Cell Structure & Function

Cells, the smallest structures capable of maintaining life and reproducing,

compose all living things, from single-celled plants to multibillion-celled
animals. The human body, which is made up of numerous cells, begins as a
single, newly fertilized cell.

Almost all human cells are microscopic in size. To give you an idea how small a
cell is, one average-sized adult body, according to one estimate, consists of 100
trillion cells!

Cell Structure
Ideas about cell structure have changed considerably over the years. Early
biologists saw cells as simple membranous sacs containing fluid and a few
floating particles. Today's biologists know that cells are infinitely more complex
than this.

There are many different types, sizes, and shapes of cells in the body. For
descriptive purposes, the concept of a "generalized cell" is introduced. It
includes features from all cell types. A cell consists of three parts: the cell
membrane, the nucleus, and, between the two, the cytoplasm. Within the
cytoplasm lie intricate arrangements of fine fibers and hundreds or even
thousands of miniscule but distinct structures called organelles.
Cell membrane
Every cell in the body is enclosed by a cell (Plasma) membrane. The cell
membrane separates the material outside the cell, extracellular, from the
material inside the cell, intracellular. It maintains the integrity of a cell and
controls passage of materials into and out of the cell. All materials within a cell
must have access to the cell membrane (the cell's boundary) for the needed
exchange.

The cell membrane is a double layer of phospholipid molecules. Proteins in the

cell membrane provide structural support, form channels for passage of
materials, act as receptor sites, function as carrier molecules, and provide
identification markers.

Nucleus and Nucleolus

The nucleus, formed by a nuclear membrane around a fluid nucleoplasm, is the
control center of the cell. Threads of chromatin in the nucleus
contain deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), the genetic material of the cell.
The nucleolus is a dense region of ribonucleic acid (RNA) in the nucleus and is
the site of ribosome formation. The nucleus determines how the cell will
function, as well as the basic structure of that cell.
Dna: The molecular basis of heredity; encodes the genetic information responsible for the
development and function of an organism and allows for transmission of that genetic
information from one generation to the next. The DNA molecule is structured as a double-
stranded helix held together by weak hydrogen bonds between purine-pyrimidine nucleotide
base pairs: adenine (A) paired with thymine (T), and guanine (G) paired with cytosine (C).

Rna: One of two types of nucleic acid made by cells. RNA contains information that has been
copied from DNA (the other type of nucleic acid). Cells make several different forms of RNA,
and each form has a specific job in the cell. Many forms of RNA have functions related to
making proteins. RNA is also the genetic material of some viruses instead of DNA. RNA can be
made in the laboratory and used in research studies.

Genes: Most genes are sequences of DNA that contain information for making specific proteins
or molecules of RNA that perform important functions in a cell. The information in genes is
passed from parents to children

Ribosome: a structure found inside cells that is involved in making proteins. Ribosomes help
link amino acids together to form proteins.

Cytoplasm
The cytoplasm is the gel-like fluid inside the cell. It is the medium for chemical
reaction. It provides a platform upon which other organelles can operate within
the cell. All of the functions for cell expansion, growth and replication are
carried out in the cytoplasm of a cell. Within the cytoplasm, materials move
by diffusion, a physical process that can work only for short distances.

Cytoplasmic organelles
Cytoplasmic organelles are "little organs" that are suspended in the cytoplasm
of the cell. Each type of organelle has a definite structure and a specific role in
the function of the cell. Examples of cytoplasmic organelles
are mitochondrion, ribosomes, endoplasmic reticulum, golgi apparatus,
and lysosomes.

Mitochondria: Any of various round or long cellular organelles of most eukaryotes that are
found outside the nucleus, produce energy for the cell through cellular respiration, and are
rich in fats, proteins, and enzymes.

Endoplasmic reticulum: A network of sac-like structures and tubes in the cytoplasm (gel-like
fluid) of a cell. Proteins and other molecules move through the endoplasmic reticulum. The
outer surface of the endoplasmic reticulum can be smooth or rough. The rough endoplasmic
reticulum has many ribosomes on its outer surface and makes proteins the cell needs. The
smooth endoplasmic reticulum makes other substances that the cell needs, such as lipids
(fats) and carbohydrates (sugars). The endoplasmic reticulum is a cell organelle.

Golgi apparatus: A stack of small flat sacs formed by membranes inside the cell’s cytoplasm
(gel-like fluid). The Golgi apparatus prepares proteins and lipid (fat) molecules for use in other
places inside and outside the cell. The Golgi apparatus is a cell organelle.

Lysosomes: A sac-like compartment inside a cell that has enzymes that can break down
cellular components that need to be destroyed.

What is DNA?
DNA, or deoxyribonucleic acid, is the hereditary material in humans and almost all other
organisms. Nearly every cell in a person’s body has the same DNA. Most DNA is located in the
cell nucleus (where it is called nuclear DNA), but a small amount of DNA can also be found in the
mitochondria (where it is called mitochondrial DNA or mtDNA). Mitochondria are structures within
cells that convert the energy from food into a form that cells can use.
The information in DNA is stored as a code made up of four chemical bases: adenine (A),
guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T). Human DNA consists of about 3 billion bases, and
more than 99 percent of those bases are the same in all people. The order, or sequence, of
these bases determines the information available for building and maintaining an organism,
similar to the way in which letters of the alphabet appear in a certain order to form words and
sentences.

DNA bases pair up with each other, A with T and C with G, to form units called base pairs. Each
base is also attached to a sugar molecule and a phosphate molecule. Together, a base, sugar,
and phosphate are called a nucleotide. Nucleotides are arranged in two long strands that form a
spiral called a double helix. The structure of the double helix is somewhat like a ladder, with the
base pairs forming the ladder’s rungs and the sugar and phosphate molecules forming the
vertical sidepieces of the ladder.

An important property of DNA is that it can replicate, or make copies of itself. Each strand of DNA
in the double helix can serve as a pattern for duplicating the sequence of bases. This is critical
when cells divide because each new cell needs to have an exact copy of the DNA present in the
old cell.

DNA is a double helix formed by base pairs attached to a sugar-phosphate backbone.

What is a gene?
       
A gene is the basic physical and functional unit of heredity. Genes are made up of DNA. Some
genes act as instructions to make molecules called proteins. However, many genes do not code
for proteins. In humans, genes vary in size from a few hundred DNA bases to more than 2 million
bases. An international research effort called the Human Genome Project, which worked to
determine the sequence of the human genome and identify the genes that it contains, estimated
that humans have between 20,000 and 25,000 genes.
Every person has two copies of each gene, one inherited from each parent. Most genes are the
same in all people, but a small number of genes (less than 1 percent of the total) are slightly
different between people. Alleles are forms of the same gene with small differences in their
sequence of DNA bases. These small differences contribute to each person’s unique physical
features.

Scientists keep track of genes by giving them unique names. Because gene names can be long,
genes are also assigned symbols, which are short combinations of letters (and sometimes
numbers) that represent an abbreviated version of the gene name. For example, a gene
on chromosome 7 that has been associated with cystic fibrosis is called the cystic fibrosis
transmembrane conductance regulator; its symbol is CFTR.
Genes are made up of DNA. Each chromosome contains many genes.

Credit: U.S. National Library of Medicine

What is a chromosome?
       
In the nucleus of each cell, the DNA molecule is packaged into thread-like structures called
chromosomes. Each chromosome is made up of DNA tightly coiled many times around proteins
called histones that support its structure.
Chromosomes are not visible in the cell’s nucleus—not even under a microscope—when the cell
is not dividing. However, the DNA that makes up chromosomes becomes more tightly packed
during cell division and is then visible under a microscope. Most of what researchers know about
chromosomes was learned by observing chromosomes during cell division.

Each chromosome has a constriction point called the centromere, which divides the chromosome
into two sections, or “arms.” The short arm of the chromosome is labeled the “p arm.” The long
arm of the chromosome is labeled the “q arm.” The location of the centromere on each
chromosome gives the chromosome its characteristic shape, and can be used to help describe
the location of specific genes.

DNA and histone proteins are packaged into structures called chromosomes.
 What is a mutation?
A mutation is a change that occurs in our DNA sequence, either due to mistakes
when the DNA is copied or as the result of environmental factors such as UV light
and cigarette smoke.

 Over a lifetime our DNA? can undergo changes or ‘mutations?’ in the sequence

of bases?, A, C, G and T.
 This results in changes in the proteins? that are made. This can be a bad or a
good thing.
 Mutations can occur during DNA replication? if errors are made and not
corrected in time.
 Mutations can also occur as the result of exposure to environmental factors
such as smoking, sunlight and radiation.
 Often cells can recognise any potentially mutation-causing damage and repair
it before it becomes a fixed mutation.
 Mutations contribute to genetic variation? within species?.
 Mutations can also be inherited, particularly if they have a positive effect.
 For example, the disorder sickle cell anaemia? is caused by a mutation in
the gene? that instructs the building of a protein called haemoglobin?. This
causes the red blood cells? to become an abnormal, rigid, sickle shape.
 However, in African populations, having this mutation also protects
against malaria?.
 However, mutation can also disrupt normal gene activity and cause diseases,
like cancer?
 Cancer is the most common human genetic disease; it is caused by mutations
occurring in a number of growth-controlling genes. Sometimes faulty, cancer-
causing genes can exist from birth, increasing a person’s chance of getting
cancer.