2 Physical Chemistry 20n

Slide
SECTION 2:
PHYSICAL
CHEMISTRY
Heng Joe Shen (DIMENSION HIGH SCHOOL)

Slide 2
TOPICS LAYOUT
Chapter 4 – Electricity and Chemistry
Chapter 5 – Chemical energetics
Chapter 6 – Chemical reactions
Chapter 7 – Acids, Bases and Salts
We would start with Chapter 7, then Chapter 6

(REDOX), then Chapter 4, 5 and 6.

Slide 3
O-LEVEL
Chemistry of reactions
Chapter 11: Acids and bases
Chapter 12: Salts
Chapter 13: Oxidation and reduction
Chapter 15: Electrolysis
Chapter 17: Energy changes
Chapter 18: Speed of reaction

Slide 4
CHAPTER 4
Electrochemistry
4.1 Electrolysis
4.2 Application of electrolysis
4.3 Electrochemical reaction

Slide 5
LESSON OBJECTIVES
1. Define electrolysis, describe the electrode products and the
observations made during the electrolysis
2. State the general principle that metals or hydrogen are formed at
the negative electrode (cathode), and that non-metals (other than
hydrogen) are formed at the positive electrode (anode)
3. Describe electrolysis in terms of the ions present and reactions at
the electrodes in the examples given
4. Relate the products of electrolysis to the electrolyte and electrodes
used; and Predict the products of the electrolysis of specified
binary compound in molten state and halide in aqueous solution
5. Construct ionic half-equations for reactions at the cathode
Simulation
Video 2.1: Electrolysis
Slide 6
4 ELECTRICITY AND CHEMISTRY
1. Electrolytic cell
• Electrolytic cell is the cell where electrolysis takes place.
• Electrolysis is the process of breaking down an ionic compound,
molten or in aqueous solution, by the passage of electricity
(Electro = electricity, lysis = break down)
• Electrolyte is the molten or aqueous ionic compound which
undergoes electrolysis. This is because ions are free to move in
these states.

Slide 7
1. Electrolytic cell
• Electrodes are the pieces of carbon or metal which are placed in
the electrolyte and connected to a DC power source.
• PANIC (Positive is Anode, Negative is Cathode).

Slide 8
2. Electrolysis
• In external circuit, electrons flow from positive terminal to
negative terminal of battery.
• Within the electrolyte, the flow of ions towards the electrodes
constitutes the flow of electric current.
• Anions go to Anode, while Cations go to Cathode.
Electrical In metals
In electrolyte
conduction or graphite
Flow of
Method Movement of ions
electrons
Electrolyte
Effect of Chemically
decomposed to form
conduction unchanged
new substance
Slide 9
2. Electrolysis
• Anions give up electrons and oxidised at anode. Thus, non-
metals are discharged and formed.
• Cations receive electrons and reduced at the cathode. Thus, metal
or hydrogen are discharged and formed.

Slide 10
Sodium
chloride
solution

Slide 11
Electrolyte: PbBr2 (l) NaCl (aq)

Ions present: Pb2+ Br– Na+ Cl– H+ OH–
Cathode: Pb2+ Na+ H+
Anode: Br– Cl– OH–

Video 2.1.1
Slide 12
3. Factors affecting selective discharge: type of electrolytes

Electrolyte 1 Electrolyte 2
Electrode Carbon Carbon
Electrolyte PbBr (l) NaCl (aq)
+ – + –
Ions present Pb2+ Br– Na Cl H OH
+ +
Cathode Pb2+ Na H
– –
Anode Br– Cl OH
Cathode Pb2+ (l) + 2 e– → Pb (l) 2 H+ (aq) + 2 e– → H2 (g)
–
– – 4 OH (aq) → O2 (g) + 2 H2O
Anode 2 Br (l) → Br2 (g) + 2 e –
(l) + 4 e

Reactivity series Electrochemical series Slide 13
Reactivity Element
Most reactive Potassium
Sodium
Calcium
Magnesium
Aluminium
Carbon
Zinc
Iron
Tin
Lead
Hydrogen
Copper
Silver
Least reactive Gold Heng Joe Shen (DIMENSION HIGH SCHOOL)
Reactivity Element Mnemonic 1 Mnemonic 2 Slide 14
Most reactive Potassium Please Please

Sodium Stop Send
Calcium Calling Cats
Magnesium Me Monkeys
Aluminium A And
Carbon Cute
Zinc Zebra Zebras
Iron Instead Into
Tin Try The
Lead Learning Lovely
Hydrogen How Hot
Copper Copper Countries
Silver Saves Signed
Least reactive Gold Gold General
Slide 15
3. Factors affecting selective discharge: concentration
Electrode Carbon Carbon
Electrolyte Conc. Pb(NO3)2 (aq) Conc. NaCl (aq)
+ – + –
Ions present Pb2+ NO3– H+ OH– Na Cl H OH
+ +
Cathode Pb2+ H+ Na H
– –
Anode NO3 – OH– Cl OH
Cathode 2 H+ (aq) + 2 e– → H2 (g) 2 H+ (aq) + 2 e– → H2 (g)
–
4 OH (aq) → O2 (g) + 2 – –
Anode – 2 Cl (aq) → Cl2 (g) + 2 e
H2O (l) + 4 e

Slide 16
3. Factors affecting selective discharge: type of electrodes
Electrode Carbon (graphite) Copper
Electrolyte CuSO4 (aq) CuSO4 (aq)
2+ 2– + –
Ions present Cu2+ SO42– H+ OH– Cu SO4 H OH
Cathode Cu2+ H+ Cu2+ H+
Anode SO42– OH– SO42– OH–
2+ –
Cathode Cu2+ (aq) + 2e– → Cu (s) Cu (aq) + 2e → Cu (s)
–
4 OH (aq) → O2 (g) + 2 2+ –
Anode – Cu (s) → Cu (aq) + 2e
H2O (l) + 4 e

Slide 17
Summary of the three factors
Product at Product at
Electrolyte Electrode
cathode anode
1 PbCl2 (l) Graphite Pb (l) Cl2 (g)
NaCl (aq) Graphite H2 (g) O2 (g)
2 Dilute NaCl (aq) Graphite H2 (g) O2 (g)
Concentrated NaCl (aq) Graphite H2 (g) Cl2 (g)
3 CuCl2 (aq) Graphite Cu (s) O2 (g)
CuCl2 (aq) Copper Cu (s) Cu dissolves

Type of Slide 18
electrolyte
Aqueous
Molten, XY (l)
solution, XY (aq)
Type of
Inert Type of X
Anode
Type of Y
Reactive H+, Na+ Cu2+ or
or K+ ions Ag+ ions
Cl- , Br- SO42- or Anode: Cathode:

or I- ions NO3- ions Y2 X
Anode: Anode: Anode Cathode: Cathode:

Y2 O2 dissolves HHeng
2 Joe Shen
X (DIMENSION HIGH SCHOOL)
Slide 19
Carbon Copper
NaCl (aq) Conc. NaCl (aq) Heng Joe

CuCl Shen (DIMENSION
2 (aq) HIGH
CuCl SCHOOL)
2 (aq)
Slide
PRACTICE 4.1
1. Name the parts shown.
D.C.
1
current
Positive
+ -
3
Anode 2
Electrodes Negative
4
Cathode
Aqueous / molten
5
salt

Slide 21
PRACTICE 4.1
2. Complete the table.
Electrolyte Half equation
A Molten sodium chloride Anion:
Cation:
B Aqueous hydrochloric acid Anion:
Cation:
C Dilute zinc hydroxide Anion:
Cation:
D Molten potassium bromide Anion:
Cation:
E Aqueous silver nitrate Anion:
Cation:

Electrolyte Half equationSlide 22
F Concentrated magnesium nitrate Anion:
Cation:
G Aqueous calcium (II) fluoride Anion:
Cation:
H Molten lead sulfide Anion:
Cation:
I Concentrated sodium chloride Anion:
Cation:
J Dilute iron (II) sulfate solution Anion:
Cation:
Concentrated copper (II)
K Anion:
bromide
Cation:
L Molten aluminium oxide Anion:
Cation:
Slide 23
PRACTICE 4.1
Earl & Wilford (2014)
3. Explain why solid lithium chloride is a nonconductor of
electricity, whereas molten lithium chloride and lithium chloride
solution are good conductors of electricity.
4. A student carries out the electrolysis of molten lead (II) iodide in
a fume cupboard.
a) Draw a diagram to show a suitable apparatus the student could
use to carry out this experiment.
b) Write anode and cathode reactions to represent the processes
taking place during the electrolysis.
c) Why does this experiment need to be carried out in a
fume cupboard?
d) Find uses for the anode product of this cell.
Slide 24
5. The diagram was used to investigate the gases produced when a
concentrated KCl was electrolysed.
a) Name a non-metal suitable for use as electrodes.

b) Write down the equations which describe the production of the
gases at the electrodes in A and B.
c) Describe how you would test the gases collected.
d) In what ratio would you expect these gases to be produced?
e) The volume of gas collected in A was slightly less than that
collected in B. The teacher said the volumes should have been
equal but gave a simple explanation of the ‘missing’ gas in A.
Explain. (Assume apparatus was working perfectly).
Slide 25
EXERCISE
• Tan & Chen (2000) – Page 6
• Sunley & Goodman (2014) – Page 108, 115 & 117

Slide 26
LESSON OBJECTIVES
1. Describe the transfer of charge during electrolysis
2. Describe and outline the uses of electroplating of metals
3. Describe in outline, the extraction of aluminium from bauxite
including the role of cryolite and the reactions at the
electrodes
4. Describe the manufacture of: aluminium from pure
aluminium oxide AND chlorine, hydrogen and sodium
hydroxide from concentrated aqueous sodium chloride
Video 2.1.2: Electrolysis of brine

Slide 27
• Application
i) Extraction of reactive metals (e.g. Al from bauxite)
ii) Purification of metal
iii) Electroplating is the process of depositing a layer of metal on
another substance using electrolysis.
iv) Production of NaOH and Cl

Slide 28
Extraction of aluminium
• Bauxite: Al2O3(l)
• At the cathode (- electrode)
Al3+ (l) + 3 e- → Al (l)
• At the anode (+ electrode)
2 O2- (l) → O2 (g) + 4 e-
• Since it is at high temperature,
the anode would burns off.
C (s) + O2 (g) → CO2 (g)
• Why must it be in liquid form?

• Why not aqueous state?
• What are the two allotropes of carbon?
Slide 29
Purification
• Electrolyte: Copper salt
Cu2+ (aq) + 2 e- → Cu (s)
Cu (s) → Cu2+ (aq) + 2 e-
.
Compare with using carbon as electrode
Cu2+ (aq) + 2 e- → Cu (s)
4 OH- (aq) → O2 (g) + 2 H2O (l) + 4 e-
Slide 30
Electroplating
• Electrolyte: Copper salt
Cu2+ (aq) + 2 e- → Cu (s)
Cu (s) → Cu2+ (aq) + 2 e-

Video 2.1.2
Slide 31
5 ELECTRICITY
Production of NaOH, Cl2 and H2
• Brine is concentrated NaCl. The ions presents are: Na+ H+ Cl- OH-
• At the cathode (- electrode): 2H+ (aq) + 2 e- → H2 (g)
• At the anode (+electrode): 2 Cl- (aq) → Cl2 (g) + 2 e-
• At the end, the remaining ions are Heng
sodium hydroxide: Na + OH-
Joe Shen (DIMENSION HIGH SCHOOL)
Slide 32
Cl2 H2
Na+ NaOH
NaCl
Cl – OH –
H2O

Slide 33
PRACTICE 4.2
1. During the electrolysis of molten aluminium oxide (Al2O3) the
carbon anodes are burned away. Explain why this should happen
and write balanced chemical equations for the reactions.
2. Concentrated sodium chloride can be electrolysed using inert
electrodes.
a) Why is it advantageous to use inert electrodes in the electrolysis?
b) Predict the products at the anode and cathode.
c) Describe a test for the gas produced at each of the electrode
respectively. Explain what would be observed in the tests.
d) Explain the difference if molten sodium chloride is electrolysed
using inert electrode instead.

Slide 34
PRACTICE 4.2
3. Copper is purified by electrolysis.
Some dilute sulfuric acid is added into
the electrolyte.
a) Identify A, B, C and D.
b) Write half-equations for the reactions which take place.
c) Draw a labelled diagram to show the cell after electrolysis has
taken place.
d) Why has electrolyte C to be acidified with dilute sulfuric acid?
e) Why does copper have to be 99.99% pure for use in electrical
cables?

Slide 35
PRACTICE 4.2
4. Electrolysis of impure aluminium oxide is used to extract
aluminium in the industry.
a) Why is it necessary to melt the aluminium oxide?
b) Suggest why cryolite has to be added to aluminium oxide.
c) Melting point of pure aluminium is 660oC and bauxite is around
2072oC. After addition of cryolite, the melting point decreases to
1010oC. Explain why it is important to recycle aluminium.
d) Construct half-equations for the reaction at the electrode.
e) Name two allotropes of carbon. Identify the allotrope used to
make the carbon electrodes. Justify your answer.
f) Explain why it is necessary to replace the carbon anode regularly.
g) Suppose 1478 kg of aluminium was extracted from 4220 kg of
bauxite and that the yield of aluminium from aluminium oxide
was 90.5 %. Calculate percentageHeng
purity
Joeof this(DIMENSION
Shen batch of HIGH
bauxite.
SCHOOL)
Slide 36
PRACTICE 4.2
5. An element E is soft and conducts electricity. It is highly reactive
and reacts readily with water. Its chloride form, ECl, occurs
naturally and dissolves readily in water.
a) State the ions formed when ECl dissolves in water. Hence, state
the Group number of Periodic Table to which E belongs to.
b) Oxide of E reacts violently with water, forming an aqueous
hydroxide solution. Write the balanced chemical equation.
c) When 2.40 g of the oxide of E reacted with water, 2.86 g of the
soluble hydroxide is formed. Calculate the relative atomic mass,
RAM of E.
d) Using periodic table, identify E.
e) Briefly explained how E can be extracted from ECl.

Slide 37
EXERCISE
• Tan & Chen (2000) – Page 6
• Sunley & Goodman (2014) – Page 120

Slide 38
LESSON OBJECTIVES
1. Describe production of electrical energy from simple cells
2. Describe the use of hydrogen as a fuel reacting with oxygen
to generate electricity in a fuel cell (6.2).
Simulation
Video 2.1.3: Fuel cell

Slide 39
5. Simple electrochemical cell (Electric / Galvanic / Voltaic)
• Simple cell is a device that converts chemical energy into
electrical energy.
It is made by placing two different metals in contact with an
electrolyte.
The more reactive metal (negative) would donate electrons to the
less reactive metal (positive).
Example
• Zn and Cu cell
Zn would give electrons to Cu2+
• Mg and Cu cell
Mg would give electron to Cu2+
Slide 40
• The potential difference produced can be measured using a
voltmeter.
• The amount of electrical energy produced is determined by how
far apart the metals in the reactivity series.
• A membrane / barrier or salt bridge is used to prevent mixing of
the two different electrolytes.
Example:
Zinc-copper battery: 1.10 V
Magnesium-copper battery: 2.72 V

Slide 41
Zn (s)
Cu2+ (aq)

Electrochemical cell Electrolytic cell Slide 42
Reaction Oxidation at anode and reduction at cathode.
Electrons Move from anode to cathode in the external circuit
The two half-cells are set up Both the electrodes are
in different containers, being placed in a same container in
Set up
connected through the salt the solution of molten
bridge or porous partition. electrolyte.
Spontaneous and is Not spontaneous and
Redox
responsible for production of electrical energy has to be
reaction
electrical energy. supplied.
Energy
Chemical to electrical Electrical to chemical
conversion
Electrode Must be different Same (or different)
Anode is positive and
Anode and Anode is negative and
cathode is the negative
Cathode cathode is positive electrode.
electrode.
Electrons Electrons are supplied by the The external battery supplies
source Heng Joe Shen the
species getting oxidized. (DIMENSION HIGH SCHOOL)
electrons.
Slide 43
6. Fuel cell
• Fuels are substances that produce energy.
• Fuel cell is a chemical cell in which the reactants are
continuously supplied to produce electricity directly.
• Unlike battery, the reactants are not contained within the cell but
instead are continuously supplied from an external reservoir.

Slide 44
• At the cathode (- electrode) • Overall equation

H2 (g) → 2 H+ (aq) + 2 e – 2 H2 (g) + O2 (g) → 2 H2O (g)
O2 (g) + 2 e – → O2–
Video 2.1.3
Slide 45
EXTRA FACTS!
Fuel Hydrogen Petrol
• Renewable energy resource
• Cheap and easily
• No carbon dioxide or sulfur
available
Pros dioxide emission
• Small fuel tank due
• Efficient and produces a large
to high density
amount of energy
• Expensive
• Larger storage or fuel tank is • Non-renewable
Cons required due to smaller density • Produces pollutants
• Has to be compressed and stored
safely

Slide 46

Slide 47
PRACTICE 5.3
Heyworth (2010)
A HCl B PbBr2 C CuCl2 Heng D

JoeCuBr
Shen (DIMENSION HIGH SCHOOL)
2
Slide 48
PRACTICE 5.3

Slide 49
PRACTICE 4.3
Metal A Metal B
Solution of Am+ Solution of Bn+

A B Electron flow Equation at anode Equation at cathode
A Zn2+ Cu2+ A to B
B Cu2+ Mg2+
2+ 3+
C Pb Fe
2+ 2+
D Zn Sn
+
E Cu2+ Ag
F Fe2+ Br2
G KMnO4 KI Heng Joe Shen (DIMENSION HIGH SCHOOL)
Slide 50
PRACTICE 4.3
Heyworth (2010)
2. Diagram shows a simple cell to produce electricity.
a) Suggest a suitable substance which can be used as the solution.
b) Label the negative electrode in the cell.
c) Write an half equations for the reaction at each electrode.
d) What would be the effect on the voltmeter reading if the following
changes were made in the apparatus:
i. Zinc was used in place of magnesium
ii. Copper was used in place of magnesium
iii. Silver was used in place of copper
Slide 51
PRACTICE 4.3
3. Table shows the reading on the voltmeter when the different metal
were used in turn.
a) Rank the metal in decreasing order of reactivity.
b) Which two metals, among the five would produce the largest
voltage reading?
c) Explain why deionised water is not used as the electrolyte.
d) Write the half-equations and ionic equation when metal A and B is
used as the electrode. Heng Joe Shen (DIMENSION HIGH SCHOOL)
Slide 52
PRACTICE 4.3
4. A student wanted to purify a piece of impure copper. The apparatus
was set up as shown.
a) Correct two mistakes in the set-up.
b) Write two half-equations for the correct set-up.
c) Initial mass of pure and impure copper are 15 g and 25 g
respectively. After some time, mass of impure copper is 21.5 g.
Sketch a graph showing how both masses changes with time.
d) What would be observed on electrodes?
e) If both electrodes are changed to graphite,
write the half-equation at anode.

Slide 53
5. Study the following scheme.
a) Name and state formulae of A to F.
b) Write balanced chemical equations for the
reactions in which:
i. Black solid A was formed,
ii. C and B were formed,
iii. Colourless solution D was formed.
c) Write anode and cathode reactions for the
processes which take place during the
electrolysis of molten D.
d) Suggest a use for:
i. Brown solid B
ii. Silvery metal E
iii. Green gas F.
Slide 54
EXERCISE
• Tan & Chen (2000) – Page 6
• Sunley & Goodman (2014) – Page 124 & 126

Slide 55
CHAPTER 5
Chemical energetics
5.1 Energetics of reaction
5.2 Energy transfer

Slide 56
LESSON OBJECTIVES
1. Describe the meaning of exothermic and endothermic
reactions
2. Describe the release of heat energy by burning fuels
3. Describe radioactive isotopes as source of energy
4. Interpret, draw and label energy level diagrams showing
exothermic and endothermic reactions

Slide 57
5 CHEMICAL ENERGETICS
1. Energy changes
• Energy cannot be created nor destroyed, but it can change from
one form to another.
• All chemical reaction involves energy change.
• This is because it involves bond breaking before new bonds can
be formed.

Slide 58
2. Exothermic reaction
• Exothermic reaction is reaction that gives out heat to the
surrounding.
• Since the energy out is more than energy in, there is net energy
going out.
• The energy absorbed for bond breaking is less than the energy
absorbed in bond making.
• Temperature of the reaction mixture rises
• Examples: Dissolving anhydrous salts, neutralisation, diluting
concentrated acids, combustion, corrosion of metals and
respiration

Slide 59
2. Maximum temperature reached,
Temperature (°C)
reaction is completed.
maximum temperature
1. Temperature rises to 3. Temperature
a maximum as drops to room
reaction takes place. temperature.
room temperature
0 Time (min)
Example of exothermic reaction is combustion, corrosion of

metal dissolving anhydrous salt, neutralization and respiration.
Slide 60
3. Endothermic reaction
• Endothermic reaction is reaction that absorbs heat from the
surrounding.
• Since the energy out is less than energy in, there is net energy
going in.
• The energy released for bond breaking is more than the energy
absorbed in bond making.
• Temperature of the mixture falls.
• Examples: Dissolving certain ionic compound in water, thermal
decomposition, photosynthesis and action of light on silver
bromide in photographic film.

Slide 61
Temperature (°C)
room temperature
1. Temperature drops
to a minimum as
3. Temperature
reaction takes place.
rises to room
temperature.
minimum temperature
Time (min)
2. Minimum temperature reached,
reaction is completed.
Example of endothermic reaction is dissolving certain ionic
compound (e.g. NH4Cl or Na2CO3), thermal decomposition and
photosynthesis. Heng Joe Shen (DIMENSION HIGH SCHOOL)
Slide 62
4. Enthalpy change, ∆H
• Enthalpy change is the difference in energy content of the
reactants and products.
The unit is kJ or kJ/mol.
• ∆H = energy in to break bonds – energy out to make bonds
∆H = total energy in the product – total energy in the reactant
• Energy level diagram shows the energy changes in a reaction.

Slide 63
5. Bonds
• Bond breaking requires energy being absorbed from surrounding.
Bond breaking is endothermic.
• Bond making requires energy being released to the surrounding.
Bond making is exothermic.
• In chemical reactions, both bond breaking (in reactants) and bond
making (to form products) occurs during chemical reactions.
• In exothermic reaction, ∆H bond breaking < ∆H bond forming.
• In endothermic reaction, ∆H bond breaking > ∆H bond forming.

Slide 64
PRACTICE 5.1
1. Explain the meaning of the terms endothermic and exothermic.
2. State which of the following processes is endothermic and which
is exothermic.
a) Combustion f) Respiration
b) Gas to liquid g) Rusting
c) Solid to liquid h) Sublimation
d) Neutralisation i) Breaking of a chemical bond
e) Photosynthesis j) Forming of a chemical bond

Slide 65
PRACTICE 5.1
3. NaOH reacts with HCl as shown.
NaOH (aq) + HCl (aq) → NaCl (aq) + H2O (l) ∆H = –57 kJ/mol
a) Is this reaction endothermic or exothermic?
b) Draw an energy level diagram for the reaction.
c) Calculate the energy change associated with this reaction if 2
moles of sodium hydroxide were neutralised by excess
hydrochloric acid.
4. Water can be electrolyzed as show in the reaction.
2 H2O (l) → 2 H2 (g) + O2 (g) ∆H = +575 kJ/mol
a) Is this endothermic or exothermic?
b) Draw an energy profile diagram for the reaction.
c) Calculate the energy change for this reaction if only 9 g of water
were converted into hydrogen and oxygen.
Slide 66
LESSON OBJECTIVES
1. Describe bond breaking and bond forming process
2. Interpret, draw and label energy profile diagrams showing
exothermic and endothermic reactions

Slide 67
5 CHEMICAL ENERGETICS Level B
Level A
This is the change in

energy level before
and after the reaction
Level C

Slide 68

Slide 69

Slide 70
5. Energy profile diagram
• Energy profile diagram shows the enthalpy change and
activation energy of a reaction.
• Activation energy, Ea is the minimum amount of energy
required for a reaction to occur. A reaction occur when reactant
particles possess energy equal to or more than the activation
energy.

Slide 71
Level B
Level A
Level C

Slide 72

Slide 73
5. Energy profile diagram
• Energy profile diagram shows the enthalpy change and
activation energy of a reaction.
• Activation energy, Ea is the minimum amount of energy
required for a reaction to occur. A reaction occur when reactant
particles possess energy equal to or more than the activation
energy.

Slide 74
Calorimeter
Q = m x c x (T2 – T1)
Q = heat
In Science, before SI
unit is invented,
there is a unit called
Imperial / English
unit.
Enclose the
calorimeter in a
sealed container.
Put a lid on the copper
can.
Cover the can with
Heng Joe Shencotton
(DIMENSION
wool.HIGH SCHOOL)
Slide 75
Reaction Exothermic Endothermic
Energy content of the reactants is Energy content of the products is
Energy greater than the energy content of greater than the energy content of
content the products the reactants
Bond breaking < bond forming Bond breaking > bond forming
∆H Negative Positive
Heat flow Given out to surroundings Absorbed from the surroundings
Temperature Increase in the mixture Decrease in the mixture
Condensation, freezing, Evaporation, melting and
Physical
dissolving anhydrous salts and dissolving of some ionic
process
acids compounds (KCl or NH4Cl)
Combustion, respiration, Photosynthesis, thermal
Chemical
neutralisation and corrosion of decomposition and
reactions
metals photochemical reaction of AgBr

Slide 76
PRACTICE 5.2
1. Calculate ∆H.
a) H2 + F2 → 2 HF
b) N2 + O2 → 2 NO
c) I2 + Cl2 → 2 ICl
d) H2 + Cl2 → 2 HCl
e) 2 H2 + O2 → 2 H2O
f) C3H6 + Br2 → C3H6Br2
g) C3H8 + Cl2 → C3H7Cl + HCl

Slide 77
PRACTICE 5.2
1. Calculate ∆H.
h) 2 NH3 → N2 + 3 H2
i) C4H8 + H2 → C4H10
j) CH4 + 2 O2 → CO2 + 2 H2O
k) NH3 + 3 Cl2 → NCl3 + 3 HCl
l) C3H8 + 5 O2 → 3 CO2 + 4 H2O
m) C2H5OH + 3 O2 → 2 CO2 + 3 H2O
n) 2 H2O2 → 2 H2O + O2

Slide 78
PRACTICE 5.2
2. Nitrogen reacts with hydrogen to form ammonia.
N2 (g) + 3 H2 (g) → 2 NH3 (g) ∆H = –92 kJ/mol
a) Is this reaction endothermic or exothermic?
b) Explain the temperature change in the surrounding.
c) Which bonds are broken and which bonds are formed?
d) Which energy change is larger, bond breaking or bond forming?
Explain.
e) Draw the energy profile diagram for the reaction.
f) Calculate the energy change when 0.56 g of nitrogen reacts
completely with excess hydrogen.

Slide 79
EXERCISE
• Tan & Chen (2000) – Page 6
• Sunley & Goodman (2014) – Page 129, 130, 131, 134, 139 &
141

Slide 80
CHAPTER 6
Chemical reactions
6.1 Redox (O level Chapter 13)
6.2 Rate of reaction (O level Chapter 18)
6.3 Reversible reaction (O level Chapter 19)

Slide 81
2 Na + Cl2 → 2 NaCl , ∆H < 0 (exothermic)
NaCl (l) → 2 Na + Cl2 , ∆H > 0 (we supply electrical
energy) electrolysis
Chemically FEASIBLE (possible)
Economically NOT feasible.
2 Na + Cl2 → 2 NaCl takes about few seconds
Plant a mango seed to form mango

It takes 2 to 3 years to grow.
Dead animals → Petroleum

It takes a high pressure and 1 million years

Slide 82
LESSON OBJECTIVES
1. Define redox in terms of oxygen loss/gain
2. Define redox in terms of electron transfer

Slide 83
6 CHEMICAL REACTIONS
1. Redox (= Reduction + Oxidation)
• Redox reaction is a chemical reaction which involves the
oxidation of a substance and reduction of another substance.
• Both oxidation and reduction always take place together.
• Oxidation is the process where a substance increases its
oxidation state after a reaction. There is also a gain of oxygen,
loses in hydrogen or loses in electrons.
• Reduction is the process where a substance decreases its
oxidation state after a reaction. There is also loses in oxygen,
gain of hydrogen or gain of electrons.
• Just like acid and alkali, the traditional concept is that acid
always produce H+ ions and alkali produces OH– ions.
• You must have heard about the word “oxidized” before. For
example, the apple has been oxidized.
Slide 84
i) Gain or loss of oxygen
Oxidation Reduction
Oxidized means Reduced means
Process
gain of oxygen loss of oxygen
Mg (s) + H2O (g) → Mg gains oxygen. H loses oxygen.
MgO (s) + H2 (g) Mg is oxidized. H is reduced.
Zn (s) + CuO (s) → Zn gains oxygen. Cu loses oxygen.
ZnO (s) + Cu (s) Zn is oxidized. Cu is reduced.
Fe2O3 (s) + 3 CO (g) → C gains oxygen. Fe loses oxygen.
2 Fe (l) + 3 CO2 (g) C is oxidized. Fe is reduced.
2 Ca (s) + O2 (g) → Ca gains oxygen.
O is reduced.
2 CaO (s) Ca is oxidized.
S (s) + O2 (g) → S gains oxygen. S
O is reduced.
SO2 (g). is oxidized.
Slide 85
ii) Gain or loss of hydrogen
Oxidation Reduction
Oxidized means Reduced means
Process
loss of hydrogen. gain of hydrogen.
H2S (g) + Cl2 (g) → S loses hydrogen. Cl gain hydrogen.
2 HCl (g) + S (s). S is oxidized. Cl is reduced.
H2 (g) + Cl2 (g) → Cl gain hydrogen.
H is oxidized.
2 HCl (g). Cl is reduced.
N2 (g) + 3 H2 (g) → N gain hydrogen.
H is oxidized.
2 NH3 (g). N is reduced.

Slide 86
iii) Gain or loss of electrons
Oxidation Reduction
Oxidized means loss Reduced means
Process
of electrons. gain of electrons.
Mg → Mg2+ + 2 e– Mg loses electron. Cu gains electron.
Cu2+ + 2 e– → Cu Mg is oxidized. Cu is reduced.
Fe2+ → Fe3+ + e– Fe loses electron. Cr gains electron.
Cr6+ + 3 e– → Cr3+ Fe is oxidized. Cr is reduced.
2 S2O32– → S4O62– + 2 e– 2 32–
S O loses electron. Mn gains electron.
MnO4 + 8 H + 5 e →
– + – 2–
2+
SO
2 3 is oxidized. Mn is reduced.
Mn + 4 H2O

Slide 87
iv) Increased or decreased in oxidation state
Oxidation Reduction
Increased in Decreased in oxidation
Process
oxidation state. state.
Sodium metal to Chlorine gas to chloride
sodium ions, ions,
+ –
2 Na + Cl2 → 2 NaCl Na → Na Cl → Cl
(0 → +1) (0 → –1)
Na is oxidized. Cl is reduced.
Iron (II) ions to Manganate (VII) ions to
5 Fe2+ + MnO4– + 8 H+ Iron (III) ions, Manganate (II) ions,
2+ 3+ 7+ 2+
→ 5 Fe3++ Mn2+ + Fe → Fe Mn → Mn
4 H2O (+2 → +3) (+7 → +2)
Fe is oxidized. Mn is reduced.
Slide 88
• Half-equations represent reduction and oxidation respectively.
• The two half-equations combined to provide overall ionic
equation.
1. Word: Beryllium + hydrochloric acid → beryllium chloride +
hydrogen
2. Chemical: Be (s) + 2 HCl (aq) → BeCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)
Be (s) + 2 H+ + 2 Cl- → Be 2+ + 2 Cl- + H2 (g)
3. Ionic: Be (s) + 2 H+ (aq) → Be2+ (aq) + H2 (g)
4. Half-equation
Oxidation: Be → Be2+ + 2 e– . Be is oxidized.
Reduction: 2 H+ + 2 e– → H2 . H is reduced.
Proton, p. Neutron, n and electron, e.

Slide 89
• Redox reaction involves electron transfer.
• Neutralisation and precipitation reactions involves proton
transfer and ion exchange, thus they are not redox reaction.
Mg + HCl → MgCl2 + H2
MgO + 2 HCl → MgCl2 + H2O
Mg(OH)2 + 2 HCl → MgCl2 + 2 H2O
MgCl2 + AgNO3 → Mg(NO3)2 + AgCl (s)
KMnO4 + HCl
Reaction Reduction Oxidation
Oxygen Loss Gain
Hydrogen Gain Loss
Electrons Gain Loss
Oxidation state Decreases Heng JoeIncreases
Slide 90
PRACTICE 6.1
1. State the oxidation and reduction in the following reaction.
a) 2 CuO (s) + C (s) → 2 Cu (s) + CO2 (g)
b) Fe2O3 (s) + 3 CO (g) → 2 Fe (s) + 3 CO2 (g)
c) 2 Mg (s) + CO2 (g) → 2 MgO (s) + C (s)
d) Fe (s) + CuO (s) → FeO (s) + Cu (s)
e) SiO2 (s) + C (s) → Si (s) + CO2 (g)
f) CH4 (s) + 2 O2 (g) → CO2 (g) + 2 H2O (l)
Reaction Reduction Oxidation

Oxygen Loss Gain
Hydrogen Gain Loss
Electrons Gain Loss
Oxidation state Decreases Heng JoeIncreases
Slide 91
PRACTICE 6.1
2. Write the ionic and half-equations for the following:
a) Iron (s) + Nitric acid (aq)
b) Magnesium (s) + Sulfuric acid (aq)
c) Lithium (s) + Phosphoric acid (aq)
d) Zinc (s) + copper (II) chloride (aq)
e) Barium (s) + Magnesium nitrate (aq)
f) Caesium iodide (aq) + Bromine (l) → Caesium bromide (aq) +
iodine (l)
g) Magnesium astatide (aq) + Chlorine (g) → Magnesium chloride
(aq) + Astatine (s)
h) Francium chloride (aq) + Fluorine (g) → Francium fluoride +
Chlorine (g)

Slide 92
PRACTICE 6.1
3. Combining two half-equations.
Reduction Oxidation Ionic equation

A Ni2+ + 2 e– → Ni Li → Li+ + e–
B 2 H+ + 2 e– → H2 Al → Al3+ + 3 e–
C Cl2 + 2 e– → 2 Cl– Fe2+ → Fe3+ + e–
D Hg2+ + 2 e– → Hg 2 S2O32– → S4O62– + 2 e–
3 H++ NO3– + 2 e– → 3 H2O + I– → IO3– + 6 H+ +
E 6 e–
HNO2 + H2O
MnO4– + 8 H+ + 5 e– → Fe → Fe3+ + 3 e–
F
Mn2+ + 4 H2O
Cr2O72– + 14 H+ + 6 e– 2 Br– → Br2 + 2 e–
G
→ 2 Cr3+ + 7 H2O

Slide 93
PRACTICE 6.1
4. Write the half-equations, then the ionic for the following:
a) Hydrogen peroxide and potassium iodide to water and iodine
H2O2 + 2 H+ + 2 e– → 2 H2O
b) KMnO4 and Na2S2O3 to Chromiun (III) ions

Slide 94
LESSON OBJECTIVES
1. Identify redox reaction by changes in oxidation state and
colour changes
2. Define and identify oxidising and reducing agent from simple
equations

Slide 95
2. Oxidation state
• Oxidation state is the charge an atom of an element would have
if it existed as an ion in a compound e.g. Na2O (Na = +1, O = –2)
• This is true even if the atom is covalently bonded e.g. H2O
i) Oxidation state of a free element is zero (e.g. Na, H2, N2 or O2,).
ii) Oxidation state of a simple ion is the same as charge on the ion.
iii) Fixed oxidation state for Group I, II, H and O.
Exception for H with group I, NaH (Na = +1, H = – 1)
Exception O in H2O2. (H = +1, O = –1)
iv) Oxidation states of all the atoms in a compound add up to zero.
v) Sum of oxidation number of all the atoms in a polyatomic ion is
the same as the charge on the polyatomic ion (e.g. SO42–).
Slide 96
3. Oxidising and reducing agent
• Oxidising agent is a substance that causes another substance to
be oxidised by giving oxygen, removing hydrogen or accepting
electrons. The agent is reduced at the end of reaction.
• Reducing agent is a substance that causes another substance to
be reduced by removing oxygen, giving hydrogen or donating
electrons. The agent is oxidised at the end of reaction.
• Test for oxidising agent: Add aqueous potassium iodide, KI to
the unknown solution. A brown solution is formed where iodide
is oxidised to iodine.
• Test for reducing agent: Add acidified potassium
manganate(VII), KMnO4 to the unknown solution. The solution
turns from purple to colourless.
MnO4– (aq) + 8 H+ (aq) + 5 e– →Heng
MnJoe
2+ (aq) + 4 H O (l)
Shen (DIMENSION
2 HIGH SCHOOL)
Slide 97
Identifying Oxidising and Reducing Agents
Cl2 (g) + H2S (g) → 2 HCl (g) + S (s)
• Cl2 has gained hydrogen. • H2S has lost hydrogen.

• Cl2 has been reduced. • H2S has been oxidised.
• It has oxidised H2S to S. • It has reduced Cl2 to HCl.
Thus, Cl2 is an Thus, H2S is a

oxidising agent. reducing agent.
Slide 98
Agent Reducing agent Oxidising agent
It reduces other It oxidises other
Function
substance. substance.
At the end It is being oxidised. It is being reduced.
Electron It loss electrons. It gains electrons.
Oxidation state Increases Decreases
KMnO4, K2Cr2O7,
CO, H2, H2S, SO2,
Example H2O2, Cl2, Br2, I2,
NH3, KI, metals
Conc. H2SO4, HNO3

Reactivity series Electrochemical series Slide 99
Reactivity Element
Most reactive Potassium
Sodium
Calcium
Magnesium
Aluminium
Carbon
Zinc
Iron
Tin
Lead
Hydrogen
Copper
Silver
Least reactive Gold Heng Joe Shen (DIMENSION HIGH SCHOOL)
Reactivity Element Acronym 1 Acronym 2 Slide100
Most reactive Potassium Please Please

Sodium Stop Send
Calcium Calling Cats
Magnesium Me Monkeys
Aluminium A And
Carbon Cute
Zinc Zebra Zebras
Iron (Fe) Instead Into
Tin (Sn) Try The
Lead (Pb) Learning Lovely
Hydrogen How Hot
Copper Copper Countries
Silver Saves Signed
Least reactive Gold Gold General
Slide101
PRACTICE 6.2
1. Find the oxidation state of element in the following compounds.
Substance Element Oxidation state
a) S S
b) Na2S S
c) MgSO4 S
d) SO2 S
e) HCl Cl
f) NaClO Cl
g) HClO2 Cl
h) HClO3 Cl
i) KClO4 Cl
j) NH3 N Heng Joe Shen (DIMENSION HIGH SCHOOL)
Slide102
PRACTICE 6.2
Substance Element Oxidation state
k) CO2 C
l) CH4 C
m) NaHCO3 C
n) P4O10 P
o) PCl5 P
p) Ca3(PO4)2 P
q) KH2PO3 P
r) NaH2PO4 P
s) MnO2 Mn
t) KMnO4 Mn
u) K2Cr2O7 Cr
Slide103
PRACTICE 6.2
2. State the oxidizing and reducing agent in the following reaction.
a) CH4 (s) + 2 O2 (g) → CO2 (g) + 2 H2O (l)
b) 2 CuO (s) + C (s) → 2 Cu (s) + CO2 (g)
c) Fe2O3 (s) + 3 CO (g) → 2 Fe (s) + 3 CO2 (g)
d) 2 Mg (s) + CO2 (g) → 2 MgO (s) + C (s)
e) SiO2 (s) + C (s) → Si (s) + CO2 (g)
f) Fe (s) + CuO (s) → FeO (s) + Cu (s)
g) 2 H2S (s) + SO2 (g) → 3 S (s) + 2 H2O (l)

Slide104
PRACTICE 6.2
3. In some redox titration, there is a colour change in the substance
before and after reaction.
This remove the need for using indicator.
State the colour change in the following reaction.
Reaction Oxidation / reduction Colour change
A Fe2+ → Fe3+ + e–
B I2 + 2 e– → 2 I–
C Cu2+ + 2 e– → Cu
D 2 Br– → Br2 + 2 e–
MnO4– + 8 H+ + 5 e– →
E
Mn2+ + 4 H2O
Cr2O72– + 14 H+ + 6 e–
F
→ 2 Cr3+ + 7 H2O

Slide105
PRACTICE 6.2
4. What is the volume of 0.016 mol/dm3 KMnO4 required to react
with 20 cm3 of 0.10 mol/dm3 of Na2S2O3?
Reduction: MnO4– + 8 H+ + 5 e – → Mn2+ + 4 H2O
Oxidation: 2 S2O32– → S4O62– + 2 e–
5. 0.42 g of iron ore were dissolved in acid, so that all of the iron
present in the original ore was then present as Fe2+ (aq). The
solution obtained was titrated against 0.04 moldm–3 KMnO4(aq).
The titre was 23.50 cm3. Determine purity of iron in the iron ore.
6. In a titration, 25.00 cm3 of an solution containing Cu+ (aq) ions
was completely oxidised by 15.30 cm3 of 0.001 moldm–3
potassium dichromate (VI) solution. Determine the concentration
of Cu+ (aq) ions.

Slide106
EXERCISE
• Problem attics – Worksheet 6 Redox
• Tan & Chen (2000) – Page 6
• Sunley & Goodman (2014) – Page 172 & 174

Slide107
LESSON OBJECTIVES
1. Identify physical and chemical changes, and understand the
differences between them
2. Devise and evaluate a suitable method for investigating the
effect of a given variable on the rate of a reaction; and
Interpret data obtained from experiments concerned with rate
of reaction
3. Describe and explain the effect of concentration, particle
size, catalysts (including enzymes) and temperature on the
rate of reactions in terms of collisions between reactants
4. Describe the application of the factors in rate of reaction to
the danger of explosive combustion
Video 2.2.1: Rate
Video 2.3.1: Explosion
Slide108
4. Changes
• Physical changes involves changes in display without changing
composition. These includes texture, colour, temperature, shape,
states of matter and other physical properties such as solubility.
• Chemical changes involves changes in composition (and even
mass) when bonds are broken and new ones are formed. These
includes change in colour, temperature and formation of
precipitate, bubbles and noticeable odour.

Slide109
5. Rate of reaction, d/dt
• Rate = Amount / time, Rate = dm/dt or dV/dt
• The amount measured can be the amount of product formed in a
certain time (e.g. volume of hydrogen gas) (unit = cm3/s)
• The amount measured can be the amount of reactant used up in a
certain time (e.g. mass of magnesium) (unit = g/s)
gas syringe
conical flask
dilute
hydrochloric
acid retort stand
magnesium ribbon
stopwatch
Slide110
Time/min 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0
Volume of H2 / cm3 0 10 20 25 30 32 34 35 35 35 35
Volume of hydrogen/cm3
3.5 minutes: Reaction stops
Total volume of H2 produced = 35 cm3
35
30
1−2 minutes:
25 Volume of H2 produced = 30 – 20
= 10 cm3
20
15
0−1 minutes:
10 Volume of H2 produced = 20 cm3
5
0 1 2 3 4 5 Time/min
Slide111
Volume of hydrogen/cm3
• Gradient = 0
• Reaction has stopped
35
30
• Gradient is less steep
25 • Reaction is slowing down
20
15
• Gradient is steep
10 • Reaction is fast
5
0 1 2 3 4 5 Time/min

Slide112
cotton wool
• allows CO2 to escape
thread • prevents acid spray
small test tube conical flask

marble chip dilute hydrochloric acid
shows change in mass
when CO2 escapes from
the flask.

Slide113
Mass of reaction
mixture/g • Gradient is steepest
60 • Reaction is fastest
• Gradient decreases
59 • Reaction is slowing down
58
• Gradient = 0
• Reaction has stopped
57
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Time/min

Slide114
sodium thiosulfate and
hydrochloric acid
conical flask
paper with a
cross
stopwatch
Na2S2O3(aq) + 2HCl(aq) → 2NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) + SO2(g) + S(s)
sodium thiosulfate heated to sulfur precipitate causes

different temperatures solution to turn cloudy

Slide115
6. Collision theory
• Particles must collide with correct orientation and with sufficient
energy (E > EA) for a chemical reaction to occur.
• Effective collision is the collision that results in the formation of
product.

Slide116
6. Collision theory
• There is a risk of explosion when the rate of reaction is too high.
i) In flour mills, the flour particles are tiny, so flour has a very
large surface area. It can also catch fire. In a flour mill, if there is
a lot of flour dust in the air, a spark from a machine could be
enough to cause an explosion.
Red: IGCSE only Heng Joe Shen (DIMENSION HIGH SCHOOL)

Video 2.3.1
Slide117
6. Collision theory
ii) For the same reason, explosions are a risk in wood mills, from
wood dust, and in silos where wheat and other grains are stored.
And in factories that make custard powder, and dried milk. The
dust from all these will burn.
iii) In coal mines, methane (CH4) and other flammable gases collect
in the air. At certain concentrations they form an explosive mix
with the air. A spark is enough to set off an explosion.
Red: IGCSE only Heng Joe Shen (DIMENSION HIGH SCHOOL)

Video 2.2.1
Slide118
7. Factors affecting rate – (1) orientation & (2) energy level
i) Temperature
ii) Particle size / surface area (for solid reactant)
iii) Concentration (for aqueous reactant)
iv) Pressure (for gaseous reactant)
v) Catalyst
*Rate = yield

Video 2.2.1
Slide119
7. Factors affecting rate – (1) orientation & (2) energy level > EA
Factor Frequency Energy level
Increases, because they Increases, because reactant
Temperature
move faster has higher energy
Increases, because there
Surface area
are more surface area to -
(solid)
collide
Concentration Increases, because there
-
(aqueous) are more particles
Pressure Increases, because there
-
(gas) are more particles
Increases, because the
Catalyst -
activation energy is lower

Slide120

Slide121
PRACTICE 6.3
1. The following results were obtained when excess magnesium
stripe is added to 40 cm3 of 0.1 mol/dm3 sulfuric acid .
Time / s 0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300
Volume of gas / cm3 0 40 60 80 90 93 95 96 96 96 96
a) Plot the results.

b) How long does it takes for the reaction to complete?
c) At which point (min) is the rate of reaction fastest?
d) How does the rate of reaction change during this reaction?
e) Write the balanced chemical reaction.
f) Calculate the mass of magnesium reacted.
Slide122
2. A flask containing dilute hydrochloric acid was placed on a
digital balance. An excess of limestone chippings was added to
this acid, a plug of cotton wool was placed in the neck of the
flask and the initial mass was recorded.
Time / min 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Mass / g 10 7.9 7.0 6.9 6.4 6.2 6.0 6.0 6.0
a) Sketch the results of the experiment.

b) Predict the mass loss at 7 minutes.
c) Why was the plug of cotton wool used?
d) Write the chemical equation to represent the reaction taking place.
e) Why did the mass of the flask and its contents decrease?
f) Determine the volume of gas produced at room temperature.

Slide123
3. Zinc can reacts with nitric acid. Two different reactions are
carried out.
Reaction 1: Zinc granules + dilute nitric acid
Reaction 2: Zinc powder + dilute nitric acid
a) Which reactions will produce hydrogen more quickly? Explain in
terms of the collision theory.
b) Suggest two other methods by to increase the rate.
4. Four different experiments using excess Mg are conducted.
Sketch all the results on the same diagram.
Exp 1: Mg is added to 40 cm3 of 0.1 mol/dm3 H2SO4 at 30oC.

Slide124
EXERCISE
• Tan & Chen (2000) – Page 6
• Sunley & Goodman (2014) – Page 145, 148, 152 & 156

Slide125
LESSON OBJECTIVES
1. Describe and explain the effect of concentration, particle
size, catalysts (including enzymes) and temperature on the
rate of reactions in terms of collisions between reactants
2. Devise and evaluate a suitable method for investigating the
effect of a given variable on the rate of a reaction; and
Interpret data obtained from experiments concerned with rate
of reaction
Video 2.2.2: Catalyst

Video 2.2.2
Slide126
8. Catalyst
• Catalyst is a substance that increases the speed of a chemical
reaction and remains chemically unchanged at the end of the
reaction.
i) It increases the speed / rate but not the yield.
ii) It is not used up during the reaction. It may change in physical
appearance, but the total amount would remain the same.
iii) Only a small amount is needed in a reaction.
iv) It lowers the activation energy of the reaction.
v) It is selective in action. Different catalyst speed up different
reaction.
vi) It can be poisoned or inactivated by impurities.

Slide127
• Heterogeneous catalyst
• Catalyst and reactant are different state
• Catalyst is solid, reactant is gas

Slide128
• Homogeneous catalyst
• Catalyst and reactant are both same state (aqueous)
• Step 1: 2 Fe3+ (aq) + 2I– (aq) → 2 Fe2+ (aq) + I2 (aq)

• Step 2: 2 Fe2+ (aq) + S2O82– (aq) → 2 Fe3+ (aq) + 2 SO42 – (aq)
Reactant: 2 I– (aq) + S2O82– (aq)

Product: I2 (aq) + + 2 SO42 – (aq)
Without catalyst: 2 I– (aq) + S2O82– (aq) → I2 (aq) + 2 SO42 – (aq)

Slide129
• Catalyst provides an alternative pathway for the reaction to
proceed.
• The catalyzed reaction has a lower level of activation energy.
• As a result, more particles possess the energy equal to or greater
than activation energy.
Energy
uncatalysed reaction
Ea
catalysed reaction
reactants E’a
ΔH = negative
products
Progress of reaction
Slide130
• The frequency of effective collision increases and there is higher
rate of formation of product.
• Thus, the speed of reaction is higher.
Energy
uncatalysed reaction
Ea
catalysed reaction
reactants E’a
ΔH = negative
products
Progress of reaction
Slide131
9. Enzyme
• Enzyme is a biological catalyst that speeds up chemical reaction
in plants and animals (e.g. amylase).
i) It is a protein.
ii) It is specific in their actions.
iii) It is sensitive to pH changes.
iv) It is sensitive to temperature changes.
It is inactive when temperature is too low and denatured when
temperature is too high.

Slide132

Slide133
Graph I, mol = 100/1000 x 1 = 0.1000 mol

Graph II, mol = 70/1000 x 1.25 = 0.0875 mol
Rate depends on concentration, not mol.
Concentration of Graph I is 1 mol/dm3. Graph II is 1.25 mol/dm3.
This Thursday, there is no Chemistry lesson. What you need to do is
Heng and
complete the questions 1 and 2, Kahoot, Joe Shen (DIMENSION
Textbook HIGH SCHOOL)
homework.
Slide134
9. Enzyme
• Uses of enzyme
i) Manufacture of wine and other alcoholic drinks. It converts
sugar or starch to ethanol.
ii) Added into modern detergents to remove stains caused by
protein-based substances such as food and blood.

Slide135
PRACTICE 6.4
1. In an experiment, 50 cm3 of 1.0 mol/dm3 sulfuric acid (in excess)
is added to 10 g of zinc pieces and 0.1 g of a substance suspected
of being a catalyst. Six experiments are conducted and the time
taken to collect 60 cm3 of gas in each experiment are recorded.
No Cu
Experiment Cu foil CuSO4 CuCl2 NaCl
substance powder
Time taken to collect
75 s 20 s 65 s 12 s 16 s 75 s
60 cm3 of gas
a) Write the chemical equation for the reaction in the flask.

b) Identify the gas produced in the reaction and describe a test for it.
c) Which of the added substances acted as a catalyst for the
reaction? Explain.
d) Name one factor (not mentioned above) which must be controlled
to make this a fair investigation. Explain.
2. A student performed 2 experiments to establish how effective
Slide136
manganese (IV) oxide was as a catalyst for the decomposition of
hydrogen peroxide. The results below were obtained by carrying
out with two different quantities of manganese (IV) oxide.
Time / min 0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270
Volume for 0.3 g (cm3) 0 40 60 70 75 78 80 80 80 80
Volume for 0.5 g (cm3) 0 45 70 75 80 85 88 90 91 91
a) Draw a diagram of the apparatus you could use to carry out these
experiments.
b) Draw the energy profile diagram for a uncatalysed and catalysed
reaction in the same diagram.
c) Write a balanced chemical equation for the decomposition of
hydrogen peroxide.
d) Describe the chemical test for the gas produced.
e) Is the manganese (IV) oxide acts as a catalyst in this reaction?
Explain. Heng Joe Shen (DIMENSION HIGH SCHOOL)
Slide137
LESSON OBJECTIVES
1. Demonstrate understanding of the concept of equilibrium
2. Understand that some chemical reactions can be reversed by
changing the reaction conditions; and Predict the effect of
changing the conditions (concentration, temperature and
pressure) on other reversible reactions
3. Describe and explain the essential conditions for the
manufacture of ammonia by the Haber process including the
sources of the hydrogen and nitrogen
4. Describe and explain the role of light in photochemical
reactions and the effect of light on the rate of these reactions.
5. Describe the use of silver salts in photography; and
photosynthesis
Video 2.3.2: Photochromic
Slide138
10. Reversible reaction
• Reversible reactions are reactions where the reactants are
constantly forming products, and the products are constantly
reforming the reactant.
• Double arrow sign is used to indicate a reversible reaction.
• Forward reaction is the reaction from left to right.
• Backward reaction is the reaction from right to left.

Slide139
• Dynamic equilibrium is a state when the rate of the forward and
backward reactions is the same.
• Examples of reversible reactions are reaction of hydrated copper
sulfate, hydrated cobalt (II) chloride, ammonium chloride and
ethane with water.

Slide140
Activation Activation
energy of energy of
forward backward
reaction / reverse
reaction
H2 + I2
2 HI

Slide141
Activation Activation
energy of energy of
forward backward
reaction / reverse
reaction
H2 + I2
2 HI

Slide142
11. Le Chatelier’s principle
• Le Chatelier’s principle states that when there is a change in a
reversible reaction that is in dynamic equilibrium, the system acts
to oppose the change and restore equilibrium.

Slide143
• The position of equilibrium can be changed through
concentration, pressure and temperature.
Reaction Enthalpy Temp Yield

1 3 O2 (g) 2 O3 (g) ∆H < 0 Increases
2 N2 (g) + 3 H2 (g) 2 NH3 (g) ∆H < 0 Increases
3 N2O4 (g) 2 NO2 (g) ∆H > 0 Increases
4 H2 (g) + F2 (g) 2 HF (g) ∆H < 0 Increases
5 CO2 (g) + C (s) 2 CO (g) ∆H > 0 Increases
1. When temperature increases, the position of equilibrium shift to

the left. More O2 is produced, thus lower yield.
.
Slide144
• The position of equilibrium can be changed through
concentration, pressure and temperature.
Reaction Enthalpy Pressure Yield

1 3 O2 (g) 2 O3 (g) ∆H < 0 Increases Increase
2 N2 (g) + 3 H2 (g) 2 NH3 (g) ∆H < 0 Increases Increase
3 N2O4 (g) 2 NO2 (g) ∆H > 0 Increases Decrease
4 H2 (g) + F2 (g) 2 HF (g) ∆H < 0 Increases No effect
5 CO2 (g) + C (s) 2 CO (g) ∆H > 0 Increases Decrease
1. When pressure increases, the position of equilibrium will shift to

the right. More O3 will be produced. This means higher yield.
3. When pressure increases, position of equilibrium shift to the left.
More N2O4 is produced, thus lower yield.
Slide145
Factor Rate Yield
Increase if endothermic
Temperature Yes
decrease if exothermic
Surface area Yes (for solid) No effect
Concentration Yes (for aqueous) Yes (for aqueous)
Only for gaseous substances
Increase if reactants > products
Pressure Yes (for gas)
Decrease if reactants < products
No effect if reactants = products
Catalyst Yes No effect

Slide146
Forward
Temperature decreases Temperature increases
reaction
Exothermic Equilibrium shift to the Equilibrium shift to the
∆H < 0 right. Yield increase. left. Yield decrease.
Endothermic Equilibrium shift to the Equilibrium shift to the
∆H > 0 left. Yield decrease. right. Yield increase.
Gas Pressure decreases Pressure increases

Reactant > Equilibrium shift to the Equilibrium shift to the
product right. Yield increase. left. Yield decrease.
Reactant < Equilibrium shift to the Equilibrium shift to the
product left. Yield decrease. right. Yield increase.

Slide147

Slide148
12. Haber process by Fritz Haber
• He is considered a hero and villain
• Haber process is used to produce ammonia. After World War II,
human population increases drastically, there is no enough food
to feed everyone.
• In order to increase the agricultural production, fertiliser is
required to speed up the reaction. Synthetic fertiliser can be used
directly and mass manufacture in 1980.
• Ammonia is the main reactant to produce fertiliser. Plants need
nitrogen to grow (human needs nitrogen to grow). However,
nitrogen in the air cannot be absorbed directly. Human consume
nitrogen in the forms of protein (e.g. fish, beans), plants consume
nitrogen in the form of ammonium, NH4+.
• He invented chlorine bomb to kill the alliance. He also produce
ammonia to counter the effect of chlorine.
Slide149
12. Haber process
• N2 (g) + 3 H2 (g) 2 NH3 (g) ∆H = exothermic
Condition: 450oC, 250 atm and finely divided iron as catalyst
• Raw materials: N2 comes from fractional distillation of air while
H2 comes from cracking of petroleum
1. Nitrogen and hydrogen

are mixed in the
proportion 1:3 by
volume.
2. The mixture of gases is
compressed to 250 atm.
3. The gases are heated to 450oC and passed over finely divided iron.
• Reaction is exothermic.
• Only 10–15% of nitrogen and hydrogen Heng
is Joe Shen (DIMENSION
converted to ammonia.HIGH SCHOOL)
149
Slide150
12. Haber process
• N2 (g) + 3 H2 (g) 2 NH3 (g) ∆H = exothermic
• The reaction is reversible and exothermic. Thus, there is a need to
maximize rate and yield with minimum cost.
• Higher pressure produces higher rate and yield, but very costly.
• Higher temperature produces higher rate but lower yield.
Yield of
ammonia/ %
50 450°C
40 500°C
30
20 600°C
10
Pressure/atm
100 200 300 Heng
400 Joe Shen (DIMENSION HIGH SCHOOL)
Slide151
12. Haber process
• Catalyst is added to speed up the rate of reaction.
• Unreacted reactants are also recycled back to increase the yield.
1. Nitrogen and hydrogen

are mixed in the
proportion 1:3 by
volume.
2. The mixture of gases is
compressed to 250 atm.
3. The gases are heated to 450°C and passed over finely divided iron.
• Reaction is exothermic.
• Only 10–15% of nitrogen and hydrogen is converted to ammonia.

Slide152
13. Contact process
• S (s) + O2 (g) → SO2 (g)
• 2 SO2 (g) + O2 (g) 2 SO3 (g)
Condition: 450oC, 1 atm and vanadium (V) oxide as catalyst
2 SO3 (g) + H2SO4 (l) → H2S2O7 (l) (Oleum)
• H2S2O7 (l) + H2O (l) → 2 H2SO4 (l)

Slide153
PRACTICE 6.5
Reaction ∆H Changes Yield

A 3 O2 (g) 2 O3 (g) ∆H < 0 P increases
If P decreases, Exo T increases
B N2 (g) + 3 H2 (g) 2 NH3 (g) ∆H < 0 P decreases
Exo T decreases
C N2O4 (g) 2 NO2 (g) ∆H > 0 P increases
Endo T decreases
D H2 (g) + F2 (g) 2 HF (g) ∆H < 0 P decreases
Exo T increases
E CO2 (g) + C (s) 2 CO (g) ∆H > 0 P increases
T increases
Slide154
PRACTICE 6.5
Reaction ∆H Changes Yield

F 2 SO2 + O2 (g) 2 SO3 (g) ∆H < 0 P increases Increase
T increases Decrease
G X2 (g) + O2 (g) 2 XO (g) ∆H > 0 P decreases No effect
T decreases Decrease
H 2 XO (g) + O2 (g) 2 XO2(g) ∆H > 0 P increases Increase
T decreases Decrease
I N2O4 (g) 2 NO2 (g) ∆H > 0 P decreases Decrease
T increases Increase
J CaCO3 (s) CaO (s) + CO2 (g) ∆H > 0 P increases Decrease
T increases
Heng Joe Shen Increase
(DIMENSION HIGH SCHOOL)
Slide155
PRACTICE 6.5
Gallagher & Ingram (2011)
2. Explain the following terms:
a) reversible reaction
b) dynamic equilibrium.
3. H2 (g) + Br2 (g) 2 HBr (g) ∆H < 0
a) How to increase the yield of hydrogen bromide?
b) Explain why increasing the pressure will have no effect on
the amount of product formed.
c) However, the pressure is likely to be increased, when the
reaction is carried out in industry. Suggest a reason for this.

Slide156
PRACTICE 6.5
4. The dichromate ion Cr2O72– and chromate ion CrO42– exist in
equilibrium, like this:
Cr2O72– (aq) + H2O (l) 2 CrO42– (aq) + 2 H+ (aq)
Orange yellow
a) What would you see if you added dilute acid to a solution
containing chromate ions?
b) How would you reverse the change in (a)?
c) What is the oxidation state of Cr in Cr2O72– and CrO42–?

Slide157
5. Ammonia gas is made industrially by the Haber process, which
involves the reaction between the gases nitrogen and hydrogen.
• The graph shows how the amount of ammonia produced from
the reaction changes with both temperature and pressure.
• The percentage yield of ammonia indicates the percentage of the
nitrogen and hydrogen gases that are actually changed into
ammonia gas.
a) Write the chemical equation
for the Haber process.
b) What is yield (actual yield)?
c) Based on the graph, is the
forward reaction endothermic
or exothermic?

Slide158
d) Complete the table.
Changes Rate Yield

i Adding catalyst
ii Increase pressure
iii Increase temperature
e) Why is the reaction carried out at 450°C rather than at a lower

temperature to obtain higher yield?
f) Why the pressure is set at 250 atm rather than at 400 atm?
g) Since the reaction between nitrogen and hydrogen is reversible,
this causes a problem for the ammonia factory. Why?
g) What can be done to extract pure ammonia from the mixture of
H2, N2 and NH3?

Slide159
EXERCISE
• Tan & Chen (2000) – Page 6
• Sunley & Goodman (2014) – Page 158, 163, 164 & 166

Slide160
LESSON OBJECTIVES
1. Describe the characteristic properties of acids and bases
2. Define acids and bases in terms of proton transfer
3. Describe the meaning of weak and strong acids and bases
4. Describe neutrality and relative acidity and alkalinity in
terms of pH
5. Describe and explain the importance of controlling acidity in
soil
6. Classify oxides as either acidic, basic or amphoteric
Simulations: Which food is acidic / alkaline?

Simulations: Acid base (strong and weak)

Slide161
CHAPTER 7
Acids, bases and salts
7.1 Characteristic properties of acids and bases
7.2 Types of oxides
7.3 Preparation of salts
7.4 Identification of ions and gases

Slide162

Slide163
Arrhenius theory of dissociation:
i) Acids is compound that produces hydrogen ions, H+ in water.
• Alkali is compound that produce hydroxide ions, OH– in
water. Thus, H+ + OH– → H2O (l). From here, we know that
all acids react with alkali.
• That is why we can measure the strength of an acid using pH
or pOH.
ii) However, later on, we discover that some acids or alkali that
do not produce H+ or OH–.
• Example, Ammonia NH3 (aq). However, it can reacts with
acid. NH3 + HCl → NH4Cl or CaO + HCl → CaCl2 + H2O
• First, there are soluble base (alkali) and insoluble base.
• Second, the concept has shift from giving H+ ions to giving
proton. Acid is proton donor and base is proton receiver.

Slide164
7 ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS

Slide165

Slide166

Slide167

Slide168
• Note that not all substances that contain hydrogen are acids.
Organic acids Mineral acids
Hydrochloric
Tartaric acid
acid
Citric acid Sulfuric acid Nitric acid
Lactic acid

Slide169
1. Acids and bases
• Acid is a proton donor. Base is a proton acceptor.
• Base is any metal oxide or hydroxide that reacts with an acid.
However, not all bases are soluble. Alkali is a soluble base.
Example:
i) Acid – HCl, CH3COOH, H2SO4, H3PO4
Not an acid – CH4, NH3
When HCl is dissolved in organic solvent or in gaseous state, it
does not ionise. Thus, it is not acid in these states.
ii) Base – CaO, FeO, ZnO Cu(OH)2
iii) Alkali – Na2O, NaOH, KOH, Ca(OH)2
Slide170
Acid Alkali
Electrical Dissolves in water to form solution
conductivity that conduct electricity
Proton Donor Acceptor / Receiver
In aqueous Produces hydrogen ions, Produce hydroxide ions,
+ –
solution H OH
Taste / feel Sour Bitter and soapy
pH Less than 7 More than 7
Litmus test Blue to red Red to blue
Solubility in Only some
Yes
water (known as alkali)
With base With acid
Reaction With metal With ammonium salt
With carbonate With metal salt
Slide171
2. Chemical reactions:
i) Acid + base (metal oxide / hydroxide) → salt + water.
This reaction is known as Neutralisation
ii) Acid + reactive metal → salt + hydrogen
iii) Acid + carbonate / hydrogen carbonate → salt + water + carbon
dioxide
iv) Alkali + acid → salt + water
v) Alkali + ammonium salt → salt + water + ammonia
vi) Alkali + soluble metal salt → insoluble metal hydroxide + metal
salt

Slide172
PRACTICE 7.1
1. Write chemical and ionic equations for the following reactions:
a) Acid + reactive metal d) Alkali + acid
b) Acid + base e) Alkali + ammonium salt
c) Acid + carbonate f) Alkali + metal salt

Slide173
PRACTICE 7.1
Write the chemical equations:
i) Acid with bases = Alkali with acid
a) Potassium oxide + sulfuric acid

b) Rubidium hydroxide + phosphoric acid
c) Copper (II) oxide + sulfuric acid
d) Iron (II) hydroxide + hydrochloric acid
e) Lead (II) oxide + nitric acid

Slide174
Chemical reactions:
ii) Acid with reactive metal to produce salt and hydrogen
f) Calcium + hydrochloric acid

g) Magnesium + sulfuric acid
h) Lithium + ethanoic acid
i) Sodium + phosphoric acid
j) Zinc + nitric acid

Slide175
Chemical reactions:
iii) Acid with carbonates (or hydrogen carbonate) to produce salt,
water and carbon dioxide.
k) Barium carbonate + nitric acid

l) Sodium hydrogen carbonate + sulfuric acid

Slide176
Chemical reactions:
iv) Alkalis with ammonium salt to produce salt, water and ammonia.
v) Alkalis with metal salt to produce salt and insoluble metal
hydroxide
m) Ammonium chloride + sodium hydroxide

n) Ammonium nitrate + potassium hydroxide
o) Iron (II) sulfate + sodium hydroxide
p) Copper (II) bromide + potassium hydroxide

Slide177
3. pH scale
• pH scale is a set of number from 0 to 14.
It indicates if a solution is acid, neutral or alkaline.
It is related to the concentration of H+ or OH– present in a
solution.
• pH meter measures pH electrically. It is more accurate and
reliable.

Slide178
2. pH scale
• Indicator is substance which shows different colours in acidic
and alkaline solutions.
Indicator Acidic Alkaline

Litmus paper Red Blue
Universal indicator Red Purple
Methyl orange Red Yellow
Screened methyl orange Violet Green
Phenolphthalein Colourless Pink
Thymolthalein Colourless Blue

Slide179
4. Strengths of acids and bases
• Strong acid is an acid that is completely ionised in aqueous
solution
• Weak acid is an acid that is only partially ionised in aqueous
solution.
• Strength of acid refers to the extent of ionisation of an acid.
Strength of acid is not affected by concentration but the type of
substance.
• Concentration of acid refers to the amount of acid dissolved in
the solution.
Acid Base
Weak Ethanoic acid Ammonia
Strong Hydrochloric acid Sodium hydroxide
Slide180
5. Oxides
• Oxides are compounds of oxygen.
• Metallic oxide is ionic compound, which can form basic or
amphoteric oxide.
• Non-metallic oxide is covalent compound, which can form
either neutral or acidic oxide.
Oxides
Metallic Non-metallic
Amphoteric Neutral
Basic Al2O3, ZnO Acidic CO, NO and
and PbO Heng Joe Shen (DIMENSION
H2OHIGH SCHOOL)
Slide181
5. Types of oxide
i) Acidic oxide reacts with alkali to form a salt and water only. It
dissolves in water to form acid (e.g. SO2, SO3 and CO2).
ii) Basic oxide reacts with acid to form salt and water only. It can
be soluble or insoluble in water (e.g. Na2O, MgO and CuO).
iii) Amphoteric oxide reacts with both acids and alkalis to form a
salt and water (e.g. Al2O3, PbO and ZnO).
iv) Neutral oxide does not react with acids nor alkalis. It is
insoluble in water (e.g. H2O, NO and CO).

Slide182
6. Applications
• H2SO4 is used in manufacture of detergents (convert
hydrocarbons into organic acids) and fertilisers (e.g. ammonium
sulfate and superphosphate), and as a battery acid (reacts with
lead plates to generate electrical energy).
• HCl is used to remove impurities such as rust or scale from
metals and aluminium alloys.
• H3PO4 is added to food and beverages to give them a sour taste.
• CH3COOH acts as food preservatives and flavour enhancer.
• MgO relieves gastric pain and used in making refractory bricks.
• NaOH and KOH is used in preparation of soap.
• CaO and Ca(OH)2 reduces acidity in soil for agriculture. The
acidity of the soil affects the growth and development of plants.
Slide183
PRACTICE 7.1
2. Explain, with the aid of examples, what you understand by the
following terms:
a) Strong acid e) Titration
b) Weak acid f) Basic oxide
c) Concentrated acid g) Amphoteric oxide
d) Neutralisation
3. a) Classify the following: Type of oxide Example
Acidic oxide
Na2O MgO Al2O3 CO Basic oxide
SiO2 SO2 Cl2O7 P4O6 Amphoteric oxide
PbO NO ZnO H2O Neutral oxide
b) Which would react with (i) HCl, (ii) NaOH or (iii) Both?

Slide184
PRACTICE 7.1
4. Calculate the percentage by mass of water in the following salt
hydrates (Ar: H = 1; O = 16; Na = 23; S = 32; Cu = 64):
a) CuSO4.5 H2O
b) Na2CO3.10 H2O
c) Na2S2O3.5 H2O.
5. 24.2 cm3 of a solution containing 0.20 mol dm−3 of hydrochloric
acid just neutralised 25.0 cm3 of a potassium hydroxide solution.
What is the concentration of this potassium hydroxide solution?
6. 22.4 cm3 of a solution containing 0.10 mol dm−3 of sulfuric acid
just neutralised 25.0 cm3 of a sodium hydroxide solution. What is
the concentration of this sodium hydroxide solution?

Slide185
LESSON OBJECTIVES
1. Describe the characteristic properties of acids
as reactions with metals, bases, carbonates and
effect on litmus and methyl orange
2. Describe the characteristic properties of bases as reactions
with acids, ammonium salt and strong alkali

Slide186
7 ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS VIDEO 2.5
7. Titration
• Titration is a volumetric analysis of reaction to determine
concentration of a solution
• Titrant is solution of known concentration while analyte is the
solution of unknown concentration
• Equivalence point is the point in titration at which the amount
of titrant added is just enough to completely neutralize the
analyte solution.
• Endpoint is the point at which the indicator changes colour in an
acid-base titration.
• Firstly, a solution of known concentration (titrant) is placed in
the burette. Another solution of unknown concentration is
measured using pipette and placed in the conical flask. An
indicator is added. Titrant is added until end-point is reached.
Slide187

Slide188
PRACTICE 7.2
1. In a titration involving 24.0 cm3 potassium hydroxide solution
against a solution containing 1 mol dm−3 of sulfuric acid, 28.0
cm3 of the acid was found to just neutralise the alkali completely.
a) Write the balanced chemical equation for the reaction.
b) Name a suitable indicator and state the colour change.
c) Calculate the concentration of the alkali in moldm−3.
2. (w08_qp3) Sodium benzoate is a salt with the formula
C6H5COONa. It is a widely used food pickling agent, with an E
number of E211.
a) Deduce the formula of benzoic acid.
b) Name two compounds that would react with benzoic acid to form
sodium benzoate.
c) Write the chemical equation for the reaction between benzoic
acid and calcium hydroxide. Heng Joe Shen (DIMENSION HIGH SCHOOL)
Slide189
PRACTICE 7.2
1. Write the balanced chemical equation for the following.
a) Aluminium oxide and hydrochloric acid
b) Aluminium oxide and sodium hydroxide
c) Zinc oxide and sodium hydroxide
d) CaO and silicon dioxide to form salt that contains silicate ions, SiO32–
e) Beryllium hydroxide and sodium hydroxide to produce water and a salt
that contains beryllate ions, BeO22–
f) Oxalic acid, C2O4H2 and potassium hydroxide to produce water and a
salt that contain oxalic ions, C2O42–
g) Sulfamic acid, H2NSO3H and calcium carbonate to produce water,
carbon dioxide and salt with sulfamate ions, H2NSO3–
h) Sulfamic acid, H2NSO3H and hydrochloric acid
i) Citric acid, C6H8O7 and potassium to produce hydrogen and salt that
contains citrate ions, C6H5O73− or C3H5O(COO)33−
Slide190
PRACTICE 7.2
2. (w08_qp3) Sodium benzoate is a salt with the formula
C6H5COONa. It is a widely used food pickling agent, with an E
number of E211.
a) Deduce the formula of benzoic acid.
b) Name two compounds that would react with benzoic acid to form
sodium benzoate.
c) Write the chemical equation for the reaction between benzoic
acid and calcium hydroxide.

Slide191
3. The colours of some indicators in solutions at various pH values

are shown.
a) A solution of ethanoic acid has pH 5. What colour would be
shown by the following three indicators?
b) Sodium carbonate solution is added slowly into the solution of
ethanoic acid slowly, whilst stirring until present in excess. Write
the two-step chemical equations.
c) The endpoint of each titration happens when the indicator
changes colour. The pH of the titration is around pH 10. Explain
which indicators would be used to give accurate titration volume.
State the observation based on the indicator chosen.
Slide192
EXERCISE
• Tan & Chen (2000) – Page 6
• Sunley & Goodman (2014) – Page 179, 182 & 186

Slide193
LESSON OBJECTIVES
1. Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of preparation,
separation and purification of salts
2. Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the preparation
of insoluble salts by precipitation
3. Suggest a method of making a given salt from a suitable
starting material, given appropriate information

Slide194
8. Salts
• Salt is an ionic compound formed when hydrogen ion in acid is
replaced by metallic ion or an ammonium ion.
• Hydrated salt can be heated to produce anhydrous salt and
water.
• It is made up of two parts: Cation and anion.
The cation is metallic ion or ammonium ion that comes from
base.
The anion is non-metallic ion that comes from acid.

Slide195
8. Salts
• Solubility of salts in water
i) All salts containing Na+, K+ and NH4+ ions are soluble in water.
ii)All nitrate salts (NO3–) are soluble in water.
All chloride salts (Cl–) are soluble except for PbCl2 and AgCl
iii)
iv)All sulfate salts (SO4–) are soluble except for BaSO4, CaSO4 and
PbSO4.
v) All carbonate salts (CO32–) are insoluble except Na +, K + and
NH4+

Slide196
9. Preparation of salts
• Method 1 (soluble salt): Add acid to metal / insoluble base or
carbonate
• This method is suitable for moderately reactive metals.
Some metals reacts too violently with acid (e.g. Na, K and Ca)
while some metals do not react with acid (e.g. Cu and Ag).
Example
• Acid + metal
• Acid + insoluble base
• Acid + carbonate

Slide197
Method 1 (Soluble salt): Acid + metal
i) Add excess Zn powder into dilute H2SO4. Stir until
effervescence stops. Why?
ii) Filter to remove excess Zn powder. Collect the filtrate, ZnSO4
solution.
iii) Heat filtrate to obtain concentrated ZnSO4 solution.

Slide198
Method 1 (Soluble salt):
iv) Leave the solution to cool and crystallise. Filter to obtain
crystals.
v) Wash with cold, distilled water. Dry between pieces of filter
paper.

Slide199
Method 2 (soluble salt): Titration
HNO3(aq) + NaOH(aq) → NaNO3(aq) + H2O(l)
i) Fill up a burette with dilute HNO3.
Note the initial burette reading (V1 cm3).
ii) Pipette 25.0 cm3 of aqueous NaOH
solution into a conical flask.
iii) Add few drops of methyl orange retort burette
(indicator) to the NaOH solution. stand
Add dilute HNO3 slowly from the
burette until the solution just turns
orange.
iv) Record final burette reading (V2 cm3). conical
v) Repeat the experiment with the volume flask
recorded without using indicator to
obtain pure salt. Heng Joe Shen (DIMENSION HIGH SCHOOL)
Slide200
Indicator Acidic Alkaline

Litmus paper Red Blue
Universal indicator Red Purple
Methyl orange Red Yellow
Screened methyl orange Violet Green
Phenolphthalein Colourless Pink
Slide201
Method 3 (Insoluble salt): Precipitation
• General equation: AB (aq) + CD (aq) → AD (s) + CB (aq)
i) Add Na2SO4 solution to Ba(NO3)2 in a beaker.
ii) A white precipitate of BaSO4 forms.
Filter to obtain the precipitate.

Slide202
Method 3 (Insoluble salt): Precipitation
iii) Wash the precipitate with some cold, distilled water to remove
impurities.
iv) Leave the precipitate of BaSO4 to dry.
Can we prepare insoluble salt using acid and metal?

Slide203
Method 1 2 3
Soluble acid + Soluble acid + Soluble reactant
Reactant insoluble soluble reactant + soluble
reactant reactant
Example
Soluble salt +
Soluble salt + Insoluble salt +
Product insoluble
water soluble reactant
reactant
Filtration Yes No Yes
Crystallisation Yes Yes No
Slide204
Method 1 2 3
Reactant 1 Insoluble Soluble Soluble Insoluble
Reactant 2 Soluble Soluble Soluble Soluble
Product Soluble Soluble Insoluble Insoluble
Possible?
*Take note of safety concern as well.

Zinc + sulfuric acid → zinc sulfate + hydrogen
Zinc oxide + sulfuric acid → zinc sulfate + water
Zinc hydroxide + sulfuric acid → zinc sulfate + water
Zinc carbonate + sulfuric acid → zinc sulfate + water + CO2
Sodium + sulfuric acid → sodium sulfate + hydrogen
Sodium hydroxide + sulfuric acid → sodium sulfate + hydrogen
Slide205
PRACTICE 7.3
1. Group the salts as either soluble or insoluble.
AgCl Ag2CO3 AgNO3 Ag2SO4 KOH
BaCl2 BaCO3 Ba(NO3)2 BaSO4 Ca(OH)2
KCl K2CO3 KNO3 K2SO4 K2O
CaCl2 CaCO3 Ca(NO3)2 CaSO4 CaO
NH4Cl (NH4)2CO3 NH4NO3 (NH4)2SO4 CuSO4
PbCl2 PbCO3 Pb(NO3)2 PbSO4 PbO
Soluble salt Insoluble salt

Slide206
PRACTICE 7.3
2. Name the reactants that can be used to prepare the following salt.
Then, write the balanced chemical equation.
a) Sodium chloride
b) Magnesium nitrate
c) Potassium phosphate
d) Zinc chloride
e) Copper (II) sulfate
f) Calcium sulfate
g) Lead chloride
h) Silver iodide
3. Metals can react with acid.
a) Why copper does not react with acid?
b) Why barium appeared not to reactHeng
with sulfuric
Joe acid? HIGH SCHOOL)
Shen (DIMENSION
Slide207
PRACTICE 7.3
4. Study the following scheme.

a) Give the names and formulae
of substances A to E.
b) Write balanced chemical equations for the reactions taking place
in the scheme.
c) Write an ionic equation for production of the white precipitate D.

Slide208
PRACTICE 7.3
5. (s07_qp_3) Choose one of the following methods below for the
preparation of the following salt. Name the additional reagent or
reactant and write the chemical equation.
Method 1 – add an excess of base or a metal to a dilute acid and
remove the excess by filtration.
Method 2 – use a burette and an indicator.
Method 3 – mix 2 solutions and obtain the salt by precipitation.
a) Zinc sulfate from zinc oxide
Method:
Reagent:
Equation:
b) Lead sulfate from lead nitrate
c) Potassium chloride from potassium hydroxide
Slide209
Barker & Knapp (1990)
6. There are different methods of making nickel (II) nitrate.
• Method I: 25 cm3 of 2 M nitric acid was placed in a beaker and
green nickel (II) carbonate was added until it was in excess. After
filtration, green nickel (II) nitrate solution was obtained.
• Method II: Nickel (II) oxide was dissolved in nitric acid.
• Method III: Nickel (II) chloride solution was added to lead (II)
nitrate solution.
a) Write the balanced chemical equations for three methods.
b) In method I, why was excess nickel (II) carbonate used?
c) In method II, what mass of nitric acid would be required to
neutralise 7.5 g of nickel (II) oxide?
d) In method III, outline the main steps required to obtain nickel (II)
nitrate crystals from 1 M of nickel (II) chloride solution and 1 M
lead (II) nitrate solution.

Slide210
END OF SECTION 2

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Heng Joe Shen (DIMENSION HIGH SCHOOL)

We would start with Chapter 7, then Chapter 6

Heng Joe Shen (DIMENSION HIGH SCHOOL)

Heng Joe Shen (DIMENSION HIGH SCHOOL)

Heng Joe Shen (DIMENSION HIGH SCHOOL)

Heng Joe Shen (DIMENSION HIGH SCHOOL)

Heng Joe Shen (DIMENSION HIGH SCHOOL)

Heng Joe Shen (DIMENSION HIGH SCHOOL)

Heng Joe Shen (DIMENSION HIGH SCHOOL)

Electrolyte: PbBr2 (l) NaCl (aq)

Heng Joe Shen (DIMENSION HIGH SCHOOL)

3. Factors affecting selective discharge: type of electrolytes

Heng Joe Shen (DIMENSION HIGH SCHOOL)

Most reactive Potassium Please Please

Heng Joe Shen (DIMENSION HIGH SCHOOL)

Heng Joe Shen (DIMENSION HIGH SCHOOL)

Heng Joe Shen (DIMENSION HIGH SCHOOL)

Cl- , Br- SO42- or Anode: Cathode:

Anode: Anode: Anode Cathode: Cathode:

NaCl (aq) Conc. NaCl (aq) Heng Joe

Heng Joe Shen (DIMENSION HIGH SCHOOL)

Heng Joe Shen (DIMENSION HIGH SCHOOL)

a) Name a non-metal suitable for use as electrodes.

Heng Joe Shen (DIMENSION HIGH SCHOOL)

Video 2.1.2: Electrolysis of brine

Heng Joe Shen (DIMENSION HIGH SCHOOL)

Heng Joe Shen (DIMENSION HIGH SCHOOL)

• Why must it be in liquid form?

Heng Joe Shen (DIMENSION HIGH SCHOOL)

Heng Joe Shen (DIMENSION HIGH SCHOOL)

Heng Joe Shen (DIMENSION HIGH SCHOOL)

Heng Joe Shen (DIMENSION HIGH SCHOOL)

Heng Joe Shen (DIMENSION HIGH SCHOOL)

Heng Joe Shen (DIMENSION HIGH SCHOOL)

Heng Joe Shen (DIMENSION HIGH SCHOOL)

Heng Joe Shen (DIMENSION HIGH SCHOOL)

Heng Joe Shen (DIMENSION HIGH SCHOOL)

Heng Joe Shen (DIMENSION HIGH SCHOOL)

• At the cathode (- electrode) • Overall equation

Heng Joe Shen (DIMENSION HIGH SCHOOL)

Heng Joe Shen (DIMENSION HIGH SCHOOL)

A HCl B PbBr2 C CuCl2 Heng D

Heng Joe Shen (DIMENSION HIGH SCHOOL)

Solution of Am+ Solution of Bn+

Heng Joe Shen (DIMENSION HIGH SCHOOL)

Heng Joe Shen (DIMENSION HIGH SCHOOL)

Heng Joe Shen (DIMENSION HIGH SCHOOL)

Heng Joe Shen (DIMENSION HIGH SCHOOL)

Heng Joe Shen (DIMENSION HIGH SCHOOL)

Heng Joe Shen (DIMENSION HIGH SCHOOL)

Example of exothermic reaction is combustion, corrosion of

Heng Joe Shen (DIMENSION HIGH SCHOOL)

Heng Joe Shen (DIMENSION HIGH SCHOOL)

Heng Joe Shen (DIMENSION HIGH SCHOOL)

Heng Joe Shen (DIMENSION HIGH SCHOOL)

Heng Joe Shen (DIMENSION HIGH SCHOOL)

This is the change in