IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, Vol. PAS-100, No.

1, January 1981 163

A FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPT FOR HIGH SPEED RELAYING

M. Vitins, Member IEEE

Brown Boveri Research Center
CH-5405 Baden, Switzerland

Abstract This paper describes a fundamental approach for detecting the direc-
-
An important tool for investigating the present approach is the principle of
tion to a power system fault within the first milliseconds following the fault incep- superposition. Consider, for example, a transmission line connecting two sources
tion. The method is based on a combined evaluation of the voltage and current as indicated in Fig. 1. The deviation signals can be considered to be generated by
deviations generated by the fault occurrence. Design considerations and test results switching on a fictitious voltage source at the fault point with a voltage equal in
based on numerical simulations and on a transient network analyser are presented. magnitude and opposite in sign to the prefault voltage at the fault point. The super-
The method solves several problems occurring in conventional relaying and is suita- position of the resulting deviation signals and the prefault waveforms clearly yield
ble for use in ultra high speed protection systems which employ a fast tele- the postfault waveforms.
communication channel between the ends of the protected network. Let us at this stage of the analysis point out that switching operations and
lightning also produce fictitious sources and deviation signals. Attention must
INTRODUCTION therefore be devoted to the ability of the resulting protective system to distinguish
faults from normal switching operations and lightning.
The use of tele-communication principles in power system protection has a
long tradition which started with the introduction of differential (pilot wire) schemes
in early days and continued with the application of new communication techniques i p(t) Xf
xs Xf Xs
such as power line communications, radio and microwave systems. The application
of modern communication principles to protection provides the possibility of develop-
ing new operating principles which are suitable for applications where different
redundant protective schemes are desired. Furthermore the availability of fast com-
munication channels opens new dimensions in the field of ultra high speed relaying,
as a means to improve system transient stability and to increase the transfer power
E FD|(t) IUD Cos (t+Y) II E
capability over existing high voltage transmission lines. The present paper is devot-
ed to the problem of developing high speed direction to fault detectors for use in
directional comparison protection schemes.
High speed relaying is necessarily associated with power system transients
which distort the otherwise sinusoidal shape of the voltages and currents during the a) Prefault Configuration
first cycles following the inception of a fault. Recently a number of differential type
protection schemes which take these effects into account has been proposed1.2.
These methods are based on the exchange of quantative information, such as ampli-
tudes, phases or instantaneous values, between the ends of the protected net-
work. An alternative method, which poses less demanding requirements on the
communication channel, is based on the exchange of directional or command infor-
mation rather than quantitive information over the protected network. Recent
papers3,4 have described a basic operating principle as well as practical experience
with an ultra high speed directional comparison scheme. The assessment of the
direction to the fault is based on the principle that during the first moments after the
fault inception the transient current and voltage are in phase and possess equal or
opposite signs. A power line direction of propagation detector based on this princi-
ple has also been proposed5. b) Fault Inception Model
The purpose of the paper is to present a description of the nature and
properties of voltage and current changes resulting from fault inceptions and switch-
ing operations. Techniques for extracting the direction to the fault from the measured
signal deviations are proposed. Fundamental concepts are presented which prove to
be suitable tools for identifying and predicting the main features and limitations of the
proposed high speed directional detection schemes.

BASIC THEORY
The inception of a fault in a power system will cause the postfault voltage u
and current at a relaying point to deviate from the steady state prefault voltage up
and current ip, respectively. We thus have c) Postfault Configuration
u(t) = uplt) +Ault), (1) Fig. 1: Principle of superposition
lIt) =
iplt) +AiIt),
where Au(t) and Ailt) denote the fault generated voltage and current deviations as The following analysis will start by first describing elementary properties of
functions of time t. the deviation signals under simplified but very basic conditions and then proceed to
In the present approach, the direction to the fault is determined by evaluating the inclusion of more complex travelling wave effects.
the deviation signals Au and Ai. These deviation signals are readily obtained from
the measured voltage u and current by suppressing the sinusoidal prefault compo- Fault Trajectory
nents. In order to achieve maximal simplicity, let us consider the configuration in
Fig. 1 and assume that the source and line impedances be represented by pure reac-
tances X. and Xf, respectively. Furthermore we will assume that the amplitude of
the prefault voltage Up at the fault point is equal to the rated voltage peak E. We
should, however, bear in mind that prefault currents will influence the magnitude
and phase of the fictitious source. For an ideal fault (Rf = 0) occurring at time t = 0
we readily obtain from Fig. lb:

F 80 232-9 A paper recommended and approved by the Au(t) = AUcos (cot + 'y), (2)
IEEE Power System Relaying Committee of the IEEE Power ALit) = Alisin (ot + y)- sin (Y)l,
Engineering Society for presentation at the IEEE PES where
s
Winter Meeting, New Yor, NY, February 3-8, 1980. AU =
Xs + Xf
E,
(3)
Manuscript submitted May 21, 1979; made available
for printing November 8, 1979. Al = 1 E.
Xs + Xf

0018-9510/81/0100-0163$00.75© 1981 IEEE

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164
Note that the current deviation contains a constant dc-offset, the magnitude of
which depends on the fault inception angle y. The inclusion of resistances in the fault-
ed loop will, of course, cause a decay of this offset. These resistances will further-
more slightly reduce the magnitude of AU and Al and introduce an additional phase
shift between the fundamental frequency components of the deviation signals.
In order to discuss the influence of the source and line reactances as well as
the fault inception angle on the deviation signals, we shall plot their instantaneous
values in a plane spanned by the two coordinates Au and RAi. The resistance factor
R is an arbitrary scaling factor, for the moment. The fault occurrence is thus repre-
sented by a fault trajectory in the deviation plane, as illustrated in Fig. 2.
up(t)
u (t)
Au (t)
-in
oT
i(t) i within the protected zone are detected. The dc-offset will introduce an overreaching
0 main completely within the response limits. The resulting settings will be well suited
Quasi -Steady State Voltage and Current Woveforms
Forward Fault,
-E
r~~
E
AU
m &
Reverse Fault/ I IN1
Fault Trajectory
Fig. 2: Fault trajectory and operating principle
Since sudden changes in the current are impossible under the present
assumptions the trajectory will initially jump from the origin of the plane to a point
somewhere along the Au-axis. It will then proceed along an elliptical path. The mag-
nitude of the initial voltage jump is maximal for faults occurring in the moment of a
voltage extremum while it is zero for faults occurring during a voltage zero. The cen-
ter of the elliptical trajectory is displaced along the Ai-axis by an amount proportion-
al to the current offset. This offset is maximal for fault inceptions during a voltage
zero and zero for fault inceptions during a voltage extremum.
In what follows the fictitious source will said to be in the forwarddirection if it
lies in the direction of the positive current flow while the voltage is measured as indi-
cated in Fig. 1. Fictitious sources in the opposite direction will be said to lie in the
backward or reverse direction. The previous analysis shows that trajectories result-
ing from forward faults possess a clockwise sense ofrotation along the elliptical or-
bit. Such paths necessarily departthe Au-axis into the quadrants II or IVdepending on
the fault inception angle y. If the polarity of the current measurement is changed, the
trajectory will, on the other hand, rotate in an anti-clockwise sense and thus initially
enter the quadrant I or ll. This is characteristic of reverse faults. The sense of rota-
tion is thus indicative of the direction to the fault. A basic approach to determine the
direction to the fault thus consists of introducing threshold boundaries in the Au-Ai-
plane and recording the quadrant in which the trajectory at hand first crosses the
boundary. Once the trajectory has crossed the boundary, the relay may be reset or
may adjust itself to the postfault sinusoidal voltages and currents.
A typical boundary is shown in Fig. 2. If the linear combination RAi-Au first
reaches some threshold value, say + E or E, a fictitious source in the forward
- of the voltage transducers, i.e. by measuring the voltage on the line side of the cir-
direction may be assumed. On the other hand, if the linear combination RAi + Au
first reaches the mentioned threshold values a fictitious source is indicated in the
reverse direction. Other types of boundaries such as hyperbolas, circles, ellipses or
piecewise linear curves are of course also possible.
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Comments Concerning Operating Times and Settings
Let us observe at this stage that it takes the trajectory one whole period of the
power system frequency to complete one revolution along the elliptical path. Since
the trajectory will in general reach the threshold boundary in a small fraction of the
complete cycle, very high speed response times ranging from, say, Oto 6 ms can be
achieved.
For the sake of clarity, it should be pointed out that the overall response time
of a directional comparison protection system consists of the actual directional dis-
crimination detection time and of the total channel delay time required for the ex-
change of direction information between the ends of the protected network. Due to
the high speed direction to fault assessment, the contribution of the channel time
becomes increasingly significant, in particular if for example power line carrier
schemes are employed.
The boundary depicted in Fig. 2 is well suited to detect faults within the pro-
tected transmission line for varying source impedances. Because of the sloped
boundary, faults near weak sources which present large voltage and small current
deviations will be detected equally well as faults near high energy centers which
yield small voltage and large current deviations. The dependence of AU and Al on
the source impedance follows directly from (31 and is illustrated in Fig. 3.
The scaling iactc. R essentially determines the reach of the detector. In a
directional comparison scheme R should therefore be adjusted such that all faults
tendency since it shifts the ellipse from the origin along the vertical axis.
Close-in faults can under circumstances be detected quickly without the use
of an information channel. In order to guarantee relay selectivity, the threshold
boundaries must in this case be expanded about the origin of the Au-Ai-plane, in
such a way that all trajectories generated by faults outside of the protected zone re-
for detecting severe close-in faults, while other faults, associated with smaller fault
currents, will possibly remain undetected in this mode of operation.
xs1 < xS2< Xs3 R
Xf
xs1
-1 0 AU
E
Fig. 3: Quasi-steady state amplitudes for a fixed fault reactance Xf and differ-
ing source reactances Xs,, XS2 and XS3-
Switching Trajectory
Circuit breaker closing operations are equivalently represented by inserting a
fictitious voltage source V between the breaker poles, which compensates the volt-
age over the breaker contacts prior to switching, see Fig. 4. Circuit breaker current
interruption is, on the other hand, equivalent to the introduction of a fictitious cur-
rent source 1, which compensates the line current prior to disconnection. These fic-
titious sources produce elliptical trajectories similar to the fault generated trajecto-
ries just described.
Routine switching operations will in general lead to trajectories which remain
close to the origin. However, the energisation of very long transmission lines or the
clearing of faults may create a larger shock to the power system. In such cases the
resulting trajectory may reach the threshold boundary and indicate the presence of a
fictitious source in the direction of the circuit breaker that had just operated. Circuit
breaker operations which take place wvithin the protected zone of the directional
comparison system can therefore not always be distinguished from fault inceptions,
unless additional information is available.
A rather straightforward method to avoid problemes due to switching consists
of eliminating all switching elements from the protected zone by proper placement
cuit breaker. This configuration will be assumed throughout the rest of this paper.
The protected zone, in which faults on the energized system are detected, is given
by the location of the current transducers. No relationship between the mutual loca-
tion of the voltage and current transducers needs to be considered.
 165
Local FPoint of t=O Remote
Source FReflection Source
F

B1Ff
Xs5 xI
IS A
t

Connecting Two Networks

ri

x
a) Internal Fault
t=O
F
Xs xs
Ce) I l
A
i
B

Disconnecting Two Networks

C ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Fig. 4: Fictitious sources representing circuit breaker operations in the config-
uration of Fig. 1 (Xi Xf + X,).=

x O
TRAVELLING WAVE THEORY
b) External Fault
Faults which occur at the moment of a non-vanishing voltage will cause the Fig. 5: Travelling wave propagation generated by a fault (Rf = OQ).
prefault line charge to suddenly discharge and thus generate surges on the trans-
mission system. The repeated reflection of these waves at various points in the
power system and at the fault point produces decaying high frequency voltage and
current transients. This phenomenon becomes particularly significant in high
voltage power systems, when the line length and system capacitance is large and
when the resistances in the faulted network are small.
Let us now consider the deviation signals resulting from a fictitious source on
a single phase lossless transmission line with constant distributed inductances and Fault Transients
capacitances. According to the theory of the wave equation the voltage and current The behaviour of first incoming and outgoing waves are essential in the pre-
can be considered to be superimposed of a forward and a backward travelling wave, sent approach and deserve a more detailed examination. Let us first consider fault
which propagate with constant amplitude at a velocity slightly less than the speed trajectories generated by forward faults with respect to the lineterminal A in Fig. 5a.
of light. Let us denote the instantaneous value of the forward and backward travel- If the prefault voltage at the point x is given by Ecos ((ot + y), the voltage change at
ling waves at the relaying point by a(t) and b(t) respectively and let us call these sig- the fault point x at time t will clearly be given by the boundary condition
nals wave signals. We thus have
Au(x,t) =-Ecos (cot + y). (8)
Au(t) =
2 [a(t) - bt)],
(4) The relation between this voltage and the wave signals measured at the relay-
Ai(t) = 1 [alt) + b(t)], ing point is given by the D'Alembert formula
2Rw
1
where Rw denotes the surge resistance of the line. The inversion of this system Auix,t) = 2 [a(t-TI - bit +T)], (9)
yields where represents the travel time from the measuring point to the fault point, as in-
T

dicated in Fig. 5a. Since the forward travelling wave at the fault point is initially equal
alt) = RwAiit) + AuOt), to zero, i.e. a(t-T) = 0, equations (8) and (91 yield the equalities
(51
bit) =
R,wAiIt) - AultI.
Au(x,t) =-2 bit + r) =-Ecos ct + y).

A fundamental approach to assess the direction to the fictitious source is to By introducing a time shift, we thus obtain
detect which of the two wave signals first reaches a given threshold constant c. If
the wave signal bit) associated with the backward travelling wave reaches the bit) = 2 Ecos(wt-Co)r+y) 110)
threshold value c or c a fault in the forward direction is assumed. By applying (5)
-

we thus obtain the condition

for Tr t < 3r + 2r'. The b(t)-signal is thus initially independent of the terminal
R,,Ai = ac + Au. (6) condition6. If the travel time T is small compared with the power system period, the
following approximation of ( 10) is valid
A reverse fault is indicated if the wave signal a(t) associated with the forward
travelling wave satisfies the condition a = c or a =-c. This condition is more ex- b(t) 2 Ecos (y). 11)
plicitly given by
R,,N = :k c- Au. (7) The arrival of the incoming travelling wave at the line terminals will produce
a reflected travelling wave, which is highly dependent of the terminal conditions at
hand. The reflected wave will normally possess a reduced amplitude compared with
The direction to the fault is given by the condition (6) or 17) which is first valid. the incoming wave due to partial reflection effects. Let us, for example, considerthe
The operating conditions (6) and (7) coincide exactly with the sloped bounda- reflection of the incoming wave 11) at a source consisting of a pure inductance L8,
ries previously discussed in Fig. 2, provided the design parameters c and R at our dis- such that
posal are chosen as follows: c E and R = Rw. We recall that that this setting is as-
=

sociated with an ohmic reach given by the resistance R.

AuOt) =-L8 dAi(t) (12)

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 166

Ai,
RwAi f
E/R,
o XN r'/ A.,
0 S

0 / -SIR
E

/\
PHASE T
- -E
a) Fault inception during a voltage maximum

0\ Au T I
Ai, AiT

E/R,
Fig. 6: Fault trajectory under idealized conditions (and ' = 0).

Combining equations (12), (11) and (5) we readily obtain

-E\5 CAm, -E 0
SE Au1

S/R,
alt) = 2 Ecos y (1-2 exp (- AtIT)) (13)
for T+2T' <t <3T+4V,
(14)
where At = t-T-22 T'and T = -L.

PHASE S PHASE TI
Note that the steep high frequency front of the incoming wave is immedi-
ately reflected with a reversed sign, while the subsequent low frequency portion of b) Fault inception during a voltage zero
the incoming wave exponentially tends to be reflected indentically without a sign re-
versal. Fig. 7: Typical numerically simulated fault trajectories during the first 17.5 ms
The fault trajectory given by equations (1 1) and (13) is depicted in Fig. 6. Fast after the inception of a RO-fault on a three phase system.
response times are seen to be obtained for faults occurring in the vicinity of a voltage
maximum (- 600 <y <600). Faults in the reverse direction with respect to the point A in Fig. 5b, will in a
Umitations arise when the incoming wave is totally reflected at the measuring likewise manner initially generate wave signals of the form
point, for example on an open ended line (L, = oo). In this particular case, the trajec-
tory will concide identically with the horizontal Au-axis. Since the line is open the fic- a(t) 2 Ecos (y), b(t) = 0. (15)
titious source cannot possibility lie in the reverse direction, hence such a trajectory
must be associated with a fictitious source in the forward direction. For fault inception angles y near zero the trajectory will thus immediately cross the
Another limitation occurs for measuring points at infinitely high energy reverse threshold boundary. For larger fault angles the underlying elliptical trajec-
centers (L. = 0), such that the trajectory will coincide with the vertical Ai-axis. In tory component and the current offset will become increasingly important.
order to be able to guarantee correct directional selectivity, special attention must
be devoted for the protection of lines near exceedingly high energy sources, in par-
ticular for faults nearthe far end of a long line leaving the energy center. Faults close
to such centers, on the other hand, will in general produce large currents on the
iW
RR
faulted line, thus allowing rapid fault detection without channel use as described in
the previous section on quasi-stationary basic theory. It is worthwile to remark that
voltage transients will practically not appear at such relaying points7, while the high
frequency current transients will be significantly smaller than the fault current;

\ /yE
I
hence the quasi-stationary theory will tend tobe valid for close-in faults.
Typical trajectories obtained by a numerical simulation of a RO-fault in the
middle of a symmetrical three-phase line of length 200 km are depicted in Fig. 7a and
b. The trajectories of the faulted phases consist of an underlying elliptical and super-
imposed high-frequency components. Fig. 7b illustrates that a fault occurring at
the moment of a voltage zero, which does not generate significant travelling wave
surges, is reliably detected thanks to the predominant elliptical component of the
trajectory.
Fig. 7 demonstrates that the directional discrimination can be determined on a
segregated phase basis in multiple phase systems. In order to avoid false operation
of the healthy phase detectors, two important effects must be considered. Firstly,
mutual coupling of the phases will induce high-frequency transients into the healthy
phases. In Fig. 7 such transients were reduced by subjecting the deviation signals to
first order low pass filters with a cut off frequency of 1 kHz. Secondly, the current
threshold must be set higher than the magnitude of the quasi-steady state compen-
sating currents which flow in the healthy phases. Such currents occur when the
positive to zero sequence impedance ratios of the two networks split apart by the
fault are non-equal.
The low pass filters just mentioned offer the additional benefits of rounding off
the sharp edges occurring in Fig. 6 and of reducing extreme high frequency tran-
sients caused by close-in faults. Furthermore they eliminate the effect of lightning Trajectory during the first 10 ms after line energization on a transient
impulses. network analyser.

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Switching Transients
We recall that switching operations are equivalent to the insertion of fictitious
sources in the reverse direction with respect to the point of voltage measurement
and hence they essentially yield similar trajectories to those resulting from reverse
faults. A typical trajectory resulting from the energization of phase R on a discharged
line is offered in Fig. 8. Note that the initial part of the trajectory leaves the origin
along a line with a slope of roughly 37 degrees. This feature is a consequence of the
three-phase version of relation (1 51, b(t) = 0, or
RWAiftl = Au(t). (16)
In Fig. 8 the breaker contacts were electrically closed at the moment of a
maximal voltage difference between the phases to be connected, hence pronounced
travelling wave surges are generated. This situation is typical of closing operations,
since the mechanical closing motion is generally slow in comparison with the power
system period. Let us observe that circuit breaker opening operations are also asso-
ciated with travelling wave phenomena. Since the line current is interrupted at a cur-
rent zero, the equivalent source is to be inserted at the instant of zero current or
maximal current change.
167
within the operating boundary. Thus phase selectivity is achieved on a segregated
basis.
Trajectories associated with the single pole clearance of the phase R fault just
discussed Isee Figs. 9 and 10) are presented in Fig. 11. In accordance with the gen-
eral theory, both local detectors on the switched phase indicate a fictitious source in
the reverse direction.
Fault resistances tend to reduce the magnitudes of the voltage and current
deviation signals and to slightly rotate the quasi-steady state elliptical trajectory
component about its center. The maximal tolerable resistance magnitude depends
on various factors such as the impedance of the faulted circuit and the margins of
the settings in the deviation plane.

PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS
A study configuration worth-while examining in more detail consists of a double
circuit line connecting two sources. A transient network analyser (tna) was, to this
end, employed to simulate a 500 kV power system. The deviation signals were ob- a) Fault Inception Model
tained by subjecting the measured voltages and currents to analog steady-state
suppressors. The transmission lines were 324 km long and consisted of 18 7-type
equivalent sections. The frequency dependence of the line inductance and resist-
ance was modelled, as well as the coupling of the parallel lines to a common ground.
The trajectories resulting from fault occurrences and switching operations basically
presented the same features described in the previous section, despite the use of
80% capacitive series compensation and the coupling effects of the parallel lines.
Fig. 9 illustrates typical voltage and current waveforms and the correspond-
ing filtered deviation signals generated by a phase R-to-ground fault near a weak
source. The resulting trajectories of all phases leaving the weak source are offered in
Fig. 10.
Note that the detector on the faulted phase will detect the fault in the forward
direction, while the healthy line phase R' relay will correctly see the fault in the re-
verse direction. The trajectories of all other phases are essentially identical, up to
small differences due to insymmetries in the line configuration, and they remain

b) Fault Trajectories
Fig. 10: Trajectories during the first 10 milliseconds after the inception of a
phase R-to-ground fault on a double circuit transmission system.

a) Voltage and current waveforms, uR and ij respectively.

a) Current Interruption Model

b) Switching Trajectories
b) Filtered voltage and current deviations, AuR and Ait respectively.
Fig. 9: Typical waveforms for a R-to-ground fault on double circuit transmis- Fig. 11: Trajectories during the first 10 milliseconds after disconnection of a
sion system. phase R fault on a double circuit system.
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 Gap flashing may occur across a series capacitor along the line provided the
capacitor voltage exceeds a preset threshold value. The experiments indicated that
gap flashing due to large fault currents in the system generally tend to occur after
the fault trajectory first reaches the directional discrimination boundary, thus elimi-
nating the possibility of false responSes due to such flashing transients. The adverse
event of a flashover generated by unexpectedly high load currents will generally not
pose problems, provided the by-passing of the capacitor does not change the load
current more than the current setting level. Load currents were simulated on the tna
by introducing a phase shift in the voltages behind the souce impedance at one end
of the line.
Cross-country faults were correctly detected by the relays associated with
the faulted phases.
The event of a circuit breaker connecting a network to a permanent line fault
will produce a directional decision in the reverse direction rather than the forward
direction, assuming line side voltage measurement. Additional criteria and logic is
necessary to identify this condition and to detect the presence of a permanent fault.
Short relay response times offer the possibility of avoiding difficulties which
are typical in conventional relaying, such as current transducer problems. The direc-
tion to fault will be determined before the current transducer saturates, since high
level fault currents will automatically yield a fast relay response.
Conventional relaying principles are often based on the evaluation of the
faulted voltage u(ti. Such methods suffer from the fact that significant voltage
drops produced by fault inceptions will generate capacitive voltage transformer
transients, which may be larger than t&Ve actual line voltage. The transformer tran-
sients, however, tend to be smaller than the original voltage change, hence suffi-
cient operating signal will generally be available in the present method.
CONCLUSIONS
The paper presents a fundamental concept for determining the direction to a
fault in a power system wiftin the first milliseconds after fault inception. The meth-
od is suitable for use in high speed directional comparison schemes and in applica-
tions where different redundant operating principles are desired.
The inception of a fault in a power system is represented by a trajectory
which characterizes the voltage and current changes due to the fault occurrence. A
geometric approach is discussed to extract information on the fault location from
the fault trajectory. Factors which influence the shape of the trajectories are de-
scribed and verified by numerical simulations and by experiments on a transient net-
work analyser.
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REFERENCES
1. M. Okamura, F. Andow and S. Suzuki: 'Improved Phase-Comparison Relaying
with Higher Performance', IEEE PES Summer Meeting, Mexico City, Mexico,
F77, 706-5.
2. T. Takagi, J. Baba, K. Uemura and T. Sakaguchi: 'Fault Protection Based on
Travelling Wave Theory - Part II Sensibility Analysis and Laboratory Test',
IEEE PES Winter Meeting, New York, N.Y., A 78 220-6, Jan./Feb. 1978.
3. M. J. Yee and J. Esztergalyos: 'Ultra High Speed Relay for EHV/UHV Transmis-
sion Lines - Installation-Staged Fault Tests and Operational Experience', IEEE
Trans. Vol. PAS-97, No. 5, pp. 1814-1825, Sept./Okt. 1978.
4. M. Chamia and S. Libermann: 'Ultra High Speed Relay for EHV/UHV Transmis-
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F78, 215-6, Jan./Feb. 1978.
5. K.J. Huang: 'Power Line Transient Source and Direction of Propagation Detec-
tor', IEEE PES Summer Meeting, San Francisco, Calif., A 75 451-5, July 1975.
6. H.W. Dommel and J.M. Michels: 'High Speed Relaying Using Travelling Wave
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Jan./Feb. 1978.
7. M. Vitins: 'Transient Phenomena in High Voltage Networks and their Influence
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358-363, June 1978.
Michael Vitins was born in Bad Rehburg, Germany,
on April 27, 1947. He attended public schools in
Vancouver, Canada, and in Switzerland. He studied
at the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in
Zurich, Switzerland, where he received the Dipi.-
Ing. degree in electrical engineering at the end of
1969 and the Dr.-Math. degree in 1973. He also re-
ceived two Silver Medals from the same institute.
Since 1973 he has been at the Brown Boveri
Research Center as a member of the automatic con-
trol group.
.,:~

Discussion
R. J. Marttila (Ontario Hydro, Toronto, Ontario, Canada): The author
is to be complimented on a well-written and interesting paper on high
speed directional discrimination of a power system fault.
To take advantage of the high speed discriminating ability of this
approach, a high speed telecommunication channel is a requirement.
Could the author give an estimation of the required total bandwidth for
detection of faults within the first 2 ms?
Lines between two sources of generation were considered in the
analysis of this scheme. A load tap placed somewhere along the lines
could represent another source. Since only direction of the fault is
determined with the method presented, it would seem that a high speed
relay terminal is required at the load tap in order to discriminate be-
tween faults on the line side of the tap and the load side of the tap.
The requirement for high speed telecommunication channels to every
load tap, as suggested by the above assessment, would limit the useful-
ness of this approach. Would the author comment?
Manuscript received February 19, 1980.
J. Berdy and S. L. Smith (General Electric Company, Schenectady, NY):
The author has presented an interesting approach to high speed relaying.
We have done some simulations to better understand how this concept
operates for various system configurations and fault types. One of our
simulations is shown in the following discussion. We also have some
specific questions and comments which follow the simulation example.
Simulation Example
The model system used for digital simulation is shown in Figure 1.
The system voltage is 550 kV. Voltages shown in Figure 1 are phase to
ground peak voltages of 449 kV. Three sections of transmission line are
shown, with the relay location designated by Ir and Vr. The transmis-
sion lines are represented by three-phase, untransposed, distributed
parameter line models as described in the BPA Electromagnetic Tran-
sients Program users manual. The frequency dependency of the zero
sequence mode of propagation is included in the line model. Sources
are modeled by a series inductor limiting the symmetrical short circuit
current at 8000 amperes. Capacitance of coupling capacitors, buswork,
bushings, and circuit breakers at each terminal is included as a shunt
element. Shunt compensation of approximately 60 percent is also
included. The fault is initiated by A phase by closing the switch 450
after a positive voltage maximum has occured at A phase voltage
E/0°
Xs
Figure 1. Model system.
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169
sources. A fault resistance of 15 ohms is included in the fault current
path.
The results of the simulation, plotted in the AiRW, AV plane are
shown in Figure 2. Note the trajectory passes through the forward
boundary, then the reverse boundary, and finally through the forward
boundary in the fourth quadrant. As the author points out, this is not
the signal that is used to make a decision about the directionality of the
fault. The signals shown in Figure 2 are filtered by a low pass, first
order filter with cut off frequency of 1 khz as described in the paper,
before the directionality concept is applied. The transfer function of
such a filter is shown below.
Figures 3a and 3b are a comparison of filtered and unfiltered
quantities. Note that the initial current traveling wave is greatly reduced
since it is a high frequency transient. The initial voltage wave is also
significantly attenuated. After the initial transients, the filtered quanti-
ties track the unfiltered quantities with some phase shift and less
attenuation, as the high frequency content of the waveforms decreases.
Figure 4 shows a plot of the filtered trajectory. Although a mar-
ginal case, the plot shows that false blocking is possible for this condi-
tion as the trajectory misses the forward boundary but does contact the
reverse boundary. The trajectory eventually exits as it should, through
the forward boundary of quadrant four.
This case points out the need for further study of this concept
because of possible practical problems, some of which are outlined
below:
a) It would appear that any application of such a relaying, con-
cept would require extensive simulation to determine if the
settings are adequate for the system in question.
b) The filtering process presents a significant problem. As pointed
out by the author, filtering is needed to prevent the relay from
misoperating for transients induced by lightning strokes and
also to prevent unfaulted phases from operating due to high
frequency transients coupled from the faulted phase. But as
shown in Figure 4, this filtering can result in false blocking for
internal faults. There is, therefore, a trade off in filtering that
could cause some problem in a practical application of the
concept.
c) Finally, testing the concept through simulation for many types
of systems and faults is important. These simulations should
include accurate models of all equipment which will signifi-
cantly influence the waveshapes the relay will act upon. Par-
ticular attention should be given to the frequency response of
all equipment, as this has a significant effect on the wave-
shapes.
E/0
-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Xc
,;E
 170

AIRW in 600.
KV
T.T
.i...........2....i ' .
1450. -

300.
4-.--.'. I
150. .1.

0 4. 4
"1 T""

-150. *..--.A.-..L..

i
I. .
-300.

-450. -r -r- -.
L.
-600o.
-i r50. -6oo. -450. -300. -150. 0 150. 300. 450. 6oo. 750.
AV in KV
Figure 2. Unfiltered trajectory

AIRw i:n KV 400.

300.

200.

100.

-100.

-200.

-300.

-400o.
0 .7 1.4 2.2 2.9 3.6 4.3 5.0 5.8 6.5 7.2
time in msec

Figure 3a. Comparison of filtered and unfiltered AiRW waveforms.

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 171
AV in KV

0 .7 1.4 2.2 2.9 3.6 4.3 5.0 5.8 6.5 7.2

time in msec

Figure 3b. Comparison of filtered and unfiltered AV.

AIRw in 600.
KV

450.

4~~~
i>.::uL
300.

150.

t-f
0

-150.

-300.
rf t <
-450.

-6oo .
-750. -600. -450. -300. -150. 0 150. 300. 450. 6oo. 750.
AV in KV
Figure 4. Filtered trajectory

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172
Questions and Comments
1. The author describes a first order filter which is used to filter
the AiRw and Au signals before a directionality decision is made. Would
the author agree that this filtering almost entirely eliminates the travel-
ing wave component of the input signals (see Figure 3)? This means the
concept makes its decision based on the 60 hz component of the input
quantities and on components which oscillate at the natural frequency
of the circuit.
2. The effect of instrument transformers seems to have been
ignored in the digital and TNA simulations. Does the author consider
their transient characteristics and frequency response to be such that
they can be ignored in these simulations?
3. Line modeling techniques are very important in determining
the waveshapes at the relay point. In the digital simulation, what type
of line model was used? Also source models effect the total waveforms
seen at the relay point. Could the author elaborate on surce models
used for the digital and TNA simulations?
4. Does the. author anticipate using only one operating character-
istic, that described by straight lines connecting E on the AiRw axis to
E on the Au axis for all system configurations?
5. The performance of this scheme near high energy centers is
discussed on page four of the paper. We have the following questions
about that discussion.
a) The statement is made that special attention must be given
to faults at the far end of a line near high energy centers.
Can the author describe special requirements needed to
deal with this case?
b) The author says that faults close to high energy centers
will produce large currents on the faulted line, allowing
rapid fault detection without channel use (direct trip).
Since the change in voltage, Au, is a function of the source
impedance, it would appear that the trajectory near a high
energy center would approach the AiRw axis. As the
trajectory approaches the AiRw axis for decreasing source
impedance, directional detection with this concept re-
quires a high degree of discrimination between the forward
and reverse detectors. Has the author done any studies to
determine a minimum source impedance which will allow
correct direct trip?
6. Figure lOb of the paper shows the trajectory of phase R' for an
external fault. The trajectory penetrates the reverse direction boundary
and subsequently touches the forward direction boundary in the fourth
quadrant. This example indicates that the decision that the fault is in
the reverse direction is made on the initial boundary penetration, and
that all subsequent crossings are blocked. If this is the case, what would
be the performance of this concept for the case where an internal fault
occurs while the relay is blocking for an external fault? This type of
condition could occur during a lightning storm where multiple lightning
strokes first cause an external fault and then an internal fault.
7. In the last paragraph before the conclusion of the paper the
author implies that conventional relaying which uses faulted voltage as
input will suffer due to voltage transients in capacitive voltage trans-
formers. Conventional relaying tends to suffer when making a distance
measurement for a direct tripping unit that must not overreach the
remove terminal, but not when employed in a well designed directional
companson scheme where the relays are set to overreach the remote
line terminal.
Manuscript received March 3, 1980.
John Linders (Consultant, Sarasota, Florida) and Ron Slatem (Consult-
ant, Transvaal, Republic of South Africa): This paper is valuable in that
it further confirms that ultra high speed (UHS) relay theory is based on
well-established classic understandings of electrical networks.
The 1978 references (3, 4) also confirm much of this theory by
reporting on the several years of successful field experiences by others
based on similar concepts. These experiences by others continue to be
favorable (these references should be restated in the paper to conform
to IEEE format to assist one in locating in his own library i.e., reference
4 is published in PAS Volume 97, No. 6 Nov/Dec '78, pp. 2104-2116,
including discussions).
The trajectory concept is a logic extension of the phasor relations
used in steady state d'istance relaying concepts when analyzing a dy-
namically changing system condition. Would not this trajectory concept
be more valuable if a time scale were added? Shouldn't it also be
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clarified that these UHS relays do have a "reach" in the same sense as a
distance relay?
Manuscript received March 3, 1980.
M. Vitins: The author would like to thank the discussors for their
complementary comments and thoughtful questions.
The questions raised by Mr. Marttila will be discussed first. Let us
start by pointing out that any of the present day available communica-
tion links, such as telephone lines, power line carrier or microwave
systems, can be employed to coordinate the two detectors at the ends
of the protected zone. Each of these systems offer specific advantages
and the final choice of the communication link will depend on many
factors such as speed, dependability, security and cost. In reply to the
question of Mr. Marttila it can be said that a 4 kHz microwave channel
offers the possibility of achieving a fault detection time in the order of
2 ms. This estimate is based on the assumption that the fault occurred
near a voltage extremum (c.f. Figs. 6 and 7) and that the line length is
modest.
No detailed investigation of the applicability of the concept for
tapped lines has yet been carried out. If the fault trajectory is found
to remain within an appropriately chosen operating boundary in the
deviation plane for faults on the load side of the tap clearly no modifi-
cations will be necessary. Should this prove to be difficult to achieve,
then the next step would be to consider an additional detector at the
tap, as mentioned by Mr. Marttila.
The questions posed by Messrs. Berdy and Smith will be discussed
in the order they were raised.
1. The discussors correctly point out that the filtering process will
eliminate high frequency travelling wave components of the input sig-
nals which possess frequencies beyond a few kilohertz. Thus it is the
change of the 60 Hz signal component and the natural power system
frequencies within this frequency range which influence the relay
decision.
The relay settings are anticipated to be based on the change of the
60 Hz signal components, that is to say on the elliptical quasi-stationary
part of the trajectory. Thus correct and comparatively fast operation
will result even if transient components are not present, as indicated in
Fig. 2 of the paper. It is indeed important to recognize that the concept
does not at all solely rely on the presence of travelling waves. The dom-
inant frequency component of the initial incoming travelling wave will
generally reduce the response time and produce an overreaching effect.
As illustrated by the discussors' simulation example, it is however
possible to find singular critical cases in which neither the initial tran-
sient nor the underlying elliptical trajectory suffice to produce a suffi-
ciently reliable directional discrimination. The use of the deviation
plane is a substantial aid to investigate the choice of the filters and
operating characteristics for such critical cases.
2. The frequency response of conventional instrument trans-
formers will not pose problems, since the concept is based on signals in
the frequency range below a few kilohertz. Current transformer satura-
tion has been ignored in the simulations, because saturation will occur
after the directional discrimination has occurred. Capacitive voltage
transformers were not included in the simulations although it was
realized that their transient errors will produce a horizontal shift of the
trajectory in the deviation plane. This shift will, in general, remain
smaller than the original voltage deviation, thus a reasonably good noise
to signal ratio is available.
3. The transmission lines employed in the digital simulations were
represented by three-phase, symmetrical distributed parameter models.
The travelling wave characteristics were modeled by frequency inde-
pendent distributed inductances and capacitances, while the line
resistance was represented by constant resistances at the line ends. The
sources were modeled by ideal voltage sources behind frequency inde-
pendent inductances and resistances. As one of the consequences of
these approximations, this model will not sufficiently attenuatethe
higher frequency components. Such high frequency effects are, how-
ever, not considered to be very important, because the input signals are
subjected to low pass filters prior to evaluation.
The source model of the TNA consisted of a three-phase e.m.f.
connected to series impedances. A coupling transformer was used to
generate the zero sequence impedance of the source. On the TNA both
the lines and sources incorporated realistic frequency dependent char-
acteristics.
4. The operating characteristic which was employed in the ex-
amples throughout the paper is only one of the many possible con-

ceivable choices. Although that characteristic is attractive for the various
reasons described in the paper, other boundary shapes can also be con-
sidered. It should be pointed out that the paper does not describe the
design of one particular relay system but rathermore attempts to
examine techniques for developing unconventional new protection
systems.
5. Lines leaving exceedingly high energy sources or other im-
portant lines in the network are anticipated to require a protection
system with a high degree of dependability of operation. It is there-
fore anticipated that such lines are to be protected by two independent
and redundant protection schemes, which complement each other as
well as possible. Now, in the case of far end faults on long lines leaving
a high energy center, the trajectory will remain close to the vertical
axis. Consequently the trajectory possesses a low degree of directional
discrimination. Such faults can, however, be picked up by a second
redundant protection system, such as a distance relay. The resulting
longer response time could possibly be justified from the point of view
of power system stability. On the other hand, close-up faults or faults
within the long line can be detected rapidly by the trajectory approach.
Faults close to the high energy center will always produce a voltage
drop and hence a dependable directional decision.
6. The discussion of multiple faults is rather involved, but a brief
discussion of this point will nevertheless be offered. First of all let us
note that the trajectories associated with the healthy phases will remain
within the operating characteristics after the first fault inception and
that they will return to the origin after a short time interval. If the
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173
second fault occurs on the healthy phases, the associated trajectories
will correctly indicate the direction of the fault on those phases. This
condition contains the information necessary for issuing a tripping
signal if the second fault occurred in the protected zone.
7. The author agrees with Messrs. Berdy's and Smith's comments
on the effect of voltage transients due to capacitive voltage transformers
in conventional relaying applications. Due to large voltage drops for
faults on short lines, capacitive voltage transformers will generate a high
noise to signal ratio, which must be taken into consideration when
designing a conventional directional comparison scheme.
The author whole-heartedly agrees with Messrs. Linders and
Slatem that a time scale on the trajectory makes the trajectory concept
more valuable. The author would like to take this opportunity to add
that this technique was in fact applied in Fig. 7 in the paper. In Fig. 7
the elapse of successive 1 ms intervals after the inception of the fault at
the fault point are marked by successive crosses.
As correctly pointed out by Messrs. Linders and Slatem the relay
setting in the deviation plane does not define one unique reach. Never-
theless the setting does define a range within which the reach will lie,
depending on the fault inception angle and its associated power system
transients and on the source conditions. In a tripping scheme the
forward reach must overreach the far end. In a blocking scheme the
backward reach must be more sensitive than the forward reach of the
detector at the opposite end.
Manuscript received April 2, 1980.