UNIT IV AIRCRAFT MECHATRONICS

Part –B
Components of an Airplane
Airplanes are not all alike, but they are comprised of basic components. The main sections of an
airplane include the fuselage, wings, cockpit, engine, propeller, tail assembly, and landing gear.
Understanding the basic functions of how these parts interact is the first step to understanding the
principles of aerodynamics.

The fuselage is the main section, or body, of the airplane. (If “fuselage” sounds like a French
word to you, you’re right. That’s because it is derived from the French word for “spindle-
shaped” – fuselé.) This is where you’ll find passengers, cargo, and the flight crew. The fuselage
is the foundation for the structure of the aircraft. The tail number, which identifies each plane, is
often located at the rear of the fuselage near the tail.

The wings of an aircraft serve the same purpose as the wings of a bird, hence their name.
Airplanes are considered fixed-wing aircraft. (Helicopters are considered rotary-winged.) A
plane is capable of flight because its wings provide lift. Lift is created by the shape of the wings
and the plane’s speed as it moves forward. Wings include ailerons and flaps. “Aileron” is another
French word. It means “little wing” or “fin.” They are used in pairs to control the airplane’s roll
or bank. Flaps reduce the stalling speed of a wing at a given weight. The leading edge of the
wings faces the front of the plane. Likewise, the trailing edge of the wing can be defined as the
back edge that includes the aileron and trim tab. Some wings are fixed high on the plane above
the fuselage and known as high wing aircraft. Low wing aircraft are planes on which the wings
are installed lower than halfway up the fuselage.

The cockpit of an airplane is also called the flight deck. This is where the pilot controls the
aircraft. The cockpit includes a seating area for the flight crew, flight instruments, avionics,
audio/radio communications, and flight controls. Electronic flight instruments include a multi-
function display (MFD). This is used to control heading, speed, altitude, altimeter, etc. The
Primary Flight Display (PFD) typically includes attitude indicator, airspeed, heading, and
vertical airspeed indicator. A navigation displays (ND) provides route information, such as
waypoints, wind speed, and wind direction.

A flight management system (FMS) includes details about the flight plan. A transponder, which
shows the planes location to Air Traffic Control (ATC), is also located in the cockpit. A glass
cockpit features electronic flight instrument displays. These are usually large LCD screens
instead of the traditional style of analog dials and gauges. Epic’s entire fleet contains glass
cockpits, because the airlines require pilots to be experienced in glass cockpits. You will find
dual controls in Epic’s fleet. These are used by both the instructor and flight student.
An aircraft engine, or aero engine, is the power source for a plane. Most are either piston engines
or gas turbines. Some drones, or unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV), have used electric motors.
There are many manufacturers and models of engines. Each is designed for specific aircraft,
whether large or small. Manufacturers recommend an engine overhaul at specified times after an
engine has flown a certain number of hours.

A propeller is an aerodynamic device that converts rotational energy into force. This force
propels the airplane forward. This creates thrust that is perpendicular to its plane of rotation.
Propellers have two or more blades. Propeller blades are spaced evenly around the hub. They are
available in either fixed pitch or variable pitch configurations.
 The empennage, also called the tail or tail assembly, is located at the rear of an airplane. The tail
provides stability during flight. This is very similar to how feathers on an arrow provide stability.
In fact, if “empennage” sounds French, it’s because it is. The term is derived from the French
word empenner, which means “to feather an arrow.” The tail assembly consists of the vertical
stabilizer, rudder, elevator, horizontal stabilizer, and static wicks.

The landing gear is the undercarriage of an airplane. It is used for both takeoff and landing. The
landing gear supports the plane when it is on the ground. Landing gear allows the plane to take
off, land, and taxi without damage. Most landing gear have wheels. However, some aircraft use
skis or floats to operate on snow, ice, or water. Faster aircraft, such as many twin-engine or jet
aircraft, have retractable landing gear. Upon takeoff, the folding landing gear are stowed away to
reduce drag during flight.

1. Write a short note on motion of a plane

 An aircraft in flight is free to rotate in three dimensions: yaw, nose left or right about an axis
running up and down; pitch, nose up or down about an axis running from wing to wing; and roll,
rotation about an axis running from nose to tail.

2. Write a gyroscope equation

3. An accelerometer is an electromechanical device used to measure acceleration forces. Such

forces may be static, like the continuous force of gravity or, as is the case with many mobile
devices, dynamic to sense movement or vibrations. Acceleration is the measurement of the
change in velocity, or speed divided by time
4. Sensor used in aircraft:
Flow sensors, Pressure sensors, Altimeters, Airspeed indicators, Position sensors, Oxygen
sensors, Force and vibration sensors, Compasses and magnetometers, Gyroscopes, Techometer.

5. Rate Gyro

A rate gyro is a type of gyroscope, which rather than indicating direction, indicates the rate of
change of angle with time. ... Rate gyros are used in rate integrating gyroscopes, and in attitude
control systems for vehicles, and in combination with other sensors to make inertial navigation
systems

Part - C
1. Functionality of Different Parts of Aircraft
 An aircraft is composed of different parts. When you own a plane, you have to make sure that
you not only look at the sub-parts and the main components of the plane, but the spare parts that
will be used when one part fails.

In this article, you will find different information about the parts of an aircraft, emergent
manufacturing and how one part that is not working affects the whole thing. The aim of this
section is to grow awareness about the importance of each part no matter how small it is.

Structural Parts of Aircraft

Here are the different structural parts of an Aircraft:

 The engine. The engine is a major component that allows the aircraft to move. Every type of
aircraft is created with a special type of engine that is made in accordance to its size. During the
earlier years, aircraft owners used propeller-driven engines. These are traditional engines that are
no longer being used.Planes that are developed today are using jet engines. With this, it is safe to
say that even modern aircraft use engines for them to be able to work. There are different types
of jet engines but the two types that are widely used are turbofan and turbojet.
 The wing. This is an important part because it works to help in balancing and improving the
aircraft’s stability when flying. This is the part that allows the plane to go up. There are two
wings that are joined by a fuselage. The shape of the wings is designed that way in order to help
it fly.
 The horizontal stabilizer. This part of the aircraft is also called the horizontal stabilizer. The
main reason why this is included in the aircraft is to help in maintaining its stability when flying.
The wing will not be able to do it alone without the help of this part. This is providing a
counteracting force that helps when the aircraft faces disturbances while flying.
 The fuselage. This part is connected to the wing of the aircraft. This part actually comes in two
different shapes; it may come in rectangular shapes or in cylindrical tubes. This serves as a
connecting point for all the parts of the aircraft. This is where you will find the passengers and
cargo.
 The rudder. This serves as a hinge that allows the plane to turn left. This helps in controlling the
direction of the aircraft.

Different Tail Structures

The different parts above are basic parts of an aircraft. There are other smaller and yet very
important parts that include the flap, cabin, trim tab, nose, main gear and the aileron.
With the different descriptions given above, you can easily deduce that the main sub-structure of
the aircraft is the main determinant of the performance of the whole thing. Every part is
interconnected and the failure of one is going to affect everything. The rudder is one of the main
components and very important when the aircraft is maneuvering. When it is not working, the
whole plane will be affected and it will not be able to properly maneuver.

There is regular maintenance that has to be done in order to make sure that every part is working.
This is done twice a year depending on the need of the aircraft. There are also special
maintenance periods where the plane has to undergo a long check in order to replace parts that
were damaged. Aside from knowing the different theories that support aircraft ownership, it is
very important for you to know the importance of the basic parts and to understand how every
part works for the performance of the whole aircraft.

Knowing the different functions and descriptions of the parts of the plane will allow you to know
and understand the other information that includes the weight that it requires and the other
requirements for its safety. This will then lead you to the conclusion on how to abide with the
different rules and regulations that are given for aircraft owners.
2.

A gyroscope is a device designed to have a spinning disc or wheel mounted on a base such
that its axis can turn freely in one or more directions in order to maintain its orientation
regardless of any movement of the base. However, the orientation changes in response to an
external torque and in a different direction.

The gyroscope has evolved from technology such as mechanical-inertial spinning devices
including gimbals, axles, rotors and other electronic and optical devices. Each component
exploits some physical property of the system enabling it to detect rotational velocity about some
axis.

Working Principle

When the gyroscope is applied with external torques or rotations about the given axis, the
orientation can be measured by a precession phenomenon. When an object rotating about an axis
is applied with external torque along a direction perpendicular to the rotational axis, the
precession occurs.

This rotation about the spin axis is detected and information on this rotation is delivered to a
motor or other device that applies torque in an opposite direction thereby canceling the
precession and maintaining its orientation.

The precession can also be prevented using two gyroscopes that are arranged perpendicular to
each other. The rotation rate can be measured by the pulsation of counteracting torque at constant
time intervals.
 Applications

Gyroscopes are used in compasses for boats, spacecrafts and airplanes. In airplanes, the pitch and
orientation of the airplane is measured against the steady spin of the gyroscope.

In spacecrafts, the spinning center of the gyroscope is used as a point of orientation to help
navigate the desired target.

Massive gyroscopes are used to stabilize large boats and some satellites. They are also used in
guidance systems in some missiles. Other applications of gyroscopes include inertial navigation
systems and gyrotheodolites for maintaining direction in tunnel mining.

3. Ring laser gyroscope

A ring laser gyroscope (RLG) consists of a ring laser having two independent counter-
propagating resonant modes over the same path; the difference in the frequencies is used to
detect rotation. It operates on the principle of the Sagnac effect which shifts the nulls of the
internal standing wave pattern in response to angular rotation. Interference between the counter-
propagating beams, observed externally, results in motion of the standing wave pattern, and thus
indicates rotation.

Ring laser gyroscopes can be used as the stable elements (for one degree of freedom each) in
an inertial reference system. The advantage of using an RLG is that there are no moving parts
(apart from the dither motor assembly, see further description below and laser-lock), compared
to the conventional spinning gyroscope. This means there is no friction, which in turn means
 there will be no inherent drift terms. Additionally, the entire unit is compact, lightweight and
highly durable, making it suitable for use in aircraft and also satellites. Unlike a mechanical
gyroscope, the device does not resist changes to its orientation.

A certain rate of rotation induces a small difference between the time it takes light to traverse the
ring in the two directions according to the Sagnac effect. This introduces a tiny separation
between the frequencies of the counter-propagating beams, a motion of the standing wave pattern
within the ring, and thus a beat pattern when those two beams are interfered outside the ring.
Therefore, the net shift of that interference pattern follows the rotation of the unit in the plane of
the ring.
RLGs, while more accurate than mechanical gyroscopes, suffer from an effect known as "lock-
in" at very slow rotation rates. When the ring laser is hardly rotating, the frequencies of the
counter-propagating laser modes become almost identical. In this case, crosstalk between the
counter-propagating beams can allow for injection locking so that the standing wave "gets stuck"
in a preferred phase, thus locking the frequency of each beam to each other rather than
responding to gradual rotation.
Forced dithering can largely overcome this problem. The ring laser cavity is rotated clockwise
and anti-clockwise about its axis using a mechanical spring driven at its resonance frequency.
This ensures that the angular velocity of the system is usually far from the lock-in threshold.
Typical rates are 400 Hz, with a peak dither velocity of 1 arc-second per second[dubious – discuss].
Dither does not fix the lock-in problem completely, as each time the direction of rotation is
reversed, a short time interval exists in which the rotation rate is near zero and lock-in can briefly
occur. If a pure frequency oscillation is maintained, these small lock-in intervals can accumulate.
This was remedied by introducing noise to the 400 Hz vibration.

Application:

Contemporary applications of the Ring Laser Gyroscope (RLG) include an embedded GPS
capability to further enhance accuracy of RLG Inertial Navigation Systems (INS)s on military
aircraft, commercial airliners, ships and spacecraft. These hybrid INS/GPS units have replaced
their mechanical counterparts in most applications.

4. How Does Satellite Navigation Work?

Venkatesh Vaidyanathan 10 Months Ago (Updated: 6 Months Ago)

In today’s modern world, no place can really be called unfamiliar. Even while traveling in
another country, you can stride around with confidence. This confidence is obviously fueled by
the smartphones we have in our pockets. This wasn’t the case before the early 2000s when
satellite navigation systems were still controlled and exclusively enjoyed by governments and
armies. The question is, how did such a highly coveted technology become a useful boon to the
masses? Before we get to that answer, let’s take a look into the inner workings of satellite
navigation.

The function of the Satellite Navigation System

The satellite navigation system is composed of a global network of satellites that transmit and
receive radio signals. The exact number of satellites that make up this global network is 32.
There are two main divisions in the international satellite scheme. One is GPS, which was
developed and is currently operated in the USA. The Russians also developed something
similar to GPS known as the GLONASS. Both have offered the free use of their systems to the
international community.

The current GPS systems offer users accuracy within 7.8 meters of a target location close to 95%
of the time. This accuracy is guaranteed for all places on and near the earth. To accomplish this
arduous task, the 32 satellites emit signals to receivers (which may be your smartphone or GPS
navigation tablet) to determine their location. The difference between the time it takes for the
signal to be emitted by the satellite and for the satellite to receive a signal back from the receiver
is tightly calculated and used to determine exactly where the receiver is located.
GPS satellites have onboard atomic clocks that are incredibly accurate. The time information is
placed in the codes broadcast by the satellite, allowing receivers to continuously determine the
time when the signal was transmitted. This signal is also known as a time stamp signal. The
timestamp signal is a signal that a receiver uses to compute the locations of the satellites. This is
also used to make corrections to the calculations, which may occur due to the constant change in
the position of the satellite. Also, using the timestamp signal to calculate the receiver can
calculate the range of the satellites. Conversely, by being able to estimate these parameters, the
receiver can compute its own three-dimensional position. This is the basis of how a satellite
navigation system works.
Error Handling

Now, we know that any system performing work is prone to some amount of error. There are
many factors that can contribute to this level of error, but we will look at some of the errors that
escalate quite quickly. The first error that occurs in satellite navigation is due to the ionosphere.
The ionosphere extends from 60 km to 2000 km above sea level. The reason this region plays a
significant role in potential error is that it has an appreciable number of free electrons. These free
electrons have a noticeable effect on the electromagnetic waves that pass between the satellite
and the receivers. The error due to the ionosphere is much less when the satellites are directly
overhead than when they are near the horizon. This is because, near the horizon, the number of
layers of the ionosphere increases between the satellite and the receiver.
The next errors that generally occur are errors in time. Even very small errors in time can cause
major complications. A 1 nanosecond time lapse of the atomic clocks onboard the satellite will
cause a 1 foot or 30 cm difference to the receiver. For a global system that forms the bedrock of
a lot of our technology today, such errors are not acceptable.

(Photo Credit : Lukas Rohr/Wikimedia Commons)

The next way in which time has an effect, although not in such an intuitive way, is through the
infamous theories of Einstein. The special theory of relativity argues that the atomic clocks tick
ever so slightly slower than the clocks that remain stationary on the ground. This is because time
becomes slower as one moves faster (as speed tends towards the speed of the light). Even though
the atomic clocks onboard the satellite travel nowhere close to the speed of light, their relative
speed to the stationary clocks on Earth makes them experience time a tad bit slower than the time
experienced by the clocks on Earth. This is where the general theory of relativity kicks in, stating
that the clock closer to a massive object will move faster than a clock that is far away. The time
delay is significantly greater by about 21.9 microseconds per day.
Combining both, it is estimated that there is an approximate 38-microsecond delay. If this error
were left unaccounted for, it would lead to a 10 km per day pseudo-range error that would render
the whole system useless from the start. The correction for this is quite a simple solution. It is
“fixed” by lowering the frequency of the atomic clock onboard the satellite from 10.23 MHz to
10.2299999543 MHz exactly, which cancels out the effects of relativity.
So, the next time you use your GPS or GPS-dependent device, you can appreciate the amount of
math and engineering that has gone into it to make life simple and reduce your chances of getting
lost every time you leave your house!
5. What is GPS?

GPS or Global Positioning System is a satellite navigation system that furnishes location and
time information in all climate conditions to the user. GPS is used for navigation in planes, ships,
cars and trucks also. The system gives critical abilities to military and civilian users around the
globe. GPS provides continuous real time, 3-dimensional positioning, navigation and timing
worldwide.

How does GPS System Work?

The GPS system consists of three segments:

Space Segment:

The space segment is the number of satellites in the constellation. It comprises of 29 satellites
circling the earth every 12 hours at 12,000 miles in altitude. The function of the space segment is
utilized to route/navigation signals and to store and retransmit the route/navigation message sent
by the control segment. These transmissions are controlled by highly stable atomic clocks on the
satellites. The GPS Space Segment is formed by a satellite constellation with enough satellites to
ensure that the users will have, at least, 4 simultaneous satellites in view from any point at the
Earth surface at any time.

Control Segment:

The control segment comprises of a master control station and five monitor stations outfitted
with atomic clocks that are spread around the globe. The five monitor stations monitor the GPS
satellite signals and then send that qualified information to the master control station where
abnormalities are revised and sent back to the GPS satellites through ground antennas. Control
segment also referred as monitor station.

User Segment:

The user segment comprises of the GPS receiver, which receives the signals from the GPS
satellites and determine how far away it is from each satellite. Mainly this segment is used for
the U.S military, missile guidance systems, civilian applications for GPS in almost every field.
Most of the civilian uses this from survey to transportation to natural resources and from there to
agriculture purpose and mapping too.
 How GPS Determines a Position:

The working/operation of Global positioning system is based on the ‘trilateration’ mathematical

principle. The position is determined from the distance measurements to satellites. From the
figure, the four satellites are used to determine the position of the receiver on the earth. The
target location is confirmed by the 4th satellite. And three satellites are used to trace the location
place. A fourth satellite is used to confirm the target location of each of those space vehicles.
Global positioning system consists of satellite, control station and monitor station and receiver.
The GPS receiver takes the information from the satellite and uses the method of triangulation to
determine a user’s exact position.

GPS is used on some incidents in several ways, such as:

1. To determine position locations; for example, you need to radio a helicopter pilot the coordinates
of your position location so the pilot can pick you up.
2. To navigate from one location to another; for example, you need to travel from a lookout to the
fire perimeter.
3. To create digitized maps; for example, you are assigned to plot the fire perimeter and hot spots.
4. To determine distance between two different points.
3 Advantages of GPS:
 GPS satellite based navigation system is an important tool for military, civil and commercial
users
 Vehicle tracking systems GPS-based navigation systems can provide us with turn by turn
directions
 Very high speed
2 Disadvantages of GPS:
 GPS satellite signals are too weak when compared to phone signals, so it doesn’t work as well
indoors, underwater, under trees, etc.
 The highest accuracy requires line-of-sight from the receiver to the satellite, this is why GPS
doesn’t work very well in an urban environment.