7.

7.1
7.1.1

Mechanical Excavation
Mechanisms of rock cutting
The main types of tool

Section2explainedbrieflythatthebasicmethodofmechanicalrockbreakageisimpactand penetrationbyawedgeshapedtool.Table7.1givesthevariousclassificationsofcuttingtool. Table7.1:Classificationsofcuttingtool

Typeoftool Dragtool Modeofaction Appliesaforce roughlyparallelto therocksurface Specifictooltypes Diamonddrillbit Pick (pointattackandwedge) Brazeddrillbit Buttondrillbit Triconedrillbit Disccutter Machinesusingtool Rotarydrillingmachine Roadheader Continuousminer Shearer Rotarypercussivedrilling machine Rotarydrillingmachine Raiseborer Tunnelboringmachine(TBM) Mobileminer Raiseborer

Indenter

Appliesaforce normaltotherock surface

Theloadappliedbyanindenterisoneofcompressionandthatappliedbyadragbitisoneof shear(HoodandRoxborough1992).However,researchhasindicatedthatbothtypesoftoolcause theformationoflargerockchipsbyinducingtensilefractures.Theimpactofanindentercrushesa smallzoneofrockbeneaththetool.Thiscrushedrockdilatesandinducestensilestressesinthe rockimmediatelysurroundingthepointofimpact.Whenadragtoolhitstherocksurfaceatan obliqueangle,thereisafreefacetowardswhichmaterialcanbedisplaced.Hence,thetoolcan moreeasilypenetratetherock,causingshearfracturesthat,inturn,causethepropagationof tensilefracturesasrockchipsarepeeledoff. Mostrocksareanorderofmagnitude(x10)strongerincompressionthanintensionandhence anyactionthatinvolvesthecrushingofrockwillconsumealargeamountofenergy.Becausethe dragtoolinitiatestensilefracturesinamoredirectmanner,withlesscrushing,itismoreefficient thananindenter.However,indentersarebyfarthemostwidelyusedtypeoftool;whyisthis?The reasonliesinthestrengthofthetoolitself.Thematerialsusedforthecuttingedgemustbehard but,becauseofthisproperty,theyarealsobrittle.Themodeofactionofadragtoolinduces bending,ortensile,stressesinthetoolcuttingedgeandmakescatastrophicfailureofthetoolmore likely.Anindenter,ontheotherhand,isloadedmainlybyacompressiveforcealongitsmainaxis andthematerialofwhichitismadeisinherentlystrongincompression.(HoodandRoxborough 1992.) 7.1.2 a) Drag picks Cuttingparameters

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Dragtoolsusedincuttingmachinesarecalledpicks.Figure7.1illustrateswhathappenswhena dragpickimpactsalumpofrockinadirectionparalleltothemainrocksurface.Amajortensile crackisgeneratedintheformofacurvedarc,originatingatthepointofpenetrationandemerging atthemainrocksurface.Thisfractureproducesalargechip.Evans(1962)wasthefirstresearcher toproposearockcuttingtheory,developedfromworkconductedmainlywithdragpicksin Britishcoalmines.Theimportantvariablesassociatedwithrockcuttingareshowninfigure7.2.

Figure7.1:Cuttingactionofdrag pick(Speight1997) Figure7.2:Dragpickcuttingvariables(Speight1997) Where: F FC FN d s = = = = = = Forceappliedbytool Cuttingforcecomponent Normalforcecomponentactstoeitherpenetratetherocksurfaceof maintainitattherequiredpenetrationdepth Penetrationdepth Toolspacing Breakoutangle

Importantmeasuresofcuttingperformance Yield(Q) SpecificEnergy(SE)

Thevolumefrockproducedbycuttingdependsonpenetrationdepth(d), breakoutangle( )anddistancecut Theworkdonebythecuttingforce(FC)toexcavateunitvolumeofyield. Dependenton: Rockstrengthandtoughness Degreeoffracturing Machinetypeandmethodofoperation Tooltypeandcondition Availabletoolforces(machinesizeandpower) Penetrationdepth

b)

Tooltypes

Therearetwomaintypesofdragpickdesign,radialandpointattack(figure7.3). Figure7.3:Twomain typesofdragpick (Speight1997)

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Radialpickchiseltipandrectangularshank.Axisoftoolshankpassesthroughtherotational axisofthemachinecuttinghead.Inabrasiverocks,radialpicksquicklydevelopawearflatand toolperformancesuffers. Pointattackpickconicaltipandcylindricalshank.Shankaxisisinclinedrelativetotherock surface.Thetoolisdesignedtorotatebytheactionofcuttingtoproduceevenwearandis thereforefavouredinabrasiverocks.Often,however,dirtclogsthetool,sothatitcannotrotate. (Speight1997). 7.1.3 a) Indenters Generalconsiderations

Thereareanumberoftheoriesthataimtodescribetheprocessofchipformationwhenanindenter toolhitsarocksurface.Someresearcherspostulatethatthepenetrationofthewedgeinducesshear stressesthatcauseachiptobreakaway.Theseshearstressesaregeneratedbylateralpickforces, themagnitudeanddirectionofwhichareinfluencedbythewedgeangleofthetool.Hoodand Roxborough(1992)describeamodelfordisccuttersdevelopedbyLindqvistandRanman(1980) whichassumesthatmostoftheforceisdirectednormallyintotherock,similartotheactionofa flatbottomedpunch.Inducedtensilestressesgeneratecracksthatrunparalleltotherocksurface (figure7.4)andifthespacingbetweenthecuttersissufficientlysmall,tensilecrackspropagating fromeachgroovewilljoinuptoformarockchip.

Figure7.4:Disccutterandcuttingaction Thereisnosingleuniversallyacceptedtheoryfortheformationofrockchipsbyindentertools. Themaincauseofrockbreakageisthepropagationoftensilefractures,butitisthemechanismby whichthesefracturesarefirstinitiatedthatisuncertain.Rockbreakagetakesplacebecausea tensilefractureisinitiatedandpropagated.Thisfractureisinducedasaresultofcombined loading:first,thetensileextensionofpreexistingflawsalongthefractureplaneandsecond,by tensilestressesinducedbythecrushedzonebeneaththewedge.(HoodandRoxborough1992)

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b)

Disccutters

Cuttingmachinesdesignedforhardrockapplicationsuseindentersintheformofdisccutters. Thesemachinesarethetunnelboringmachine(TBM),mobileminerandraiseborer.Forefficient rockcuttingtotakeplace,thetensilefracturesproducedbytoolscuttinginadjacentgroovesjoin uptoformrockchips.Hence,acrucialaspectofcuttingmachinedesignistooptimisethespacing betweenadjacentgroovescutbytoolsmountedontheexcavationmachine. 7.1.4 Comparison of drag picks and disc cutters

DisccuttersmountedonamachinesuchasaTBMarecapableofcuttingrocksofuniaxial compressivestrength(UCS)greaterthan150MPa(Speight1997).Thisperformanceisachievedby applyingaveryhighthrustforce(equivalenttoFNforthedragpick)andalowerrollingforce (equivalenttoFCforthedragpick).Thelowerrollingforcemeansthatthetorquethathastobe appliedbythemachineisreduced.However,becausedisccuttersbreakrockbyindentationrather thanbycuttingparalleltotherocksurface,theyarelessefficientthandragpicks.Inagivenrock mass,theSErequiredforadisccuttermachinewillbehigher. 7.1.5 a) New developments Oscillatingdisccutter

AnewmethodforrockexcavationhasbeendevelopedattheCentreforMiningTechnologyand Equipment(CMTE),Brisbane,Australia.Itusesatoolcalledtheoscillatingdisccutter(ODS), whichattackstherockbyundercuttingitsoastoinducetensilefailure(CMTE2000).Becauserock ismuchweakerintensionthancompression,amachinefittedwiththeODCsystemdoesnot requirethehighaxialforcesassociatedwithindentercuttingdiscs.Aconventionaldisccutter workinginahardrocksuchasgraniterequiresaforceofabout550kNtomachineagroove25 mmwideand10mmdeep.InthesamerocktheODCcutsagroovetwiceaswideataforceof only12kN.Theeventualaimtodesignacontinuousexcavationmachinecapableofworkingin rockswithofUCS>240MPa. b) Penetratingconefracturetechnology

Penetratingconefracture(PCF)involvestheinitiationofrockfractureswithinshallowholes drilledinarockface.Thefracturesresultintheformationoflarge,roughlyconeshaped,rock chipswiththebaseoftheconeattherockface.Fracturingisproducedeitherbyanexplosive propellantsuchastheSunburstsystemorbyahighpressurewaterpulse,e.g.Hydrexsystem (Speight1997).Theboreholepressuresgeneratedaremuchlowerthanwithindustrialexplosives suchasANFO,rangingfromabout400MPato700MPa(Olson1993).Thelowintensityofthe breakingactionmeansthatthesystemcouldbeincorporatedinacontinuoushardrockexcavation machine.Typically,thetypeofconceptbeinginvestigatedinvolvesamobilevehicleequipped withadrillboom.Aseriesofshortholesaredrilledand,aseachholeiscompleted,apropellant chargeandinitiatingdeviceareinsertedintothehole,whichisthensealed.Testscarriedoutby theUSBureauofMines(Olson1993)usedagasinjectortoinitiatethechargeandastemming systemcomprisingastemmingbar,energyabsorbingdeviceandmechanicalseal.Eachholeis firedtobreakoffaseriesofrockchips,whicharethencollectedbyadebrisclearingsystemsuch asthatinstalledonaroadheader. c) Plasmablasting
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TheplasmablastingconceptissimilartoPCF,exceptthatanelectricaldischargeisusedto generatearapidlyexpandingplasma,whichinducesrockfractures.Anelectrodeispushedintoa shortdrillholeandthespacebetweenthisprobeandtheholewallsisthenfilledwithanelectrolyte (waterissuitable).Theconceptualplasmablastingmachineissimilartoadrilljumbo,withbooms carryingeitherrockdrillsorelectrodes.Electricalenergyisstoredinacapacitorbankandreleased whenaswitchingdeviceisactivated.Theelectricalpowerdeliveredpowertotheelectrode increasesattherateof200MWpermicroseconduntilapeakpowerof3500MWisattained,after about40microseconds.Theeffectofthisenergydischargeistoconverttheelectrolyteintoahigh temperaturehighpressureplasma,atexplosiverates.Indirectmeasurementsindicatethatthe drillholepressureexceeds2000MPa(NantelandKitzinger1990).

7.2

Influence of rock strength

Theapplicationofmechanicalexcavationmachinesislimitedbyrockstrength.Rockcutting machinesareusedforbothcivilengineering(mainlytunneling)andminingpurposes.Although theypossesmanyinherentadvantagesoverdrillingandblasting,thecurrentleveloftechnological developmentmeansthattheiruseisstillhighlyconstrained. 7.2.1 Rock strength parameters

Theprincipalintactrockpropertiesinfluencingcuttabilityinclude:compressivestrength(UCS), tensilestrength,toughness,brittleness,elasticmodulus,hardmineralcontent,grainsizeand shape,porosityandorigin(sedimentary,igneous,etc).Tables7.2and7.3givesometypicalrock strengthparameters. Table7.2TypicalvaluesofUCSforvariousrocktypes(Hartman1992)

Rocktype Coal Shale Sandstone Limestone UCS(MPa) 2040 13110 24100 50100 Rocktype Dolomite Basalt Quartzite Granite UCS(MPa) 100 80120 100150 100200

Table7.3:Rockstrengthclassificationsforcutting(Atkinsonetal1986)
Rockstrength assessment UCS

Youngs modulus E GPa 40 29 13.4 7.8

Modulusof toughness T (lb/in3) 72.72 44.05 18.32 7.13

Toughnessindex

Ti =
Derived 45 25 15 9

2 c x 100 2E
Calculated 40.0 23.8 12.2 5.8

High Medium Low Verylow

MPa 108.3 116.0 58.5 29.9

Becauseofcomplexmechanicsofrockcuttingandthelargenumberofvariables,thereisno universallyacceptedsystemforpredictingcuttingmachineperformancefromrockstrength parameters.ManufacturersandoperatorsdouseUCSasaguide,eventhoughitisnotareliable indicatorofcuttability(Speight1997).Typicalthresholdvaluesfordefiningwhetherarockis hardwithrespecttomechanicalexcavationare103MPa(14900psi)(Forrester1996)and124MPa (18000psi),(Bullock1994). 7.2.2 Classifications of machine

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Mechanicalminingmachinesareclassifiedby: Hardorsoftrock Cuttinggeometry Tooltype Application Themaximumstrengthofrockthatcanbecutefficiently. fullface,drum,transversehead,axialhead. Pointattackdragpicks,wedgedragpicks,buttonbits,cutting discs. Civilengineeringtunneling,Civilengineeringexcavation, undergroundminedevelopment,undergroundmineproduction, surfacemineexcavation. Horizontal,vertical,inclined.

Excavationdip

Themajorclassificationofmachineisaccordingtothestrengthofrockthatcanbecut.Section7.1 describedhowrockchipsareformedbythejoiningupoftensilefracturesproducedbytools cuttinginadjacentgrooves.Tomaintaintheoptimumspacingbetweenthesegroovesrequiresa highdegreeofmachinestiffnessandcontrol(Gertsch1994),anobjectivethatbecomesmore difficultandascuttingforcesincrease.Hence,excavationmachinesdesignedforhardrockare muchheavierandanchoredmuchmoresecurelythanmachinesusedinsofterrocks. Certaindesignsoftunnelboringmachine(TBM)andraiseborerhavebeenabletoexcavaterockof uniaxialcompressivestrengths(UCS)upto250MPabuttheiruseisrestrictedtoexcavations whichareeitherstraightlineoroflargeradiusofcurvature.Thisfeaturemakesthemidealfor largescaleoperationssuchascivilengineeringtunneling.However,drillandblasttechniquesare stillgenerallypreferredinhardrockminesbecauseoftheirflexibilityandabilitytoexcavateany rocktypetoanyshape.Insoftrockapplications,ontheotherhand,mechanicalexcavatorsare preferred(e.g.coal,salt,gypsum,tronaorpotash). Table7.4:Classificationofmechanicalexcavatorbyrocktype Hardrock Softrock Roadheader Roadheader TBM ContinuousMiner MobileMiner Shearer RaiseBorer Table7.5:Comparisonofmechanicalexcavationwithdrillandblastsystems Advantages Disadvantages Generallygivesmorerapidadvancethan Cannotexcavateveryhardrock blastinginsofttomediumhardrock. Highcapitalcost Fewerunitoperations Requirespecialistmaintenance Smootherexcavationprofiles Notasflexible Noblastingdamagetosurroundingrock Inherentlysafer

7.3
7.3.1

Hard rock machines

Tunnel boring machine (TBM)

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Thetunnelboringmachine(TBM)isafullfaceexcavatorwhichcutsrockbymeansofdisccutters mountedonacircularrevolvingcuttinghead(figure7.5).Thefollowingdesignfeaturesenableit tocutstrongerrockthananyothertypeofmechanicalexcavator. Largemass Hydraulicstabilisingjacks Highcuttingforceprovidedbyhydraulicthrustrams Cuttingdiscsforrockbreakagebyindentation

BecauseofthesizeandweightofthetypicalTBM,theyaresuitableonlyfortheexcavationoflong straightdrivagessuchascivilengineeringtunnels.

Figure7.5:Tunnelboringmachine a) Rockbreakagesystem

ATBMbreaksrockwithdisccuttersmountedontherotatingcutterheadinsuchapatternthat theyrollagainsttherockofthetunnelfaceinaseriesofconcentriccirculargroovesorkerfs.The cuttingforceisproducedbypowerfulhydraulicthrustrams.Eachdisccutterisfreetorotate withinitsmounting.Figure7.4illustratesthemodeofrockchipformation,previouslydescribedin Section7.1.3.Thehighcuttingforcesrequiredtobreakstrongrocktypesproduceequallyhigh reactionforcesonthemachine.Tomaintaincontactwiththerockandtomaintaintheoptimum spacingbetweencuttinggrooves,themachineisheldstablebyacombinationofitsgreatmassand byhydraulicjacks(grippers)actingagainstthesideofthetunnel.Brokenrockisgatheredfromthe floorbyscoopsmountedaroundtheperimeterofthecuttingheadanddischargedatthecrownof thecutterheadontoabeltconveyorthatrunsthroughthecenterofthemachine(figure7.6).

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Figure7.6:AssemblyofRobbinsTBM ATBMsystemprovidescontinuousexcavation,supportsbeingsetanddebrisremovedascutting takesplace.Inciviltunnels,themostcommontypeofsupportisaconcretelining.Precast segmentsaretransportedalongthelengthoftheTBM,liftedintoplaceandsetbyahydraulic mechanism.

b)

Example:AtlasCopcoJarvaTBM

Figure7.7illustratesthebasicdesignoftheAtlasCopcoJarvarangeofTBMs.Themainbodywith thegrippersandthethrustramsformthestationarypartofthemachine,whichisanchoredinthe tunnelbore.Themovingpartconsistsof:atthefrontcutterhead,bearinghousing,roofanddust shieldandinvertscraper;atthereargearcase,motors,planetarygearboxesandliftlegs.Front andrearpartsareconnectedbythetorquetube,whichslidesthroughthemainbodyduringthe boringstroke.Aconveyortransportsdebristotherearofthemachinewhereitisdischargedeither intoalineofrailcarsorafixedbeltconveyor.Figure7.8showshowthecompletecuttingcycle (boringandreset)iscarriedout.(AtlasCopco)

Cutter head Grippers Conveyor

Main body

Invert scraper

Front lift leg

Thrust cylinder

Rear lift leg

Main motors

Figure7.7:AtlasCopcoJarvaTBM

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1. Start boring stroke

2. End boring stroke

3. Start reset stroke

4. End reset stroke

Figure7.8:CuttingcycleofAtlasCopcoTBM ThemultinationalAtlasCopcogrouphasinrecentyearstakenovertheRobbinsCompany,which developedtheoriginalconceptfortheTBM.RobbinsproducetwobasicdesignsofTBM,anopen typeforoperationinhardrockandtwoshieldedtypesforsoftorbrokengroundorhighwater inflowsituations. c) Performance

Advanceratesaregenerallyhigh;ina3.6mdiametertunnel,drillandblasttechniqueswillgivea typicaladvanceof3m/shift;aTBMwilltypicallyachievesome10mpershift. Table7.6:TBMperformancecasestudies Machine Location Robbins193/214 Selbycoalfield Lovatt CapeBreton,NovaScotia

Rockstrength 240MPa(34800psi) average69MPa maximum140MPa

Performance 80m/week

DisadvantagesofTBMs highcapitalcost(severalmilliondollars) canonlycutcircularsection largeturningradius(100m) timeconsumingtoinstall minimumtunnellengthof2kmrequiredtojustifyinstallation 7.3.2 Robbins Mobile Miner

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TheRobbinsMobileMinerisarelativelynewdevelopment,amachinedesignedtoapplythe excavationprinciplesofaTBMtoapracticalminingsituation(Figure7.9).Thecuttingheadisa4.1 mdiameterwheelwithdisccuttersmountedaroundthecircumference.Itrotatesat15rpmina verticalplaneandissupportedbyaboomwhichcanswingthecutterheadthroughahorizontal arc.Thetunnelcrosssectionhasaflatroofandfloorwithslightlyellipticalwalls,4.1mhighand 5.58.0mwide(Forrester1996).

Figure7.9:RobbinsMobileMiner(Bullock1994) Onlyaportionofthefaceiscontactedbythecutterwheelatanypointintimesothatthereaction forcesarelowerthanforaTBM.Thisdesignfeatureallowsforasmaller,moremaneuverable machinewhichcancutacurveofminimumradius25m.ThemainbodyoftheMinerismounted oncrawlers.Tostartcutting,themachineisanchoredbymeansofhydraulicjacks.Thewheelis thenrotatedandthecutterssumpedintothefacebyhydraulicramstotherequiredepth. Hydraulicswingcylindersthentraversetheboomacrossthewidthofthedrive.Oncompletionof thefirstpasscut,thestakingjacksareretractedandtheminermovedforwardtoanewcutting position. ThefirstproductionmachinewastriedatMtIsawithadeclineinstrongabrasivequartzite. Problemswereexperiencedwithdifferentialwearofdisccutters,resultinginhighcuttercostsand insufficientstiffnessofthecuttingmechanism(Bullock1994).Animprovedversionwithan advanceratecapabilityof1m/hourisinuseatBrokenHill.Itweighs265tonnes,acutterhead powerof500kWandhasperformedsuccessfullyinrocksranginginstrengthfrom100MPato300 MPa(Forrester1996).AfurtherimproveddesignhasbeenconsideredforthenewMIMHoldings Ltd.McArthurRiverleadzincmineintheNorthernTerritory.Therockatthismineisabrittle alteredshalewithacompressivestrengthof130MPa.Theorebodywillbecutparalleltothe beddingplanes,whichwillsuitthecuttingactionoftheMobileMiner(Chadwick1995).MIMs webpagestatesthatundergroundminingisbyconventionaldrillandblasttechniques,sothe continoushardrockminerisstillexperimental.(www.mim.com.au/mcarthur.html) 7.3.3 Raise Borer

Theraiseborerisamachinedesignedtocutacircularexcavationeitherbetweentwolevelsina mineorfromaleveltothesurface.Theboringmachineissetupontheupperlevelandapilot holedrilleddowntothelowerlevel(Figure7.10).Whentheholeiscomplete,areamerheadis

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attachedtotheendofthedrillstring.Thereamerheadisadomedassembly,fittedwithroller cutters,ordisccutters,dependingontherockstrength.Theraiseboringmachineontheupper levelprovidesrotationalpowertothedrillrodsandpullsthereamerupalongthelineofthepilot hole.Raiseborersareverywidelyused.Inadditiontooftenreducingthecostofconstructing raises,themethodisvirtuallyfreefromserioushazard.Conventionalraisingbydrillandblastis notoriouslydangerous.

Figure7.10:Operationofraiseborer

Figure7.12:Raiseborerinstallation Table7.7:Raiseborerperformancefigures Diameter Performance Ventilation Backfill

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1.8 m 0.3 m

Pilot hole Reaming

0.9 m/hour 0.6 m/hour

11

Costs (including rig set-up and removal) 1.8 m dia. $1200/m 2.4 m dia. $1500/m
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3.1 m dia. 7.3.4 Roadheader

$2000/m

OriginallydevelopedinHungaryandBritainforuseincoalmines,roadheaderdesignsare availablefortheexcavationofeithersoftormediumrockstrengthtypes.Asmallrotatingcutter headfittedwithdragpicksismountedonaboomthatcanbeslewedbyhydraulicramsalong bothhorizontalandverticalaxes(Figure7.13).Toadvanceadrive,themachinemovesforwardto sumpthecutterheadintotheface.Theboomisthentraversedacrosstherockfacetocutoutthe desiredprofile.Virtuallyanyshapeofroadwayprofilecanbeformed,rectangularorarched.Rock debrisisloadedbymechanicalgatheringarmsorgatheringwheelsontoachainconveyorrunning throughthecentreofthemachine.Thechainconveyordischargesthematerialfromtherearofthe roadheaderontoaconveyorbeltinstalledinthetunnel.Atypicalroadheaderisequippedwith twoelectricmotorssuppliedfromatrailingcable.Onemotorpowersthecutterhead,thesecond drivesahydraulicpumpwhichsuppliesfluidpowertothevarioushydraulicramsandtothe hydraulictractionmotors.

Figure7.13:Typicalroadheadermachine Thebasicdesignconceptofaroadheadercanbeadaptedforcuttingeithersoft,mediumhardor hardrocks.Machinesdesignedforhardrockfeaturelowspeed,hightorquecuttingheads,high cutterheadpowerandlargemass,tostabilisethemachine.Moderndragpicksusedtendtobeof thepointattacktype.ExamplesofvariousmachinesaregiveninTable7.8. Table7.87:Comparisonofroadheaderdesigns Machine Weight CuttingPower Type (tonnes) (kW) DoscoMk2A 25 80 DoscoMk2B 50 90 DoscoMk3 80 AndersonRH25 25 82 AndersonRH90 90 150 TamrockT60 125

Rockstrengthcuttingability U.C.SMPa(psi) 76(11000) 90(13000) 110(16000) 70(10000) 150 200(29000)

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Aswithalltunnelingmachines,theadvancerateofroadheadersdependsonmanyotherfactors, suchasgroundconditions,timerequiredtosetsupports,mineralclearanceproblems,teamskill andmotivation,etc.AdvanceratesinBritishcoalminesrangefrom37m/shift. 7.3.5 Wirth Continuous Miner Machine

TheWirthContinuousMinerMachine(CMM)isequippedwithfourbooms,attachedona commonrotatingmounting.Oneboomispositionedinthecenterofthemountingandtheother threearespacedequallyaroundthecircumference.Eachboomcanbeswungradiallyinwardsand outwardsandisfittedwithadisccutter(figure7.14).Thewholeassemblyisfittedtoaninnerkelly (slotted/gearedshaft)whichcanbeadvancedorretractedadistanceof1.0mwithinthestationary mainbodyofthemachine.Thecuttingassemblyincludesstabilisersforpositioningagainstthe roof,floorandsidesandthemainbodyofthemachineisbracedagainstthefloorandroofby meansoftwoTBMtypegripperpads.TheCMMweighs143tonnesandhasacutterheadpower of525kW.

Figure7.14:WirthContinuousMinerMachine Thecentercutterswingsfromtheoutsidetowardsthecentertocutthemiddleofthetunnelface. Theouterboomscuttherestoftheface,workingfromtheinsidetowardsthetunnelperimeter. Thethreeouterdiscsallcutatthesamediameterinspiralcuttingtracks.Whentheyreachthe maximuminnercircularprofileofthedrivecrosssection,theybegintoformthecornersofa squaresection,asrequired.Forthispurpose,theouterboomscanbeindividuallyextendedunder hydraulicpower.TheCMMcutsasquareshapedtunnelwithroundedcorners.Maximum excavationheightandwidthare4.5mandtheminimumcurveradiusthatcanbeexcavatedis25 m.Thedesiredprofilecanbecutautomatically,accordingtoapresetcomputerprogram.

(Chadwick1995)

7.4
7.4.1

Soft Rock Machines

Continuous Miner

Acontinuousminer(CM)isanexcavatingmachinecapableofcuttingsoftrockssuchascoal, potashortronaathighrateswhilstsimultaneouslygatheringthecutmineralandloadingitontoa
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transportsystemsuchasashuttlecarorabeltconveyor.CMsareusedinvirtuallyallmechanised coalminesinAustralia,Britain,theUSAandSouthAfricaforeitherroom&pillarminingor longwalldevelopment. Themainbodyofthecontinuousminer(CM)issimilartothatoftheroadheader,beingcompact, crawlermountedandwiththesametypeofdebrisclearancesystem.Cutting,track,conveyorand gatheringarmmotorsareelectric.Thecuttingdrumismuchwider,however,atabout3.5mand canbemovedonlyintheverticalplane(Figure7.15)sothatonlyarectangularprofilecanbe formed.Moderncontinuousminersareallelectric,multimotormachines.Electricpoweris suppliedbyareeloperatedtrailingcable.Hydraulics,poweredbyanonboardpowerpackare usedforoperationssuchasraisingandloweringthecuttingdrumandstabilisingjacks.

Figure7.15:ContinuousMiner ThenormaloperationofaCMistosumpinthecuttingdrumatthetopoftheface,thenpower thedrumdown,cuttingfromrooftofloor.TheCMisthentrammedforwardtotakeanotherslice. Thisprocessiscontinueduntilacertainspanofroofhasbeenexposed,atwhichpointtheCM mustbewithdrawninorderforroofboltstobeinstalled.Thismaximumcutdistancedependson thecompetencyorstanduptimeoftheroof.InAustralia,themaximumcutdistanceistypically 46mbutcanbeashighas15m(e.g.LalehamColliery).Wheretheroofisparticularlystrong,the maximumpermittedcutdepthwillcorrespondtothedistancebetweenthefrontofthemachine andtheoperatorposition,i.e.theoperatormustalwaysbeundersupportedroof.Useofremote controlsystemsallowsthisdistancetobefurtherextended. Atypicalheadingwidthincoalminingis6m.Therefore,theCMmustactuallymaketwopasses totakethefullwidth.Thefirstpassistakenatonesideoftheheadingtothefullwidthanddepth ofthecut.TheCMthenbacksoutandtakestheremainingfilletofcoal.Afteronecompletecuthas beentaken,theroofisbolted. CMsaresuitableonlyforcuttingsoftrockssuchascoalorpotash.Thisisbecausethenumberof picksonthelargedrumishighandhencetheindividualpickforcesarerelativelylow.For maneuverabilityinaminingsituation,themachinesizeandweighthastobelimited.CMs produceveryhighcuttingrates,upto650tonnesperhour,or10mpershift.Inroom&pillar miningoperations,asinglemachinewilloperateinaminingpaneloftwotosevenheadings,being movedbetweenheadingstoadvancethewholepanel. ProductionCMsinAustraliadischargeintoshuttlecars.Thesemachinesarehaulagevehicles, capableofholdingabout12tonnesofcoal,whichtransferloadsofcoalfromtheCMatthefaceto aconveyorloadingpointlocatedfurtherback.
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TypicalcontinuousminerdesigntheJoy12CM Dimensions length10m,width2.1m,height1.35m weight3641tonnes(dependingontypeofcuttingdrum) Performance maxcuttingrate12tonnespermin trammingspeed1617m/min 6electricmotors,totalpower312kW Cuttinghead. Rotatingdrumfittedwithcutterpicks.Twovariants:2.6mlengthpoweredby two60kWelectricmotorsor3.2mwithtwo90kWmotors. Cleanupsystem Twogatheringarmsmountedonamoveablefrontspadeorapron.Powered by45kWmotorthatalsodrivestheconveyor.Apronoperatedbyhydraulics. Conveyor Thisrunsthroughthecentreofthemachinefromthegatheringarmaprontoa dischargejibattherear.Itisachainconveyorandtherearendcanbeswung 45oleftorrighttospotshuttlecars. Traction Crawlermounted,poweredbyDCmotors. Incoalmining,itisimportanttoventilatethecuttingdrumandtocontroldustgeneration.Asmall electricorhydraulicdustextractionfanoracompressedairoperatedairmoverismountedatthe rearofthemachine.Thissystemdrawsdustladenairviaductingfromthecuttingzone,througha filteranddischargesbehindtheoperator.Italsodrawsfreshairintoventilatethecutarea.Dust suppressionisachievedbymeansofhighpressurespraysmountedbehindthecuttingdrum. Thesespraysalsoassistinventilationofthecutarea. 7.4.2 Bolter-miner

Thebolterminerisbasicallyaradicallymodifiedcontinuousminerthatcancutandinstallroof boltsatthesametime.TheyarebecomingincreasinglypopularinAustraliancoalmines, particularlyforlongwalldevelopmentandthemostcommonmachinesaremanufacturedbyVoest Alpine(Figure7.16).Themaincomponentsofthemachineare: 1. 2. 3. 4. Crawlertrackassembly Mainframe Slideframeassembly,incorporatingcuttingunitandconveyor Roofboltingmodule,incorporatingfourhydraulicroofboltingandtworib(side)boltingdrills

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Figure7.16:VoestAlpineABM30BolterMiner Theslideframeismountedonthemainframeandcanbemoved1.0mforwardsandbackwards, relativetothemainframe,bymeansofhydraulicrams.Inoperation,themachineisdrivenupto thecoalfaceandstabilisedwithfloorjacks.Theslideframeisthenpushedforward,thecutting drumbitingintothefacetotakeasliceofcoalinthenormalmanner.Sincethechassisremains stationary,boltingoperationscanbecarriedoutsimultaneouslywithcutting.Whenacutof1.0m hasbeentaken,theslideframeisretractedbackintothechassisandthewholemachinemoved forwardtocommencethenextcycle.TheABM20isasinglepassmachinei.e.thecuttingdrumis thefullwidthoftheheading. 7.4.3 Longwall Shearer

Ashearerisacuttingmachineusedonlongwallcoalfaces.Itformspartofatotalminingsystem ofwhichtheothermajorelementsare;armouredflexibleconveyor(AFC),hydraulicroofsupports (shields),stageloaderandbeltconveyor.Themainbodyofthemachineisdesignedtofitwithinthe confinesofacoalfaceandisgenerallylongandthininaspect.Cuttingiscarriedoutbyoneortwo rotatingdrumsmountedonarangingarm,whichcanberaisedandloweredintheverticalplane (Figure7.17).Coaliscutbypointattackdragpicksmountedonasetofspiralvanesweldedto eachdrum.ThesevanesservetoguidecutcoalontotheAFCwhich,inturn,loadsontothemine beltconveyorsystem.TheshearerismountedontheAFCandhaulsitselfalongthefacebymeans ofsprocketsthatengageinarackincorporatedintheAFCassembly.

Figure7.17:Longwallshearer Shearersareclassedaseithersingleendedrangingdrumshearer(SERDS)ordoubleended rangingdrumshearer(DERDS)andaseitherelectrohydraulicorallelectric.Electrohydraulic shearershaveasinglelargeelectricmotorthatdrivesahydraulicpumpandthecuttingdrum throughasystemofshaftsandgears.Thehydraulicpumpprovidespowertohydraulictraction motorsandtherangingarmcylinders.Anallelectricshearercomprisesanumberofseparate modulesfittedintoarigidframe.Eachmodule:tractionunit,cuttingdrumdrive,powerpackhas itsownelectricmotor.Totalinstalledpoweristypically1000kW. ThetypicalpeakcuttingrateofasheareronanAustralianlongwallis1718tonnesperminute, withoutputsofover12,000tonnesperdaybeingcommon.Highperformancelongwallscan
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achieveproductionratesofupto26,000tonnesperday.Modernshearershavesophisticated electronicsandcanbefittedwithcomputercontrolsystemstoprovideautomaticdrumguidance and/orautomaticinitiationoftheAFCandpoweredsupports.

7.5

References

Bullock,R.L.,1994,Undergroundhardrockcontinuousmining,MiningEngineering,November 1994,pp.12541258. Chadwick,J.,1995,Mechaniseddrivage,MiningMagazine,April,1995,pp.227236. CMTE,2000,'Oscillatingdisccutter'[Online,accessed4/5/00].URL:http://www.cmte.org.au.Centre forMiningTechnologyandEquipment,Brisbane,Australia. Forrester,D.1996,Undergroundcontinuousmininganoverview,CIMBulletin,vol.89,no. 1000,pp3237,May1996. Gertsch,R.E.,1994,Mechanicalminingchallengesanddirections,MiningEngineering,November 1994,pp.12501253. Hood,M.C.andRoxborough,F.F.,Rockbreakagemechanical,SMEMiningEngineering Handbook,Chapt9.1,vol.1,pp.680721,Hartman,(Ed.),H.L.,SocietyforMining,Metallurgyand Exploration,Inc.,Littleton,Colorado. Lindqvist,P.E.andRanman,K.E.,1980,Mechanicalrockfragmentationchippingunderadisc cutter,UniversityofLulea,Lulea,Sweden,Technicalreport59T. Nantel,JHandKitzinger,F,1990,Plasmablastingtechniques,ProceedingsofThirdInternational SymposiumonRockFragmentationbyBlasting,Brisbane,August1990.AusIMM,Melbourne. Olson,J.,1993,Rapidexcavationresearcharetrospectiveview,ProceedingsofMine MechanisationandAutomationconference,EditorsAlgrenetal,Balkema,Rotterdam. Speight,H.,1997,'Observationsondragtoolexcavationandtheconsequentperformanceof roadheadersinstrongrock',TheAusIMMProceedings,No.1,1997.

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