Lecture 3:

Site exploration and characterization

Learning Objectives
• Explain the objective of site exploration

• Explain different stages in site investigation

• Describe different drilling, sampling and testing methods and list

advantages and disadvantages
Site Investigation
The process of the collection of information, the appraisal of data,
assessment, and reporting to identify site specific ground conditions
affecting the design, construction, operation and maintenance of civil
engineering works
• Soil and rock profile
• Soil region (Geological Features, potential hazards)
• Position and variation of ground water table
• Physical properties of soil and rock
• Environmental aspects: natural habitats, contaminations
• Information on hydrology, adjacent structures, topography, soil maps,
seismicity, etc.
Stages of site investigation
• Preliminary stage
• Project assessment
• Desk study, literature search of available data
• Field reconnaissance, Walkover survey and visual assessment
• Preliminary report and fieldwork plan
• Main stage
• Subsurface explorations
• Geophysical survey if appropriate
• Trial pits, trenches and boreholes
• In situ testing
• Laboratory testing, mainly of soils
• Final report
• Monitoring during (and after) construction
Stages of site investigation
Desk study
Gather existing information for the ground and environmental conditions on the site:
• Geologic survey maps, e.g. http://data.azgs.az.gov/geologic-map-of-arizona/
• County/State soil survey maps, e.g. http://repository.azgs.az.gov/,
• Soil manuals from state DOT
• Topographic Maps, Seismological maps
• Hydrological Studies
• Aerial Photographs/Google Earth
• Remote sensing data
• Existing geotechnical investigation reports for nearby structures
• Remote sensing data
Use geological knowledge and experience to predict what you will find on site!
Example
A-mountain assignment
Desk study
Example
A-mountain
• Google Earth
Example
A-mountain:
• Google Earth
• Google Earth 3D
Example
A-mountain:
• Google Earth
• Google Earth 3D
• Geological maps

http://repository.azgs.az.gov/sites/default/files/dlio/files/nid1413/tempegi-2-aside1-ocr.pdf
Example
Just search for: A-mountain Tempe geology
Qsc: SLOPE COLLUVIUM - Gray, poorly sorted, strongly-calichified talus on lower
bedrock slopes. Composed of angular blocks, 1.3 to 20 cm in diameter, matrix of
silt and rock fragments.
Tv: VOLCANIC ROCKS - Dark gray to grayish-pink. undifferentiated lava flows;
consists of alkali olivine basalt, amygdaloidal basalt, intermediate latite and
rhyodacite; local xenoliths of granite and sandstone.
http://repository.azgs.az.gov/sites/default/files/dlio/files/nid1413/tempegi-2-c.pdf
Ttb: TEMPE BEDS - Interbedded strata consisting of abundant pink to red, poorly
to moderately sorted, pebbly arkosic sandstone; less abundant tan, brownish-
green, yellow, and purple, moderately-well sorted siltstones; pink to green,
poorly sorted volcanic arenite and green to white tuff. Boundaries between beds
are generally sharp, locally gradational; bedding thicknesses and median grain
size decrease upsection. Abundant sedimentary structures include cross-
bedding, channel scours and mud cracks.
Field Reconnaissance , Walkover Survey
The field reconnaissance consists of “walking the site” and visually assessing the local conditions
and get more information.
• Is there any evidence of previous development on the site?
• Is there previous grading work or is it a natural deposit?
• Are there any landslides or other stability problems?
• Are nearby structures performing satisfactorily?
• What are the surface drainage conditions?
• Type of soil or rocks exposed at the ground surface?
• Are there neighboring structures at risk?
• What are climate conditions, and potential flooding?
• Many other questions …

• Marking proposed locations for further site investigation

Example
A-mountain:
• Confirm information
from desk study
• Gather information
about rock & soil
material and mass
properties (field
classification)
• Make pictures to
support your
interpretation
Subsurface Exploration
• Exploratory borings
• Test pits and trenches
• Sampling
• In situ testing
• Geophysical methods
Exploratory Borings
The most common method of exploring the subsurface conditions is to
drill a series of vertical holes in the ground.
• Typical Diameter: 75 to 600 mm (3-24 in)
• Typically Depth: 2 to 100 m (7-100 ft).
• Small/shallow borings can be made with hand-operated augers
• Deep borings can be made by equipment powered by large engines
• Most often mounted on trucks (Drill Rigs)
• Different drilling methods (auger boring, wash boring, etc)
Exploratory Borings – Auger boring
• Simplest method of
exploration and sampling.
• Power driven or hand
operated
• Suitable in all soils above
GWT but only in cohesive soil
below GWT

Power Driven
Hand operated
Exploratory Borings – Auger Boring
Advantages:
• Simple method
• Comparatively inexpensive
• good for firm and dense soils or soft rocks

Disadvantages:
• Flight and Bucket augers are not appropriate for loose sands and gravels or soft
clays (due to caving or squeezing)
→ use casings,
→ hollow stem auger
→ wash boring method
• Refusal in hard boulders or hard bedrock
• Soil disturbance → use sampling tube
Sampling methods
• Rotary wash boring

• Auger boring

• Hammered samplers – split spoon sampler

• Sonic samplers (high frequency vibration)

• Pushed samplers – Shelby tubes

Different sampling methods have

different applicability and quality
Borelog
Includes:
• date, location, ID, drilling method
general info
• Sampler type
• Sample number
• Blow count
• Soil description and (visual)
classification
• Dry density moisture content
How many and how deep?
It depends……
Number, Spacing and Depth of borings
Example: Rough Guideline for number and depth of borings:

A 4-story office building is to be built on a

site where the soils are expected to be of
average quality. The building will have a
30mx40m footprint and is expected to be
supported on a spread footing foundation
located at 2 m below the ground surface.
The soil profile is expected to be uniform
across the site.

Determine the required number, depth and

spacing of the borings
Number, Spacing and Depth of borings
Example: Rough Guideline for number and depth of borings:

Area = 30m x40m= 1200 m2

• From the left table (average quality): 1

boring for each 300m2

• So we need 4 borings for 1200 m2

• From the right table, 5S0.7+D=5(4)0.7+2 =
15.2 m Deep
40m

20m
30m 15m
Test pits or trenches
• Visual inspection of subsurface conditions in natural state

• Max. depth limited to 18 -20 feet (5 – 6 m)

• Especially useful for gravelly soil where boreholes may be difficult

• Sampling/testing done on exposed surfaces

• Trial for excavation projects

Test pits or trenches
Scale Orientation

Sketches/drawings
Soil/Rock classifications
In situ testing- Standard Penetration test (SPT)
• Split spoon sampler is hammered in the
ground with 140 lb (63.5 kg) hammer
and a 30” (760 mm) drop height

• Sampler is hammered in 18” (460 mm)

• Record blow count for 6” (150 mm) inch

• Provides a value for bearing capacity

(Coduto, 2011)
In situ testing - Standard Penetration test (SPT)
Factors affecting repeatability include:
• Method of drilling
• Cleanliness at bottom of borehole
• Presence or lack of drilling mud
• Diameter of the drill hole
• Location of the hammer
• Type of hammer
• Number of turns of the rope around the cathead
• Actual drop height
• Mass of the anvil
• Friction in rope guides and pulleys
• Wear in the sampler drive shoe
• Straightness of the drill rods
• Presence or absence of liners inside the sampler
• Rate at which blows are applied

• Needs correction for effective vertical stress

In situ testing – Standard Penetration test (SPT)
Advantages
• Can be combined with auger drilling
• Combination of sampling and in situ test

Disadvantages
• Poor resolution
• Poor repeatability
Example 3.16:

Suggested Correction factors:

Hammer type: Effective stress: ,
.
In situ testing - Cone Penetration test (CPT)
• Pushing in a cone at constant
rate (20 mm/s)
• Measurement of
• Cone resistance: in MPa
• Sleeve friction: in MPa
• Friction ratio:
• Pore pressure: u2 in MPa
In situ testing - Cone Penetration test (CPT)
• Cone resistance is a
direct measure of
bearing capacity

• CPT based soil

classification system
(Robertson, 1983)
Example 3.17:
In situ Testing - Cone Penetration Test (CPT)
Advantages
• Continuous profile (every 2 cm)
• Many empirical relationship with many engineering parameters
• Fast
• Special tools and methods can be added to the cone, e.g.
• Seismic cone
• Videocone
• Electrical conductivity cone
• Dissipation test for hydraulic conductivity
• …
Disadvantages
• No sample
• Limited applicability in hard soils or coarse gravels
• Requires special equipment (heavy truck or ground anchors)
CPT vs SPT

Correlation between the qc/N60 ratio and the mean particle

size, D50. (Adapted from Kulhawy and Mayne, 1990,
In situ testing – Pressuremeter/Dilatometer
Both measure in situ lateral stress
and soil stiffness

Pressuremeter measures stiffness

along the borehole perimeter

Dilatometer is pushed in the

undisturbed soil below the bottom
of the borehole
In situ testing – Vane Shear test
Measures undrained
shear strength in soft
clays
In situ tests – Comparison
Geophysical methods
• Seismic methods (P-wave/S-wave)
• Electromagnetic methods (EM)
• Geo-Electric Resistivity (GER
• Ground Probing Radar (GPR)
Geophysical methods
Seismic velocity
measurements
• Shear-wave
• Pressure-wave
• Surface waves

Seismic wave velocity is

related to soil stiffness
Geophysical methods
Seismic velocity
measurements
• Shear-wave
• Pressure-wave
• Surface waves

Seismic wave velocity is

related to soil stiffness
Geophysical methods
• Seismic cross-hole test (a) or Seismic downhole test (b)
Geophysical methods
Geo-electromagnetic
survey GEM-2

possible to detect buried

conductors:
• metals
gem 2 resistivity (ohm m)

• humidity 20

• salinity 15

10

0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
distance along w est survey line (m )
Geophysical methods
Geo-Electrical Resistivity

Measures changes in electrical

resistivity/conductivity
 Geophysical methods
Geo-Electrical Resistivity

Measures changes in
electrical
resistivity/conductivity in
the ground
Geophysical methods
Ground probing radar
• Like seismics,
• higher frequency
• Better resolution
• Less penetration

• Measures water level, or changes in

salinity

• Cannot measure below groundwater level

Geophysical methods
Advantages
• Continuous in the lateral direction
• Can detect anomalies or heterogeneous profile
• Relatively cheap
• Non-disturbing

Disadvantages
• Indirect measurement of ground property
• Limited resolution
• Needs in situ tests or borehole for ‘ground-truthing’
Geophysical methods
Homework
• Read chapter 1 to 4

• Work on practice problems for chapter 1-3.