Technology in Society 69 (2022) 101964

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Technology in Society
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/techsoc

Ethics in the use of geospatial information in the Americas

Paloma Merodio Gómez a, Andrea Ramírez Santiago a, *, Gabriela García Seco a,
Rosario Casanova b, Denise MacKenzie c, Christopher Tucker d
a
National Institute of Statistic and Geography, Mexico
b
University of Republic, Uruguay
c
Association for Geographic Information and University of Southampton, UK
d
American Geographical Society, USA

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: During the last decade, the use of geospatial information in decision-making has reached an especially important
Data ethics role, which is why its production has increased considerably. The particularities that individual geospatial in­
Geospatial information formation presents with respect to other types of personal information, such as the linking of sensitive infor­
Location data
mation, has begun to generate concerns regarding the privacy of information and individual surveillance, being
The locus charter
IGIF
increasingly difficult to guarantee and ensure its protection, while other ethical problems and risks related to its
UN-GGIM:Americas use arise. For this reason, the development and implementation of principles and guidelines of conduct has
become an increasingly necessary component to address the ethical challenges associated with the use of geo­
spatial information, in order to achieve a greater perception of its benefits and less perception of their risks.
However, at present, there is no common set of global ethical principles to guide their responsible use. Therefore,
to achieve this, it is important to know the advances at the global and regional level in the generation and
implementation of principles and guidelines related to the ethical use of geospatial in various cultural and po­
litical contexts. In this way, this article aims to present, for the first time, the methodology developed, and the
results obtained for the evaluation of the current state of the design and implementation of strategies aimed at
achieving the ethical use of geospatial information in the region of the Americas. The results indicate that there is
a need to strengthen the issue of the ethical use of geospatial data in the region, since, although it is beginning to
be included in the government agenda, there is still little awareness among generators and users of geospatial
information about the risks and consequences of its misuse.

1. Introduction information. and individual surveillance [2,4–6].

1.1. Ethics in location data
During the last decade, the use of geospatial information in decision-
making has reached an especially important role, which is why its
production has increased, resulting in the generation and use of large
volumes of localized data, the which are accompanied by technical
challenges associated with achieving good management [1–3]. In
addition, the continuous innovation and omnipresence of geospatial
technologies provides greater capacity to determine the location with
high levels of precision and detail, promoting its misuse, which has
begun to generate problems and concerns regarding the privacy of
Individual geospatial information has its particularities with respect
to other types of personal information because it captures the location of
a person, which allows interfering with or linking other types of infor­
mation, exposing confidential information at the person level, such as
social, economic and politicians [7–9]. Situation that is aggravated by its
increasing distribution and dissemination by third parties [6,10].
Therefore, as this proliferation in the access and use of high-resolution
geospatial information and technologies continues, it becomes increas­
ingly complex and difficult to guarantee and ensure their privacy, se­
curity, and confidentiality, as well as ethical issues surrounding their
use, such as: standards of ethical practice; accuracy and validation;
Copyright; quality; metadata; licensing; liability and disclaimer; and

Abbreviations: IGIF, Integrated Geospatial Information Framework; UN-GGIM:Americas, Regional Committee of United Nations on Global Geospatial Information
Management for the Americas.
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: andrea.santiago@inegi.org.mx (A. Ramírez Santiago).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techsoc.2022.101964
Received 12 November 2021; Received in revised form 5 March 2022; Accepted 7 March 2022
Available online 12 March 2022
0160-791X/© 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
P. Merodio Gómez et al.
intention to use [8,9,11].
This situation has led both generators and users of geospatial infor­
mation to a widespread concern about the negative effects and risks
related to the misuse of geospatial information, such as manipulation,
discrimination, lack of transparency and weak privacy staff [12].
Moreover, the nature and peculiarities of this type of information, such
as its omnipresence, its interconnection, and its dynamics, have raised
an ethical debate on the correct, legitimate, and appropriate forms of
both its use and the analysis to which it is subjected, aimed at finding a
balance between the risk and benefit of its use [13,14]. For this reason, it
has been proposed that this proliferation of geospatial information and
technologies must be accompanied not only by the components of
governance (creation and maintenance of policies, procedures and
standards) and regulation (legislation applied through social norms and
the government), but also and fundamentally the development of spe­
cific principles and guidelines of conduct that allow their ethical use
[14] which implies understanding the rights, obligations and re­
sponsibilities regarding their use, as well as protecting their privacy and
maintaining their confidentiality [2,12]. These three components must
work in an integrated way, so while regulation shapes governance
through legal compliance, ethics shapes both governance and regulation
through moral evaluation [14].
In relation to this, it has been suggested that all technological ad­
vances, including those related to geospatial technologies, having social
impacts, need to be accompanied by codes of ethics that guarantee the
privacy, security, and confidentiality of your information [15,16].
Therefore, even though geospatial information presents its own ethical
challenges, attributable to the geographical nature of the data, it is
necessary to learn from the development of data ethics principles in
other fields, with the aim of adapting them and proposing strategies that
support their use. Responsible use [12,13,17]. Ethical codes for the
collection, manipulation, and use of data in general have basic functions
for both users and producers, such as: guiding behavior, preserving
privacy, guaranteeing beneficial use, guaranteeing its integrity, and
ensuring reliability. [13], which can lead to a higher perception of
benefit and a lower perception of risk [14].
However, as there is a wide variety of data types, there can be no
single set of universal rules, but rather ethical principles for specific
applications. These include all the characteristics that guarantee good
and desirable management: integrity, honesty, objectivity, re­
sponsibility, fairness, impartiality, non-discrimination, transparency,
accountability, fairness, solidity, resilience, ease of use, efficiency, and
independence [13]. Specifically, geospatial information, there is
currently no common set of global ethical guidelines to guide its
responsible use [12]. Moreover, in the absence of an official authority to
turn to for guidance, it is important that producers and users of geo­
spatial information commit to establishing ethical considerations within
the framework of national and regional initiatives related to this type of
information [13].
Therefore, it is important to know the advances in the generation and
implementation of principles and guidelines related to the ethical use of
geospatial data in various cultural and political contexts. In this way,
Academic Network of UN-GGIM: Americas started this research with the
aim of having a first diagnosis of the state of art on the ethical use of
geospatial information in the region of the Americas, through the
elaboration and dissemination of two surveys: one related to ethical use,
and another related to ethical education. Thus, this article aims to pre­
sent, for the first time, the methodology developed, and the results ob­
tained for the evaluation of the current state of the design and
implementation of strategies aimed at achieving the ethical use of geo­
spatial information in the region of the Americas.
The document is divided into 4 sections: first section exposes the role
of international initiatives in the creation of a regional dialogue on the
importance of ethics in the use of geospatial data, as well as in the design
and implementation of common principles oriented to the ethical use of
data, specifically we speak of the principles raised in The Locus Charter,
2
Technology in Society 69 (2022) 101964
and the strategic pathways of the Integrated Geospatial Information
Framework (IGIF) which are aimed at a correct use of geospatial data;
section two presents the methodology developed and implemented for
the evaluation of the current state in the implementation of existing
ethical frameworks, regulations, policies, standards, and practices for
the good use of geospatial data in the member states of UN-GGIM:
Americas; section three presents the results of the “Survey on ethical
use of geographic data in UN-GGIM: Americas Countries” and of the
interviews of the focal points of the region; and finally in section four,
we present the conclusions of the results obtained.
1.2. The role of international initiatives: The Locus Charter
The American Geographical Society’s (AGS) EthicalGEO Initiative
seeks to create a global dialogue on the ethical challenges and oppor­
tunities presented by the proliferation of geospatial information and
technologies, based on 5 priorities: the right to privacy of geospatial
data; the use of geospatial data by the government; the social, envi­
ronmental and economic empowerment represented by geospatial data
and tools; the ethical treatment through geographic research; and geo­
spatial information related to property rights [18]. In parallel, the
Benchmark Initiative, created by the Omidyar Network and Ordnance
Survey, seeks to raise awareness, through discussion panels, of the po­
tential risks presented using geospatial data, such as transparency, pri­
vacy, anonymity, and consent. It also seeks to identify ethical principles
and promote good international practices [19].
Under this vision, in 2019 both initiatives joined forces to initiate an
international dialogue with geospatial professionals and organizations,
focused on exploring what it means to use location data responsibly in
different contexts [19]. The results obtained with these dialogues
concluded, on the one hand, that there is little training on data ethics in
practice, and on the other hand, that it is necessary to develop common
and agreed international guidelines and principles, respecting the con­
texts and perspectives that guide users on how to exercise the use of
geospatial data responsibly and equitably, as well as the understanding
of the risks, opportunities and ethical considerations that its use repre­
sents [12,20].
In this way, an international collaboration group of governments,
organizations and professionals, producers and users of geospatial in­
formation was created, whose purpose is to support and guarantee the
ethical and responsible use of location data throughout the world. For
this, in 2020, through a series of workshops, this group of experts wrote
“The Locus Charter”, a document focused on achieving a broad and
shared understanding of the risks and solutions related to the use of
geospatial data, with the objective of increasing the general benefits
they provide us and ensuring the protection of people and the public
interest [12,19,20].
The Locus Charter integrates a set of 10 Common Fundamental
Principles aimed at people and organizations that use, create, collect,
analyze, and store geospatial data, which are intended to guide the
ethical and responsible practice of the use of geospatial information for
social good, which are listed below [12]:
1. REALIZE OPPORTUNITIES: The benefits offered by geospatial
data must be harnessed responsibly.
2. UNDERSTAND IMPACTS: Users of geospatial data have re­
sponsibility to understand the potential effects of their uses. In
order to make informed and proportionate decisions, and to
minimize negative impacts.
3. DO NO HARM: Data users should ensure that the individual or
collective location data should not be used to discriminate,
exploit or harm. In order to protect the rights in digital contexts
and interactions.
4. PROTECT THE VULNERABLE: Geospatial data users need to be
more careful and avoid causing harm with the use of data related
to vulnerable people and places.
P. Merodio Gómez et al.
5. ADDRESS BIAS: Data users should understand that bias in the
collection, use, and combination of geospatial data sets can lead
to discriminatory results.
6. MINIMIZE INTRUSION: Given the nature of location data, users
should avoid unnecessary and intrusive examination of people’s
lives and the places they live, in order to protect human dignity.
7. MINIMIZE DATA: Users should adhere to the data minimization
principle, that is, of use only the necessary personal data that is
adequate, relevant, and limited to the objective, including loca­
tion data to the least invasive scale.
8. PROTECT PRIVACY: In the rare cases when aggregated and
anonymized location data will not meet the specific business or
mission need, location data that identifies individuals should be
respected, protected, and used with informed consent where
possible and proportionate.
9. PREVENT IDENTIFICATION OF INDIVIDUALS: Because in­
dividual’s location data is situated within increasingly geospatial
context data, measures should be put in place to prevent subse­
quent use of the data resulting in identification of individuals or
their location.
10. PROVIDE ACCOUNTABILITY: People who are represented in
location data collected, combined and, used by organizations
should be able to interrogate how it is collected and used in
relation to them and their interests, and appeal those uses pro­
portionate to levels of detail and potential for harm.
With its public launch on March 24, 2021, this letter aims to generate
a debate and a global community of commitment to ethics around
geospatial information. Its international support organizations have
committed to promoting ethical and responsible practice in the use of
geospatial information in all sectors, to inform and improve its use in
their agendas, projects and organizational mandates. The Locus Charter
is intended to continue to evolve as supporting organizations provide
information, apply case studies and incorporate best practices to
strengthen its 10 Core Principles [20].
1.3. Integrated Geospatial Information Framework
The strategies needed to support responsible use and address the
other ethical challenges associated with the use of geospatial data can be
promoted or enabled through agreements that can take various forms: a
national policy, a set of sectoral guidelines, a memorandum of under­
standing, a data exchange agreement or contract, a licensing agreement,
or a legal instrument. For this purpose, the chosen instrument must seek
to satisfy in a balanced way the needs of both producers and users of
geospatial data.
Derived from the need to address systemically and based on insti­
tutional agreements the problems associated with the use and exchange
of geospatial information, United Nations Committee of Experts on
Global Geospatial Information Management (UN-GGIM) developed with
the World Bank, the Integrated Geospatial Information Framework
(IGIF). The IGIF is a guide to be able to address the issues associated with
the development, management, use and exchange of geospatial infor­
mation and related infrastructures. Its aim is to help countries in their
digital transformation, as well as overcoming the geospatial digital gap
in implementation national strategic priorities and the 2030 Agenda for
Sustainable Development [21].
This implementation guide is essential to face the problems associ­
ated with the use of geospatial information in order to lead to an ethical
and responsible use. Thus, one of the actions that are part of the IGIF is
the establishment of an independent group made up of users and pro­
viders of data from the government, the private sector, the academic
world and civil society, whose task is to review and evaluate the existing
geospatial policies and legal frameworks in each country, to subse­
quently recommend which policies can best support the use of the data,
which changes are necessary, and which new regulations should be
3
Technology in Society 69 (2022) 101964
created.
On the other hand, the IGIF identifies seven basic supporting prin­
ciples: (1) Strategic Enablement; (2) Transparent and Accountable; (3)
Reliable, Accessible and Easily Used; (4) Collaboration and Cooperation;
(5) Integrative Solution; (6) Sustainable and Valued; and (7) Leadership
and Commitment. These seven principles represent the key character­
istics and values to be used as a guide when implementing the IGIF, to
achieve consistent geospatial information management and a more
open, responsible, responsive, and efficient government [21].
In particular, the basic principle 5 “Integrative Solution” refers to the
integrative nature necessary for the implementation of the Framework
and considers that to form an effective system to manage geospatial
information and its use, the joint work of people is necessary, legal and
policy organizations, systems, and structures [21]. This principle high­
lights the wide range of legislative and operational issues that organi­
zations must be aware of when disclosing and analyzing information
about individuals, in order to protect the privacy and confidentiality of
the data. Thus, the implementation of principle 5 of the IGIF also means
a contribution to the effort to address the problems associated with the
use of geospatial information.
Likewise, the IGIF is made up of nine strategic pathways focused on
governance, technology, and people: (1) Governance and Institutions;
(2) Legal and Policy; (3) Financial; (4) Data; (5) Innovation; (6) Stan­
dards; (7) Partnerships; (8) Capacity and Education; and (9) Commu­
nication and Engagement. These strategic pathways aim to guide
governments towards the implementation of integrated geospatial in­
formation systems in a way that provides a vision for sustainable social,
economic, and environmental development [21].
Related to the subject of data ethics, strategic path number 2 ′′ Legal
and Policy” establishes a solid legal and policy framework [21]. This is
necessary to institute effective, efficient, and secure geospatial infor­
mation management and exchange at the national and sub-national
levels. This strategic path focuses on responsibility for data production
and monitoring of problems and challenges arising from the use of
geospatial information and emerging technologies.
Finally, another strategic path that touches about data ethics is
number 6 “Standards”, which establishes the adoption of standards and
compliance mechanisms for enabling geospatial information interoper­
ability to create location-based knowledge. Its objective is to enable
different information systems to discover, manage, communicate, ex­
change, and apply geospatial information for a multitude of uses, in
order to improve understanding and decision-making [21].
In summary, the IGIF and its Implementation Guide propose a set of
guidelines to define roadmaps that allow addressing and leading the
problems and solutions of ethics in the use of geospatial data and its
implementation at the national level.
2. Methodology: Towards a regional analysis
In order to prepare this first diagnosis of the current situation of the
countries of the Americas regarding ethical issues, within the framework
of the UN-GGIM: Americas and the UN-GGIM Academic Network
Americas, the “Survey on ethical use of geographic data in UN-GGIM:
Americas Countries”, with the purpose of identifying and understand­
ing the level of awareness of each country about the importance of
existing normative aspects, standards and practices to regulate the
ethical use of geospatial information in UN-GGIM: Americas Member
States.
The survey consisted of nine questions with two main objectives: the
first group (question 1–5) aimed to document the existing standards and
practices related to the collection and ethical use of geospatial data in
the different countries; and the second group (question 6–9) aimed to
characterize the general concepts related to the damages and conse­
quences of bad practices related to the use of geospatial information
(Annex). The nine questions are listed below:
P. Merodio Gómez et al. Technology in Society 69 (2022) 101964

1. In your government agency, are there any standards on the ethical including this relevant thematic in the agenda of national institutions
use of geospatial data? Multiple choice question with two possible responsible and related of the geospatial information in each country.
answers: Yes or No,
2. In your country, is the ethical use of geospatial data controlled as 3. Results: Ethics in the Americas region
guidance but not regulation? Multiple choice question with two
possible answers: Yes or No, 3.1. Survey on ethical use of geographic data in UN-GGIM: Americas
3. If so, how is it done and on which data? Open question. Countries
4. Are there any Federal or State regulations about the improper use of
data? Multiple choice question with two possible answers: Yes or No, Of all the member states that make UN-GGIM: Americas (36 coun­
5. If so, what type of sanction is applied and how is it enforced? Open tries), a total of 16 responses were received, corresponding to 13
question. different countries which were: Canada, Chile, Colombia, Dominican
6. Please list three procedures that represent the responsible use of Republic, Ecuador, El Salvador, Guatemala, Mexico, Nicaragua, Pan­
location data and a responsible data practice. Open question. ama, Peru, Suriname, United States. Only 36% of all UN-GGIM member
7. Please list three general principles that best characterize good, countries: Americas responded the survey.
responsible, and ethical location data practice. Open question. The results of the first group of questions, related to documenting
8. Please list three know harms and unintended consequences of poor existing standards and practices in the collection and ethical use of
location data practice. Open question. geospatial data in members countries are as follows (Annex):
9. Additional comments. Open question. Most respondents (81%) indicated that there are no standards in
their government institution/agency regarding the ethical use of geo­
This survey was developed in a Google form. Given the linguistic spatial data. The countries that do have regulations indicated that they
diversity in the Americas, two versions were included: one in Spanish are focused on anonymizing the data so that personal information
and the other in English. (https://forms.gle/nzHLNggJ3NHXVbeX8, cannot be derived in addition to having codes of ethics and government
https://forms.gle/ekvV1t3w7TK8u4zm7). In addition to the “Survey on values (Graph 1).
ethical use of geographic data in UN-GGIM: Americas Countries,” in­ 38% of respondents indicated that the technical use of geospatial
terviews were conducted with some focal points of the Americas region data is not controlled in their country. On the other hand, 62% indicated
with the objective of addressing the topics with in-depth conversations. that they do control the ethical use of geospatial data, but only as
The questions revolved around 6 themes: a) the existence of frame­ guidance, not as official regulation (Graph 2). It should be noted that of
works or guides for the ethical use of geospatial data; b) the existence of this percentage, the majority (60%) base this control on laws, regula­
legal, regulatory or policy frameworks that guide the ethical use of tions and general guidelines for the protection and transparency of
geospatial data or discussions about their creation; c) knowledge of personal data, without a focus on geospatial data, and only 40% make
damages and consequences of misuse of geospatial data; d) general
principles or values for a good, responsible and ethical location data
practice; e) barriers to establishing guidelines for the responsible use of
geospatial data; f) and problems in the use of satellite images, drones
and similar technologies.
It is important to mention that the main motivation of this survey
was to include this relevant thematic in the agenda of national in­
stitutions, so the form was sent (by email) to all the UN-GGIM America’s
members.1 Even, we knew, that some of the questions done were not fast
and easy to be answered. However, the proposal was to make the in­
stitutions think about these issues, and in many of them this was the first
time that they stopped to think about ethics in the use of geospatial
information. On the other hand, this survey was the initial point to start
working and including this thematic in the Americas region.
Subsequently, on March 22, 2021, UN-GGIM: Americas together
with the Locus Charter, Ethical GEO and Benchmark initiatives held the
webinar “Ethics in the use of geographic information in the Americas”, Graph 1. In your government agency, are there any standards on the ethical
in order that the members of UN- GGIM: Americas discussed: the use of geospatial data?
importance of ethics in the use of geospatial data in their country; the
ethical frameworks in geospatial and statistical contexts within their
organization or governments; advances in regulations and policies
related to the ethical use of geospatial information; and the fundamental
principles of The Locus Charter.
Likewise, this webinar was used to review the results obtained in the
“Survey on ethical use of geographic data in UN-GGIM: Americas
Countries” with the countries of the region; to enrich the results on the
situation of the ethical use of geospatial data in the region, through the
preparation of interviews with some focal points; and to continue

1
Antigua & Barbuda, Argentina, Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, Bolivia, Brazil,
Canada, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Dominica, Ecuador, El Salvador,
United States, Granada, Guatemala, Guyana, Haiti, Honduras, Jamaica, Mexico,
Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Dominican Republic, St. Kitts and Nevis St.
Lucia, St. Maarten, St. Vincent & the Grenadines, Suriname, Trinidad and Graph 2. In your country, is the ethical use of geospatial data controlled as
Tobago, Uruguay, Venezuela. guidance but not regulation?

4
P. Merodio Gómez et al.
Graph 3. Are there any Federal or State regulations about the improper use
of data?
explicit their orientation documents to the production, intellectual
property, custody, management, access, licensing, and use of
geographic, cartographic and geodesy information.
Regarding the inappropriate use of geospatial data, most of the
countries surveyed (56%) do not have official federal or state regula­
tions that sanction these acts (Graph 3). On the other hand, the countries
that do have sanctions laws, regulations, guidelines, or statutes indicate
that these are not explicit for geospatial data, but for personal data in
general. These administrative and criminal sanctions are administered
by courts of justice, defense commissions and transparency councils, and
range from fines, suspension of activities, temporary closure of opera­
tions and dismissal, to prison time.
The results of the second group of questions, related to character­
izing the general concepts and ideas related to damages and conse­
quences of bad practices related to the use of geospatial information, are
as follows (Annex):
Among the main procedures that represent the responsible use of
geospatial data, respondents mentioned:
• Application and compliance with regulations in the production,
distribution, and use of data.
• Documentation of the data, including the intellectual property rights
of the data.
• Regulation and management of data quality.
• Data standardization.
• Validation and formalization of data.
• Data evaluation.
Among the main general principles that characterize the responsible
and ethical use of geospatial data, the respondents mentioned:
• Transparency
• Timeliness
• Integrity
• Quality
• Confidentiality
• Regulation
• Legality.
Among the main damages and consequences of a bad practice in the
use of geospatial data, the respondents mentioned:
• Delegitimization or loss of institutional trust.
• Unreliable data.
• Poor data quality (biased and imprecise data).
• Mishandling of data which leads to errors in analysis results, inad­
equate decision making and political and economic repercussions
(such as disputes over administrative boundaries).
5
Technology in Society 69 (2022) 101964
• Use of data for illicit activities.
• Additional work and costs to correct data errors.
The results of the survey indicate that the countries are aware that
the regulation of the ethical production of geospatial information,
through standards, is essential to achieve its quality and reliability, with
the aim of guaranteeing its use for sustainable development. However,
even though the countries of the region are beginning to include the
issue on the government agenda, there is still a need to strengthen it
through the creation of a regulatory framework that the countries can
adopt, to guide the correct production and use of geospatial data.
3.2. Case studies in the region
Below are four case studies that aim to show in depth the situation of
the ethical use of geospatial data in the countries of Chile, Ecuador,
Panama, and Colombia. These results correspond to the interviews
conducted with the focal points of these countries in the framework of
the webinar “Ethics in the use of geographic information in the
Americas".
3.2.1. Chile- ministry of national assets
In Chile there is no specific law on geospatial data, nor a legal,
regulatory or policy framework that guides the ethical or responsible use
of location data, however, there is the “Law for the Protection of Private
Life” which protects personal data, that is, it protects all types of in­
formation (geographical and non-geographical) about people in a
transversal way. Moreover, in Chile there is a bad practice regarding the
purchase and sale of databases with personal information, as well as the
existence of consent contracts for the use of personal information, which
may have fines for not respecting the law of between US $ 800 to US $
4000.
Regarding the principles that they consider to be basic for a
responsible use of geospatial data, there are Legality, Transparency of
information and Confidentiality. On the other hand, the barriers to
establishing guidelines for the responsible use of geospatial data include
the creation of decrees that do not have the same force as the laws and
the low priority of the role of geospatial data versus other political
agendas such as security, health. and education.
Finally, regarding the use of satellite images, drones and similar
technologies, personal data must be respected, and the information
captured by these devices. Should only be stored and used for the pur­
pose for which they were built, in case of other use, it would be
infringing the law and giving rise to legal sanctions with compensation
for moral damage.
3.2.2. Ecuador- geographic military institute (IGM)
Explicitly, in Ecuador there is no framework for the ethical use of
geospatial data. However, basic, and legal principles of the country
related to universal access to information and communication technol­
ogies are met; access to public and confidential information that manage
state funds or carry out public functions; elaboration of the national
cartography and the archive of geographic and cartographic data of the
country; national geospatial information policies; national security
regulations regarding confidential information; and intellectual
property.
Likewise, although there is no specific legal and regulatory frame­
work for the ethical use of geographic data, several legal instruments
have been established at the national level that focus on geographic
data, such as: Organic Law of Transparency and Access to Public In­
formation; the Law on Transparency and Access to Information; the
Creation of the National Council of Geoinformatics (CONAGE); and the
National Geospatial Information Policies. However, despite these in­
struments, there are still problems derived from the misuse of geospatial
data, such as: problems due to property limits; use of data for illegal
subjects (illicit crops, illegal mining, among others); dissemination of
P. Merodio Gómez et al.
erroneous results and inappropriate decision-making; and the no pub­
lication of information.
Regarding the principles that they consider are basic to obtain and
manage location data in a responsible and ethical manner, they are the
same that should govern personal and professional actions such as
respecting and recognizing intellectual property rights; comply with
established laws and policies regarding geospatial data through reliable
and secure access to data; and transparency in the generation, publica­
tion, access, and uses of geospatial data. Finally, the barriers to estab­
lishing guidelines for the responsible use of geospatial information
include ignorance or misinterpretation of current regulations; the am­
biguity with which geographic data is still treated; and lack of under­
standing of the purpose of the information.
3.2.3. Panamá- national geographic institute tommy guardia (IGNTG)
In Panama there is no framework for the ethical use of geospatial
data, however, the frameworks or guidelines are covered by the different
laws on public information in general, which are found in the Consti­
tution of the Republic of Panama, the Law on Access to Information, the
Executive Decree of the Code of Ethics on information, and the Law on
the protection of personal data. Likewise, in Panama there is Law 52 that
establishes the regulatory framework for urban and rural nomenclature
and numbering, which implies geocoding and georeferencing algo­
rithms; and Law 6 that dictates rules of Transparency in Public
Management.
However, despite the creation of these laws that apply to geospatial
data, in Panama there are cases in which the information: can be used by
organized crime in multiple aspects, such as drug trafficking routes; does
not use reliable data sources for sensitive projects; not have criteria for
the protection of sensitive data; and presents a lack of data quality
monitoring, which leads to loss of confidence.
Among the most relevant principles that are considered basic for a
responsible use of geospatial data are: the protection of privacy and
confidentiality of sensitive data; that the information does not cause
harm; and access to opportunities. Finally, the barriers to establishing
guidelines for the responsible use of data are the little discussion of the
subject, as well as the lack of knowledge about the implications and
problems that could arise from the misuse of geospatial data.
3.2.4. Colombia- National Administrative Department of Statistics (DANE)
In Colombia, the National Administrative Department of Statistics
(DANE), responsible for the production and regulation of official sta­
tistical information, has the “Statistical Production Ethics System”, built
with principles; procedures and instances to study ethical considerations
that may exist within the statistical production phases; and preventive
and corrective measures. In this sense, statistical production must be
carried out respecting ethical principles such as autonomy, freedom,
equity, solidarity, transparency, trust, preservation, and security in the
use of data. This system seeks to contribute to the improvement of the
quality in the production of statistical information, considering an
ethical dimension; meet the moral demands of society; strengthen the
credibility and legitimacy of the institution; and provide instruments
and tools that allow diagnosing and addressing ethical risks in the pro­
duction of statistical information.
In addition to the Ethics System, DANE works with the Statistical
Reserve Law that emphasizes the need to harmonize the information
obtained through censuses and surveys to guarantee data security; the
Habeas Data Law which protects the confidentiality of the information;
and the use of the “License of use” for the authorization of the economic
rights of the creator of the data to a third party to use and enjoy the
intellectual creation in the terms and conditions expressed in a legal
instrument.
On the other hand, in Colombia, the Personal Data Protection
Regime is regulated mainly by the Political Constitution, as well as
different regulations related to the use of data such as: the Transparency
Law and the right of access to public and national information; the Guide
6
Technology in Society 69 (2022) 101964
for the use and exploitation of open data; the document of the National
Council for Economic and Social Policy for the consolidation of the
National Policy of Geographic Information and the Colombian Spatial
Data Infrastructure (ICDE); and the Presidential Directive for the use of
cloud services.
The current risks are not only the location data, but also any personal
data to guarantee the privacy of the information, in this sense, and
despite the fact that there is no evidence of damage or consequences
derived from the use of geospatial information, it is necessary to have a
balance between having the highest levels of information disaggregation
that facilitate decision-making and safeguarding the confidentiality
required by sensitive information, disseminating it only in aggregate
form.
Regarding the principles that they consider to be basic to obtain and
manage location data in a responsible and ethical manner, there are:
transparency; the opportunity and updating; and security and privacy so
that the confidentiality, availability, and integrity of the data is not
compromised. On the other hand, in DANE there are no barriers to
establish guidelines for the responsible use of data, as these are
harmonized in order to establish the necessary measures to guarantee
the security of data, files and databases that contain sensitive
information.
Finally, about satellite images and drones, these are used to obtain
general information related to land cover and the location of buildings.
For the specific case of drones, it is necessary to have a request that
explains the purpose of the capture, the resolution, and the information
to be collected due to their characteristics. Their use is restricted by
national and district security issues. Additionally, Aeronautical Civil is
one of the entities that enables permits for the taking of images and
defines a protocol to guarantee the responsible taking and use of this
information.
4. Conclusions
The use of geospatial information in decision-making, as well as the
automation of data collection procedures play a particularly important
role, therefore, several organizations have generated a large amount of
geospatial data. However, this is accompanied by its potential misuse, so
monitoring and ethical limitations are needed to ensure a balance be­
tween the risks and benefits of its use. This has led to a new debate on the
appropriate ways to use such data, so it is necessary to know the role
played by norms, laws, and regulations regarding the protection of
personal data and privacy, as well as establishing clear rules principles
and guiding guidelines for all actor, both those who participate in the
generation and users of geospatial data.
Despite this, there is currently no official authority that can be turned
to for guidance on the ethical use of geospatial information, in this sense
it is important that both data creators, providers and users participate in
ethical considerations on the correct, legitimate, and appropriate ways
to use said data. Likewise, it is necessary to increase security measures
and penalties for misuse of data since one of the current problems is that
the rules for protecting this data do not advance at the same pace as
innovative technologies.
In this way, some organizations have implemented a series of ethical
codes and principles for the collection, manipulation, and use of data.
On the one hand the ethical codes focus on the preservation of privacy
and ensuring that the data is used in a that benefit society, on the other
hand, the principles include characteristics such as integrity, honesty,
objectivity, responsibility, reliability, impartiality, non-discrimination,
transparency, accountability, fairness, soundness, resilience, usability,
efficiency, and independence. Until recently these codes have remained
at a regional or national level such as the URISA GIS Code of Ethics and
focused on individual professional practice rather than institutional or
organizational level [22].
With the emergence of initiatives such as Benchmark, EthicalGEO
and The Locus Charter an international effort is now underway to enable
P. Merodio Gómez et al.
the strengthening of ethical and responsible use of geospatial data in
different contexts, by proposing common international principles that
help users of geospatial data to make more informed decisions. How­
ever, work still needs to be done to strengthen the issue of ethics in the
use of geospatial data in the region. Since even though it is beginning to
be included in the government agenda from several countries, there is
little awareness of its importance and how significant the challenge is to
combat the misuse of geospatial information.
Author statement
Each of the people who appear in the manuscript “Ethics in the use of
Geospatial Information in the Americas” as author has contributed
directly to the intellectual content of the work, approves the contents of
the manuscript that is submitted to the editorial process and gives their
consent for their name to appear in the authorship of the same.
Author contributions
Paloma Merodio Gómez: Conceptualization, Investigation, Re­
sources, Writing - original draft, Supervision, Project administration.
Andrea Ramírez Santiago: Conceptualization, Validation, Formal
analysis, Investigation, Data Curation, Writing - Original Draft, Writing -
Review & Editing, Visualization, Supervision, Project administration.
Gabriela García Seco: Conceptualization, Investigation, Resources,
Supervision, Project administration. Rosario Casanova: Methodology,
Validation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Resources, Data Curation,
Writing - Review & Editing, Visualization. Denise MacKenzie: Inves­
tigation, Resources, Writing - Review & Editing. Christopher Tucker:
Investigation, Resources, Writing - Review & Editing.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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