds Zinc powder Zinc compounds

Slide201
10. Analytical chemistry (Tables PROVIDED in Paper 3 / Paper 5)
iv) Flame tests: (Only in IGCSE)
v) Cation test
vi) Anion test
vii) Gases test

Slide202

Slide203

Slide204

Slide205

Slide206
Effect of aqueous NaOH Effect of aqueous NH3
Cation Addition In excess Addition In excess
No ppt. NH3
Ammonium, NH4+
produced on heating
Aluminium, Al3+ White ppt. Soluble White ppt. Insoluble
No ppt. or very
Calcium, Ca2+ White ppt. Insoluble
slight white ppt.
Lead (II), Pb2+ White ppt. Soluble White ppt. Insoluble
Zinc, Zn2+ White ppt. Soluble White ppt. Soluble
Chromium (III) , Cr3+ Green ppt. Soluble Grey-green ppt. Insoluble
*Soluble
Copper (II) , Cu2+ Light blue ppt. Insoluble Light blue ppt. (dark blue
solution)
Iron (II), Fe2+ Green ppt. Insoluble Green ppt. Insoluble
Iron (III), Fe3+ Red-brown ppt. Insoluble Red-brown ppt. Insoluble
Red: IGCSE only Heng JoeO-level

Blue: Shen (DIMENSION
only HIGH SCHOOL)
Slide207
Silver chloride Silver bromide Silver iodide

AgCl AgBr AgI

Slide208
• Anion test
Anion Test Test result
Effervescence, CO2
Carbonate, CO3– Add dilute acid e.g. HNO3
produced
Acidify with dilute nitric acid, then
Chloride, Cl– White ppt.
add aqueous silver nitrate
Bromide, Br– Cream ppt.
Iodide, I– Yellow ppt.
Add aqueous sodium hydroxide,
Nitrate, NO3– Ammonia produced
then aluminium foil; warm carefully
Acidify, then add aqueous barium
Sulfate, SO42– White ppt.
nitrate
Sulfur dioxide produced
Add dilute hydrochloric acid, warm
will turn acidified aqueous
Sulfite, SO32– gently and test for the presence of
potassium manganate (VII)
sulfur dioxide
from purple to colourless
Red: IGCSE only Heng JoeO-level
Blue: Shen (DIMENSION
only HIGH SCHOOL)
Slide209
Turns limewater milky Burns with pop sound Relights a glowing splint
Turns red litmus Turns KMnO4 purple to

Bleaches litmus paper
paper blue colourless
NH3 SO2 Cl2

Slide210

Slide211
• Gas test
Odour and
Gas Test Test result
visual
Carbon Odourless &
Limewater Turns milky
dioxide, CO2 colourless
Odourless &
Hydrogen, H2 Lighted splint ‘pop’
colourless
Odourless &
Oxygen, O2 Glowing splint Relights
colourless
Ammonia, Pungent &
Red litmus paper Turns blue
NH3 colourless
Sulfur Pungent & Acidified aqueous Turns purple
dioxide, SO2 colourless potassium manganate (VII) to colourless
Pungent &
Chlorine, Cl2 Damp litmus paper Bleaches
greenish-yellow
Slide212
PRACTICE 8.4
1. Describe how you could use aqueous ammonia to distinguish
between three unlabelled bottles containing solutions of Al3+ (aq),
Ca2+ (aq) and Cu2+ (aq).
2. An analytical chemist working for an environmental health
organisation has been given a sample of water which is thought
to have been contaminated by a sulfate, a carbonate and a
chloride.
a) Describe how she could confirm the presence of these three
types of salt by simple chemical tests.
b) Write ionic equations to help you explain what is happening
during the testing process.

3. (s20_61) Two substance, A and B were analysed. Slide213
Solid A was copper (II) carbonate. Complete the observation.

(a) Solid A was placed in a boiling tube. An excess of dilute sulfuric
acid was added to the boiling tube.
(b) Any gas produced was tested. Identify this gas.
(c) Aqueous ammonia was added slowly on solid A until in excess.
Test on B Observation
1 Flame test Red flame
Solid B was placed in boiling tube and Condensation appeared at the
2
heated strongly. mouth of the boiling tube
Solution B was added nitric acid followed
3 The solution remained colourless
by aqueous silver nitrate.
Solution B was added nitric acid followed
4 White precipitate
by aqueous barium nitrate.
(d) What conclusion can be made from the result of test 3?
(e) What conclusion can be made about solid B?
4. (w20_61) Two solutions, C and D were analysed. Slide214
Solution C was iron (II) sulfate. Complete the observation.

(a) Aqueous ammonia was added slowly into C until in excess.
(b) About 2 cm3 of hydrochloric acid was added into C.
(c) About 1 cm3 of nitric acid followed by few drops of barium
nitrate were added into C.
Test on solution D Observation
1 Aqueous ammonia was added White precipitate formed, insoluble in
excess
2 Aqueous sodium hydroxide was White precipitate formed, dissolved in
added excess to form a colourless solution
3 A piece of aluminium foil was added. Gas produced that turned damp red
The mixture was warmed. litmus paper blue
4 About 2 cm3 of hydrochloric acid was Solution remains colourless, no
added. precipitate formed
(d) Name the gas in test 3.
(e) Identify solution D.
5. (s18_61) Two solutions, E and F were analysed. Slide215
Solution E was zinc chloride. Complete the observation.

(a) Dilute nitric acid and aqueous silver nitrate was added into E.
(b) Aqueous sodium hydroxide was added into solution E.
(c) Aqueous ammonia was added into solution E.
Test on solution F Observation
1 The pH was tested pH = 1
2 Magnesium ribbon was added. The Effervescence is seen. The gas
gas produced was tested. ‘popped’ with a lighted splint.
3 Dilute nitric acid and aqueous barium
White precipitate formed.
nitrate were added into solution F.
(d) Identify the gas produced in test 2.

(e) Identify solution F.

Slide216
6. (w18_61) Two substances, solid G and solution H were analysed.
Complete the observation.
Test on solid G Observation
1 Flame test was done on solid G. Lilac colour
2 Solid G was dissolved in distilled water. Dilute hydrochloric Filter paper
acid was added to the solution. The solution was warmed turned from
gently. The gas produced was tested with filter paper which had purple to
been dipped in acidified aqueous potassium manganate (VII) colourless.
(a) Name the gas produced in test 2.
(b) Identify solid G.
Solution H was calcium nitrate.
(c) Aqueous sodium hydroxide was added into solution H.
(d) Aqueous ammonia was added into solution H.
(e) Dilute nitric acid and aqueous silver nitrate was added to H.
(f) Aluminium foil and aqueous sodium hydroxide were added to H.
The mixture was warmed and theHeng gas Joe
produced was tested.
7. (w17_62) Two solid salts, J and K were analysed. Slide217
Solid J was sodium carbonate. Complete the observation.

(a) Describe the appearance of solid J.
(b) A flame test was carried out on solid J.
(c) Hydrochloric acid was added to the first portion of solution J.
Test on solid K Observation
1 Appearance of solid K White crystal
2 Solid K was dissolved in distilled water. Yellow precipitate formed
Dilute nitric acid and aqueous silver nitrate
were added to the first portion of solution K.
3 The second portion of solution J was added White precipitate formed.
to the second portion of solution K.
An excess of dilute hydrochloric acid was Rapid effervescence and

then added to the mixture. white precipitate dissolved.
(d) What conclusions can you draw about solid K?

8. Solid P was copper (II) oxide. Complete the observation. Slide218
(a) Describe the appearance of solid P.

(b) Hydrogen peroxide was added to the solid P. The glowing splint
relit when inserted into the test tube. Identify this gas.
Dilute sulfuric acid was added to the solid P. The mixture was heated
to boiling point and divided into three equal portions.
(c) Aqueous sodium hydroxide was added to the first portion.
(d) Aqueous ammonia was added to the second portion.
(e) Dilute nitric acid and barium nitrate was added to the third
portion.

Slide219
EXERCISE
• Tan & Chen (2000) – Page 6
• Sunley & Goodman (2014) – Page 194, 198, 199, 201 & 204

Slide220
END OF SECTION 2

2 Physical Chemistry 18

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2 Physical Chemistry 18

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Heng Joe Shen (DIMENSION HIGH SCHOOL)

We would start with Chapter 8, then Chapter 7

Heng Joe Shen (DIMENSION HIGH SCHOOL)

Heng Joe Shen (DIMENSION HIGH SCHOOL)

Heng Joe Shen (DIMENSION HIGH SCHOOL)

Heng Joe Shen (DIMENSION HIGH SCHOOL)

Heng Joe Shen (DIMENSION HIGH SCHOOL)

Heng Joe Shen (DIMENSION HIGH SCHOOL)

Electrolyte: PbBr2 (l) NaCl (aq)

Heng Joe Shen (DIMENSION HIGH SCHOOL)

Most reactive Potassium Please Please

Cl- , Br- SO42- or Anode: Cathode:

Anode: Anode: Anode Cathode: Cathode:

NaCl (aq) Conc. NaCl (aq) Heng Joe

Heng Joe Shen (DIMENSION HIGH SCHOOL)

Heng Joe Shen (DIMENSION HIGH SCHOOL)

a) Name a non-metal suitable for use as electrodes.

Heng Joe Shen (DIMENSION HIGH SCHOOL)

Heng Joe Shen (DIMENSION HIGH SCHOOL)

Heng Joe Shen (DIMENSION HIGH SCHOOL)

• Why must it be in liquid form?

Heng Joe Shen (DIMENSION HIGH SCHOOL)

Heng Joe Shen (DIMENSION HIGH SCHOOL)

Heng Joe Shen (DIMENSION HIGH SCHOOL)

Heng Joe Shen (DIMENSION HIGH SCHOOL)

Heng Joe Shen (DIMENSION HIGH SCHOOL)

Heng Joe Shen (DIMENSION HIGH SCHOOL)

Heng Joe Shen (DIMENSION HIGH SCHOOL)

Heng Joe Shen (DIMENSION HIGH SCHOOL)

Heng Joe Shen (DIMENSION HIGH SCHOOL)

Heng Joe Shen (DIMENSION HIGH SCHOOL)

• At the cathode (- electrode) • Overall equation

Heng Joe Shen (DIMENSION HIGH SCHOOL)

Heng Joe Shen (DIMENSION HIGH SCHOOL)

A HCl B PbBr2 C CuCl2 Heng D

Heng Joe Shen (DIMENSION HIGH SCHOOL)

Solution of Am+ Solution of Bn+

Heng Joe Shen (DIMENSION HIGH SCHOOL)

Heng Joe Shen (DIMENSION HIGH SCHOOL)

Heng Joe Shen (DIMENSION HIGH SCHOOL)

Heng Joe Shen (DIMENSION HIGH SCHOOL)

Heng Joe Shen (DIMENSION HIGH SCHOOL)

Heng Joe Shen (DIMENSION HIGH SCHOOL)

Example of exothermic reaction is combustion, corrosion of

Heng Joe Shen (DIMENSION HIGH SCHOOL)

Heng Joe Shen (DIMENSION HIGH SCHOOL)

Heng Joe Shen (DIMENSION HIGH SCHOOL)

Heng Joe Shen (DIMENSION HIGH SCHOOL)

Heng Joe Shen (DIMENSION HIGH SCHOOL)

This is the change in

Heng Joe Shen (DIMENSION HIGH SCHOOL)

Heng Joe Shen (DIMENSION HIGH SCHOOL)

Heng Joe Shen (DIMENSION HIGH SCHOOL)

Heng Joe Shen (DIMENSION HIGH SCHOOL)

Heng Joe Shen (DIMENSION HIGH SCHOOL)

Heng Joe Shen (DIMENSION HIGH SCHOOL)

Heng Joe Shen (DIMENSION HIGH SCHOOL)

Heng Joe Shen (DIMENSION HIGH SCHOOL)

Heng Joe Shen (DIMENSION HIGH SCHOOL)

Heng Joe Shen (DIMENSION HIGH SCHOOL)

Heng Joe Shen (DIMENSION HIGH SCHOOL)

Heng Joe Shen (DIMENSION HIGH SCHOOL)