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Principal's Message
The purpose of education is the integral formation of
students helping them to become men and women for others through
striving after excellence in learning, creative and practical thinking and
co-operative leadership with a stress on both academic excellence and
human excellence. Hence an educated person lives a life of commitment to
justice, acts from a strong self concept, thinks critically and creatively,
communicates effectively, exercises power appropriately and evokes hope.
Education is key to human development. It is often understood as a means of
overcoming handicaps, achieving greater equality, and acquiring wealth and status
for all. Education is also often perceived as a place where children can develop according
to their unique needs and potentials with the purpose of developing every individual
to their full potential.
Some claim that there is education inequality because children did not exceed the
education of their parents. This education inequality is then associated with income
inequality. Although critical thinking is a goal of education, criticism and blame are
often the unintended by products of our current educational process. Students often
blame their teachers and their textbooks, despite the availability of libraries and the
internet. When someone tries to improve education, the educational establishment
itself occasionally showers the person with criticism rather than gratitude. Better by
products of an educational system would be gratitude and determination.
Mahatma Gandhi had said, "an ounce of action is more important than tones of
knowledge". Hence a Social worker will not only analyze social problems but also find
solutions to them. Social development by eradicating social inequalities and problems
will the primary goal of social work. The analysis of social problems done in this
issue of DEEKSHA may help in finding solutions to these problems and make this
world a better place for all to live in peace, harmony and in happiness.
I congratulate the editorial team for their dedicated efforts.
Fr. Swebert D' Silva, SJ
Principal
DEEKSHA 1 Vol. 14 No. 1

Deeksha
Bi-Annual Journal of Social Work
ISSN - 2250 - 3919
Contents
Editor’s Note.... 3
- Mr. Lohith Shetty
Education and Women Empowerment In India -

Study In Dakshina Kannada District 5
- Dr. V. Basil Hans and Ms. Sowjanya S. Shetty
A Right Based Approach to Corporate Responsibility 22

- Dr. Ashis Chatterjee
Financial Inclusion: Giving Power to Rural Women through SHG –

A Study in Sambalpur District 36
- Ms. Bandana Meher
Corporeal Difficulties among the Female Commercial Sex Workers during

Old Age: A Study in Mumbai-karnataka Region 45
- Dr. Gangadhar B. Sonar
Marriage, Family and Sex: Sociological Perspective 53

- Dr. Richard Pais
Barrier to Reintegration- Problems of Women Prisoners due to Incarceration 67

- Mrs. Beulah Emmanuel and Ms. Sowmya Kumar
Role of Education in Promoting Health 83

- Mrs. Deepika D.
Scope for Social Work Intervention in Corporate Social Responsibility for

Community Development – Study in the Outskirts of Mangalore 97
- Dr. Sr. Jenis Mary P. and Dr. A. L. Anthony Sebastian
Recent Trends on Labour Welfare in Industries to Control Absenteeism-

A Legal Intervention 110
- Mr. Pradeep M.D. and Dr. Ravindra B. K.
Educating for Health: A Review 124

- Mrs. Priya S. Shetty

It gives me joy and contentment to bring out this
edition of Deeksha Vol.14 No. 1. And as always, this
te ... edition focuses on the various socially relevant topics. I

No thank all the authors for their contributions and the
or’s efforts put in by them. I recognise the support of the

it editorial board members for their cooperation and guidance
Ed as well as in the editing of articles.
Dr. V. Basil Hans, in his article EDUCATION AND WOMEN
EMPOWERMENT IN INDIA – STUDY IN DAKSHINA KANNADA DISTRICT, , calls
for a renewed emphasis on relevant, quality and holistic education to ensure the desired
results. It discusses the impact of education on empowerment of women as well as the
challenges and changes that we have to deal with during the process.
Dr. Ashis Chatterjee in his article A RIGHT BASED APPROACH TO CORPORATE
RESPONSIBILITY conducted amongst small and medium enterprises (SMEs) emphasises that
interventions are desired to deal with the problems of integrating the supply chain in the
business process to evolve a business responsibility beyond law. The interventions should
be at different levels, i.e. governmental policy, local administration, NGO, industry and the
purchasing organization.
Ms. Bandana Meher made a study in Sambalpur District on FINANCIAL INCLUSION:
GIVING POWER TO RURAL WOMEN THROUGH SHG which tried to find the role of SHG for
economic empowerment of women in the family and village level. Study has projected positive
outcomes. Few case studies are included to analyse the pre and post situation after joining
in SHG.
CORPOREAL DIFFICULTIES AMONG THE FEMALE COMMERCIAL SEX WORKERS DURING
OLD AGE: a study in Mumbai-Karnataka region was made by Dr. Gangadhar B. Sonar. 600
female elderly commercial sex workers were studied and found that female elderly
commercial sex workers are the section of women who are the weakest among weaker
sections for being women, elderly, vulnerable, stigmatised, marginalised, excluded, and
resource poor. The paper suggested measures to ameliorate the corporeal conditions of
female elderly commercial sex workers as it identified that female elderly commercial sex
workers encountered several corporeal difficulties due to hazardous working conditions.
Dr. Richard Pais being pioneer in Sociology has given the sociological perspective of
MARRIAGE, FAMILY AND SEX. Marriage has undergone changes, now the family is
transforming from joint into nuclear. It is clarified that with industrialisation and not information
technology, family faces newer challenges which has impact on the children and the aged.
In the modern times, due to the instability of marriage and family divorce is on the increase
and sex gratification is sought outside marriage. Both pre-marital and extra-marital sex is
on the rise and it has taken new forms.

Mrs. Beulah Emmanuel in her study BARRIER TO REINTEGRATION- PROBLEMS OF
WOMEN PRISONERS DUE TO INCARCERATION has enriched on the importance of close
liaison between social agencies and services, as well as relevant community organizations
and prison administrations during sentence. The allocation of resources for reintegration
should be targeted at these areas, in terms of policy implications: The challenge of connecting
ex-prisoners with relevant services, supports and treatment options is of critical importance
from a penal planning perspective.
ROLE OF EDUCATION IN PROMOTING HEALTH is a secondary study made by Mrs.
Deepika D. which gives statistical data about India, its various States and regions. The data
analysed reflects on the increase in educational level promoting health.
Dr. Sr. Jenis Mary P. contributed an article on SCOPE FOR SOCIAL WORK INTERVENTION
IN CORPORATE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY FOR COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT. Study was made
in Mangalore near Bala, Suratkal which is the area concentrated with Petroleum Refineries
and related activities. The study revealed that the locals did not have any chronic illness in
their family. The residents pointed out that the present condition of the electricity is good.
They didn’t have a proper drainage system, waste management, water facility in the area.
RECENT TRENDS ON LABOUR WELFARE IN INDUSTRIES TO CONTROL ABSENTEEISM-
A LEGAL INTERVENTION, an article contributed by Mr. Pradeep M. D. have identified labour
welfare as a strategy to reduce the absenteeism, causes of absenteeism and employers
legal obligation towards initiating new strategies of welfare measures and encourage the
policy makers to come out with more effective welfare provisions to enrich the morale of the
employees.
Mrs. Priya S. Shetty in her article EDUCATING FOR HEALTH: A REVIEW, have used
secondary data available in the concerned area with the objectives to explore the link between
education and health in general; and women health in particular. The findings conclude that
social determinants of health, is the stepwise gradient in health across almost all measures
of social status and economic resources within a society.
Lohith Shetty
Executive Editor
Copyright rests with the publishers. The authors alone are responsible for the contents /
views expressed in their respective articles.

EDUCATION AND WOMEN EMPOWERMENT IN INDIA - STUDY IN
DAKSHINA KANNADA DISTRICT
Dr. V. Basil Hans*
Ms. Sowjanya S. Shetty**
ABSTRACT:
Jawaharlal Nehru once said: "If you educate a man you educate an individual, however,
if you educate a woman you educate a whole family. Women empowered means mother
India empowered". When women who constitute almost half of the population are
empowered it will strengthen the national economy. Education is considered as a milestone
for women empowerment because it enables them to respond to the challenges, to confront
their traditional role and change their lives. Increasing access to education notwithstanding,
gender discrimination still persists in India and lot more needs to be done in the field of
women's education in India. Women have so much unexplored potential which has never
been tapped. As education is both an input and input of human development, educational
equity will ensure enabling and entrepreneurial development. Today, the female literacy
levels according to the Literacy Rate 2011 census are 65.46 per cent where the male literacy
rate is over 80per cent. Even beyond literacy there is much that education can do for women's
rights, dignity and security. Primary data pertains to the field based survey of socio-economic
infrastructure in selected villages of Dakshina Kannada District. Education is the key to unlock
the golden door of freedom for development. Eileen Malone Beach sees education, health
care, and income as a blessed trinity because they are so closely related. This paper discusses
the impact of education on empowerment of women as well as the challenges and changes
that we have to deal with during the process. We call for a renewed emphasis on relevant,
quality and holistic education to ensure the desired results.
Keywords: Development, Education, Empowerment, India, Women.
Dr. V. Basil Hans, Associate Professor of Economics & Research Supervisor/Co-ordinator,

Research Cell, St Aloysius Evening College, Mangaluru, Karnataka State, India. Email:
vhans2011@gmail.com
Ms. Sowjanya, Lecturer and Research Scholar in Economics, Poornaprajna College, Udupi,
Karnataka State. Email: sowjanya936@gmail.com

1. INTRODUCTION
“A stratified three tiered structure that enables seamless vertical and horizontal mobility
of students would be able to create the desired intellectual, economic and social value” –
Vision Document for India’s Higher Education.1
Right from India’s Independence, women education has been a major preoccupation of
both the government and civilsociety as educated women can play a very important role in
the development of the country.Education is considered as a milestone of women
empowerment because it enables them to responds to thechallenges, to confront their
traditional role and change their life (Suguna, 2011). With health and education gaps still
languishing reforms in India show failure in decreasing marginalisation. There is mismatch
between knowledge, skills, enterprise and equity both ex ante and ex post (Hans, 2013a).
Education and employment can be used as twin processes of collectivisation and learningfor
empowerment to promote social inclusion (Hans, 2008; Hans, 2013b).
Education is considered as a basic requirement and a fundamental right for the citizens
of any nation. It is a powerful tool for reducing inequality as it can give people the ability to
become independent. Women, who come across discrimination in many spheres, have a
particular need for this. Education is landmark of women empowerment since it facilitates
them to responds to the challenges, to confront their customary appearance and revolutionise
their living (Pathak and Gupta, 2013).Education is regarded as an important milestone of
women empowerment because it enables them to face the challenges, to confront their
traditional role and change their life. Education of women is the most powerful tool of change
their position in the society. Still large womenfolk of our country are illiterate, backward,
weak, and exploited. Education also reduces inequalities and functions as a means of
improving their status within the family. Empowerment and capacity building provides women
an avenue to acquire practical information and learning for their improved livelihoods. India
can become a developed nation only if women contribute to the best of her capacity and
ability which is possible when she is educated and empowered.
The paper is organised into five sections with subsections. In the next subsection we
give the background of the study. Section 2 gives the purpose and plan of the study. Section
3 provides conceptual and practical dimensions of women empowerment. After discussing
the measures for women empowerment in Section 4 we conclude the paper in Section 5.
1.1 Background of the Study:
India’s newfound growth pattern owes much to a social infrastructure namely education.
This service and its impact are visible in tertiary sector and the rest of the economy. Education
is an end in itself as well as a means for realising other desirable ends. Empowerment is a
multi-dimensional process, which enables the individuals to realise their full identity and
powers in all the spheres of life.
1
See Higher Education in India: Vision 2030, published in 2013 by Ernst & Young LLP, Kolkata. The Vision
Report is prepared by the Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce and Industry, New Delhi.

Empowerment of women brings equal status to women, opportunity and freedom to
develop her which also means equipping women to be economically independent and
personally self-reliant. Providing them quality education is the fundamental way to empower
women which makes them scientific, logical, open-minded, and self-respecting and ensures
greater autonomy in making decisions or free themselves from the shackles imposed on
them by custom, belief and practices in the society. Without such virtues being developed
among women, empowerment has no meaning. Going by the call for ‘Make in India’ and to
make for India, we need quality education and empowering education particularly that reaps
the demographic dividend (Sowjanya and Hans, 2015).
1.2 Purpose and Plan of the Study:
The purpose and methodology of the paper is as follows
1.2.1 Objectives of the Study:
• To analyse the relationship between education and sustainable development
• To examine the impact of education on empowerment of women
• To study the challenges and changes in educating women
1.2.2 Hypothesis:
There is positive correlation between education, economic development and
empowerment.
1.2.3 Methodology:
The present study is based on the collection of data from primary and secondary sources.
Primary data pertains to the field based survey of socio-economic infrastructure in selected
villages of Dakshina Kannada District. Secondary data is obtained from various published
and unpublished records, books, magazines and journals. This augments and updates the
primary data collected during 2004-2006 and compiled for 10 villages in Belthangadi Taluk
and 10 villages in Mangalore Taluk (see Table 1).
Table 1: Study Area
Sl. No Belthangadi Taluk Mangalore Taluk
1. Aladangadi Bala
2. Balanja Chelaru
3. Kokkada Harekala
4. Marodi-Parodi Kolambe
5. Mogru (Bandaru) Kompadavu
6. Naravi Konaje
7. Neriya Moodushedde
8. Shishila Munnuru
9. Shirlalu Swamilapadavu
10. Ujire Thokuru

The respondents ranged in age from 18-60 years and included dropped out and/or self-
employed youth, teachers in schools, single female heads of households (even a widow in
one case), men and women, village leaders, village elders, persons working on farms, shops,
hospitals, offices, NGOs etc. The interviews were individual interviews, couple (husband
and wife), family (husband, wife and children), and in groups of 2-4 people (same sex and
mixed sex).
The research design consists of the nature of the sample, and methods of data collection
and analysis. Stratified random sampling has been used. The interview schedules generated
information about the village, the farmer/worker, rural activities engaged, assets, income
and expenditure and infrastructural facilities/projects being used and developed, both at
the household level and the village level. Further it had queries on the overall impact of
infrastructural development on one’s own family and his/her village as well as specific
constraints in accessibility.
1.3 Limitations:
The primary data pertains to rural areas and general population and therefore, the
conclusions cannot be generalised. Heterogeneity between taluks and villages exerts
tremendous influence on analysis and results.
2. CONCEPTUAL AND OPERATIONAL FRAMEWORK
2.1 Education for Empowerment:
The educational reforms are said to be the cause of globalisation as well as the
mechanisms to handle globalisation. In both cases there is a relationship between education
and human development that itself needs to be carefully managed. This is of relevance in
the recent emphasis on “entrepreneurship development for empowerment”. Purists, however,
still hold on to the aesthetic values of education. The need is to blend education for
enlightenment and education for empowerment.
Klafki characterises education as on the one hand “opening up the world” (material
education) and on the other hand “creating openness in the individual” (formal education)
2
It enables out-of-the box thinking that converts information into knowledge and knowledge
into skill and capital. By empowerment through knowledge, the potential of individuals will
be liberated from immobility by adequate awareness, and appropriate interpretation and
application of laws, rights and duties in an integrated manner (Hans, 2009).
Education is milestone of women empowerment as only the educated women can play
a very dominant role in the economic development of our country as well as in becoming
informed citizens, parents, and family members. Educating a woman means educating a
family.
2
See Klafki, W. (1963) Studien zur Didaktik und Bildungsteorie Weinheim: Belz.

More empowered the women are; more empowered would be the society. Educated
women have multiple advantages (tangible and intangible) as far as families’ and social
needs are concerned. They play various roles as a responsible citizens, housewives, mothers
etc. and also as contributors to families’ income (Jha, 2014). However, the growth of women’s
education in rural areas is very slow implying that still large women folk of our country are
illiterate, the weak, backward and exploited. Therefore, “educating the women” is the most
powerful tool that can bring change of position of women in society bringing reduction in
inequalities and functions as a means of improving their status within the family. Education
implies not only gaining knowledge but also transforming that knowledge into application
through vocational training and skill development.
Gender Gap index 2013 (GGI) measures the gap between men and women in four
fundamental categories – economic participation & opportunity, educational attainment,
health & survival and political empowerment. India ranks among the lowest 101 in 136
Countries, below Countries like China, Sri Lanka and Bangladesh. This mirrors the status of
women in India and gender discrimination in all aspects of life-education, economic activity
and empowerment (Balve, 2015).
Education is the basis for the full promotion and improvement of the status of women
for themselves and for the whole society. Education provides a basis for a positive change
and transformation of the society (Shivalingappa and Nagaraj, 2011). This exposes new and
innovative thoughts, understanding and important skills in a person towards developing self
and surroundings. Education empowers women to understand the economics of managing
resources and grab the opportunities for value generation in a micro (household) and macro
(societal) level (Jha, 2014). Amartya Sen makes a compelling case for the notion that societies
need to see women less as passive recipients of help, and more as dynamic promoters of
social transformation, suggesting that the education, employment and ownership rights –
entitlements and functioning – of women have a powerful influence on their ability to control
their environment and contribute to economic development. It also means that we achieve
optimum utilisation of resources for the well-being of human beings (Sen, 1999; Hans, 2015a).
India is in urgent need to increase the Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER), particularly in higher
education, for its emancipation and people’s empowerment. Otherwise we will remain as a
country with high population growth with low quality of human resources. Our GER is currently
20 per cent and we could not reach the target of 30 per cent set for the 12th Five Year plan
(the world average is 23.2 per cent for countries in transition, 54.6 per cent for the developed
countries, and 22.0 per cent for the Asian countries (Hans, 2015b).Literacy and educational
levels are increasing for Indian women still there is gap between male and female literacy
rate which can be seen in the Table 2.

Table 2: Literacy Rate in India (per cent)
Year Persons Male Female
1901 5.3 9.8 0.7
1911 5.9 10.6 1.1
1921 7.2 12.2 1.8
1931 9.5 15.6 2.9
1941 16.1 24.9 7.3
1951 16.7 24.9 7.3
1961 24.0 34.4 13.0
1971 29.5 39.5 18.7
1981 36.2 46.9 24.8
1991 52.1 63.9 39.2
2001 65.38 76.0 54.0
2011 74.04 82.14 65.46
Source: Census of India (2011)
As Table 2 shows the pre-Independence time literacy rate for women had a very poor
stream in comparison to literacy rate of men. This can be witnessed from the fact that
literacy rate of women has risen from 0.7 per cent to 7.3 per cent while the literacy rate of
men has risen from 9.8 per cent to 24.9 per cent during these four decades. The literacy rate
of male has almost tripled over the period e.g. 25 per cent in 1951 and 76 per cent in 2001.
Government has undertaken various programmes to increase literacy rate. Surprisingly the
female literacy rate has increased at a faster pace than the male literacy during the decade
1981 -2001. The growth is almost 6 times e.g. 7.9 per cent in 1951 and 54 per cent in 2001.
From this analyse one can infer that only about 50 per cent of the female population is
literate and wadding behind three fourth of the literate male population.
2.2 Women Empowerment:
Women empowerment is a process of enabling women to have access and make
productive contributions to their economic independence, political participation and social
development. Empowerment enables the individuals to realise their identity and powers in
all spheres of life. It consists of greater access to knowledge and resources, greater autonomy
in making decisions or free from the shackles imposed on them by custom, belief and practices
in the society.
Education enables women and makes their inclusive growth happen and gender neutral
economy becomes a reality. This is empowerment in action made possible by various factors
(see figure 1). As per the latest Census of India, women constitute 48.49 per cent of the
country’s population and about 90 per cent of the informal sector. Women are mostly venerated

and found valuable. Yet they are often invisible in the development scenario. It is said that
between the rhetoric of women’s empowerment and the reality of decreasing fund allocation
for schemes related to women’s health, education etc., lays the story of women’s development
in India.
Often women empowerment discourse seems to hover around credit and group
management. Addressing one constraint (credit) is not enough, the theory goes; the gaps in
education also need to be addressed (Duflo, 2011).
Fig.1: Factors in women empowerment

Source: Jha (2014).
Even accepting that education is for business and earning women must learn to do
business. Sustainable development and human progress means freedom from hunger, disease,
and poverty – both income poverty and human poverty – wherein education becomes a
causative factor. Education is thus, the BASE of development, to overcome barriers and to
ensure empowerment (see figure 2).
EMPOWER
EDUCATE
Overcome BARRIERS
Improve ACCESS
Extend SUPPORT
Ever EVALUATE
Fig. 2: Education – Base of empowerment
A first dimension of empowerment mentioned by Wolfensohn is education.3 Education
can have a range of benefits within the households: if more educated women command
higher outside wages, and it is easier for them to get a job, then investing more in educating
women, rather than in men, may indeed have a more positive impact on child health than
when the investments are spread evenly if women bargaining power in the household leads
to better outcomes for children. In addition, if women are the primary caregivers for young
children, then more education may help them provide better care. Therefore, many believe
that a special effort is needed to educate girls, and that educating girls would have tremendous
spill-over effects.
Denial of access and opportunities to rightful place, possession and position to women
begins from home and extends beyond to schools and other institutions of learning and
work. Differences in avenues to growth and development thus, become issues. The issues
become areas of concern, not just for women, but for the entire society (Hans, 2012).
2.3 Women Empowerment: Interventions and Implications:
Empowerment enables women to acquire knowledge, skills and techniques which will
help them in their personal and social growth as well as foster in them sensitivity towards
problems in the society. Special efforts are required to be taken for education, health and
employment of women. Economic empowerment is essential for improvement of female sex
ratio but economic empowerment is possible only when women are educated. Lack of
education is the root cause for women’s exploitation and negligence. Only literacy and
education can help women to understand the Indian’s constitutional and legislative provisions
that are made to strengthen them. Education is “potential affirming and performance
confirming”.
Empowerment of a girl starts even enterprise makes empowerment operational. That is
full filling journey for a mother too: from a painful situation to a gainful situation. When
women are educated, they will be able to contribute in nation building. A few women are
currently holding powerful positions in India and in the world, but there is still room for
improvement if more women are educated. Perhaps with increase in women holding the
mantle in a male-dominated political arena, the socio-political state of affairs of the whole
world will definitely improve. Gender equity is what women desire. Empowerment becomes
3
Former World Bank President, James Wolfensohn, addressing the Fourth UN Conference on Women, said:
Education for girls has a catalytic effect on every dimension of development: lower child and maternal
mortality rates; increased educational attainment by daughters and sons; higher productivity; and improved
environmental management. Together, these can mean faster economic growth and, equally important,
wider distribution of the fruits of growth…. More education for girls will also enable more and more women
to attain leadership positions at all levels of society: from health clinics in the villages to parliaments in the
capitals. This, in turn, will change the way societies will deal withproblems and raise the quality of global
decision-making.

the means of achieving it with dignity. Indian woman is considered as shakthi, which means
power. What is power without justice?
Empowerment calls for critical intervention by governments too. Interventions need neatly
designed approaches with assigned roles for women and executed systematically. Women
development and women empowerment are correlated conceptually and methodologically.
Thus, promoting education among women is of great important in empowering them to
accomplish their goals in par with men in different spheres of life, nurturing and sustaining
a culture on unity, equity and dignity. Cultural and knowledge value-addition makes the case
for social emancipation, political nurturing and economic empowerment that much stronger.
Education makes women economically sound which is source of other all types of women
empowerment i.e., social, psychological, technological, Political. It enables them to overcome
obstacles, at all places, including their own homes.
2.4 Obstacles:
• Violence: It is the prime factor which opposes women’s empowerment. Physical,
emotional, mental torture and agony are deep rooted in the society from ancient times
which are responsible for decline in female sex ratio.
• Gender inequality: Women empowerment is not only limited to economic independence
of women; gender equality is the other side.
• Family restrictions: Illiterate guardians who are not willing to send their female children’s
to educational institutions. Denial of learning opportunities and continuing education to
home-makers and dual-working women is another issue that we need to address urgently
(Alva and Hans, 2013).
• Early marriages: Early marriages results in dropouts from school. Lack of awareness on
female education is also one of its causes.
Women’s own perception of themselves and on their empowerment must be changed.
They should also strive to change their image as weak, dependent, passive and try to become
independent, active, strong and determined human beings.
3. EDUCATION FOR DEVELOPMENT AND EMPOWERMENT: ANALYSIS OF PRIMARY DATA
Determinants of development include factors that influence development beginning with
the individual and going up to the institutional, viz. individual’s urges and personal capacity
and motivation (e.g. cognitive and substantive roles); family and caste size and structure;
race, religion and ethnic diversities; educational attainment and empowerment; and level of
social security. In this sense development encompasses several facets of individual and
institutional capacities (e.g. intellect) endeavours (e.g. functionalism and productivity) as
well as distinct values (e.g. cooperation, harmony and equality).

Development, thus, is not just more production but better pattern of production and the
creation of a just society (Hans, 2007). Women’s educational status thus, matters a lot. We
wanted to know the impact of education infrastructure on the levels of income of the rural
households. Illiteracy was taken as the constant value with primary onwards as upper levels
of education. Education-income correlation was examined and value of coefficient was
calculated from statistical analysis of data converting counts into percentages (Table 3 A
and B). These Tables show statistically how education infrastructure and economic
development are related and impact empowerment.
Table 3A: Income-Education Correlation

Table 3B: Impact of Education Infrastructure
Coefficients Beta T p value R
B Square
Constant 18935.00 .694 .489 0.168
Primary 15770.00 .059 .472 .638
Belthangadi High School 95481.67 .311 2.56 .011*
PUC+ 144377.5 .404 3.53 .001*
Constant 41550.00 2.30 .023 0.029
Mangalore Primary -6987.84 -.067 -.351 .726
High School 12021.43 .113 .601 .549
PUC+ 9220.00 .073 .432 .667
Constant 25396.43 1.38 .168 0.081
Combined Primary 9239.94 .045 .431 .667
High school 52925.61 .241 2.38 .018*
PUC+ 75392.46 .289 3.08 .002*
In Table 3A we have given the education status in the two taluks across the stages or
levels – from illiteracy to Degree – and its relation with the income size. High correlation
was found between education and income levels in both the taluks but that was largely
when people moved beyond primary level. In Belthangadi the concentration of Poverty (in
BPL terms) was more in the illiterate and primary levels, 87 per cent to be exact. When the
households moved from PUC to degree level of education no household had less than Rs.30,
000/ income, and 50 per cent of the households had Rs.75, 001-90,000 income and about 28
per cent had income of Rs.90, 000+.
In our Mangalore study area the total percentage of rural illiteracy found across the
income groups was very less: 8 per cent. Here also as people moved up in the education
ladder their income status improved: when they have moved from primary to high school
level the proportion of households in the Rs.15,001- 30,000 category fell from 41.2 per cent
to 32.4 per cent; and that in Rs.30,001-50,000 category increased from 34.5 per cent to 41.4
per cent. In the Rs.90,000+ category 50 per cent were those having education up to high
school, and 33.3 per cent were those who had degree qualification.
We found a descending order of illiteracy in Belthangadi as 43.5 per cent (BPL), 23.6 per
cent (low income), 0 per cent (middle income) and 0 per cent (high income). In Mangalore
that order was: 22.2, 6.1, 2.95, and 0.35. This indicated that an upward movement in

educational levels and standards had an important bearing on income. As people got better
access to education they moved out of the poverty circle in a slow but steady manner.
From part Table 3B we got,
Yearly income = 25396.429+9239.935 (Primary education) +52925.604 (High school)
+75392.46 (PUC +)
We used constant value of income as the base i.e., income level for the uneducated and
illiterates. Coefficient for Primary education was not significant, (Belthangadi 0.472 and
Mangalore -0.351). In Belthangadi the coefficient value increased substantially when
households moved from primary to high school and very sharply when they moved further to
PUC and degree whereas in Mangalore it was substantial for movement from primary to
high school. The p values for high school and PUC (and higher) education in Belthangadi
were significant at .011 and .001 respectively.
In Belthangadi R2 = 0.168 or 16.8 per cent and in Mangalore R2 = 0.029 or 2.9 per cent.
It means that in Belthangadi about 17 per cent of the total rise in household income was due
to education infrastructure whereas in Mangalore it was about 3 per cent. The lower value
of R2 in education for Mangalore can be interpreted in two concurrent ways. One, the existing
level of overall literacy and education in Mangalore taluk per cent is already so high that not
much effect of change in income at present can be explained by the education infrastructure,
and two, other variables have made their large contributions to rise in income and development
in Mangalore. Thus, our hypothesis that there is a positive correlation between educational
facilities and economic development is proved.
The combined R2 is 8.1 per cent. It means only 8.1 per cent change in income is shown
by the education status, but it is significant because F is significant. So we can conclude
that if there is improvement in education infrastructure it is a contributing factor for economic
development. The codes used are 0 and 1, (0 is for illiterate). When households moved just
from illiteracy level to primary level there was no significant effect on their income and
thereby on the rural economy but when they moved to high school and PUC + there was
tangible impact on economic development measured to the extent of 8.1 per cent. Most
people in our study areas were aware of this impact, though not statistically. Hence they not
only spent increasingly for securing education but were also willing to travel a lot for the
purpose. Some of them were pursuing education even after getting jobs. Having their own
preferences with regards to educational institutions, most of them have faced various
problems in accessing the educational facilities.
As part of the study we also found that within the taluks, in Belthangadi (villages)
continuing education is highest among the high income group households (6.65 per cent). In
both the taluks, thus, the desire for access to quality education is very strong. People of
Belthangadi inevitably have to travel a lot day-in and day-out but even then not a single
respondent said that he/she chose the particular institution in order to cut down travelling.
But this should not deter us from accepting the fact that despite the yearning for better
education, the rural people do face problems in accessing good educational facilities. Such
problems appear for instance, in the forms of financial constraints, work schedule, as also
travel time and distance involved.
Our study, thus, found that education infrastructure is found to have had greater impact
on income generation than health, market, irrigation and transport. Strongest linkage was
observed between education infrastructure and economic development, in the study
taluksBelthangadi and Mangalore, with the latter being in a better position than the former.
Since education is a vital component of human and social capital we infer that its development
in turn can influence other factors and forces of development in the rural areas. The better
impact of education in Belthangadi has made up for the poor accessibility to market, transport,
and irrigation although they are not substitutes to one another.
4. MEASURES AND MECHANISMS FOR THE EMPOWERMENT OF WOMEN
4.1 Initiatives and Institutions:
According to the Human Development Report (1993) literacy is a person’s first step in
learning and knowledge building. So literacy indictors are essential for any measurement of
human development. In India National Policy on Education (NPE) was set up in 1986 for the
development of education and eradication of illiteracy. The higher rate of illiteracy of women
is undoubtedly attributing for women to depend on men and to play a subordinate role.
Within the framework of democratic polity, our legislation, development policies, plan and
programmes have aimed for advancement of women in difference spheres. From the Fifth
five year plan (1974-78) onwards has been a marked shift in the approach to women’s issues
from welfare to development. The Mahila Samakhya Programme (Education for Women’s
Empowerment) started in 1987 focuses especially on the socially excluded and the landless
women. This programme is an example of creative collaboration between the voluntary
sector and the State In recent years, empowerment of women is considered as the central
issue in determining the status of women. The National Commission for Women was set up
by an Act of Parliament in 1990 to safeguard the right and legal entitlements of women.
The National Policy on Education (1986, revised in 1992) is perhaps the most luminous
document on women’s education. It emerged as a major breakthrough in addressing gender
issues in government policy, which projected that education, can be used as an agent of
basic change in the status of women. The District Primary Education Programme (DPEP)
started in 1994 has a holistic approach to reducing gender and social disparities and
universalising access, retention and achievement. Enrolment of girls has shown significant

upward trend in DPEP districts as compared to non-DPEP districts. The 86th Constitutional
Amendment made free and compulsory education a fundamental right for all children in the
6-14 age-group which increased the enrolment of girls in schools that is 64.1per cent in
1980-81 to 85.2 per cent in 1999-2000 (GoI, 2000)
The Government of India declared 2001 as Women’s Empowerment year. The national
policy of empowerment of women has set certain clear-cut goals and objectives. The policy
aims at upliftment, development and empowerment in socio-economic and politico–cultural
aspects, by creating in them awareness on various issues human rights, fundamental freedom,
providing access to health care, quality education at all levels, career building, vocational
guidance, employment, equal remuneration, occupational opportunities, health, safety, social
security and public life etc., in relation to their empowerment (GoI, 2012a). The Sarva Shiksha
Abhiyan (SSA – Education for All), which was launched in 2001-02, is the national umbrella
programme that is spearheading the universalisation of elementary education through a
community-owned approach, with a speciûc focus on the provision of quality education.
One of the challenges accepted during the 12thPlan was establishing more Women’s
Universities (2012b).
Inequality in education is a Global Issue. The highest levels of inequality in education
were in South Asia (42 per cent), the Arab States (41 per cent) and Sub- Saharan Africa (37
per cent).There has been limited progress in reducing disparities in education, except in
Europe and Central Asia (Human Development Report 2014). What women by collective
effort can achieve is seen in the SHG movement for poverty alleviation, and empowerment
through entrepreneurship (Shoba, 2008). Such and initiative can be bolstered through efforts
in education too.
4.2 Suggestions:
z Awareness of daughter’s education is essential. It is said that “educated mothers educate
family which results in educated population of a nation which builds strong nation”
z Inculcate in women the confidence that change is possible, if women work collectively
z Encourage and ensure socio-economic participation of women in local and international
forums.
z Encourage participation of women in income generating activities. Proper implementation
of schemes provided by the government should be done by respective agencies
z Change the approach towards women that causes sexual harassment and other abuses
z Induce the feeling of self-dependence amongst women
z Put an end to child bearing at young age preventing early marriages

z Spread the message that education of women is a pre-condition for fighting against
their oppression
z Generate awareness regarding the necessity of educating girls so as to prepare them to
contribute effectively to the socio-economic development of the nation
z Eliminate all forms of discrimination in employment especially to remove wage
differentials between men and women
z Bring in, a conscious strategic change in national media and communication effort
z Introduce sense of analysing which will support wider reforms in support of gender
equality, involving men too
z Introduce satellite schools for remote hamlets
z Be cautious and patience in the knowledge journey: it is from knowledge creation/
discovery (KD) to knowledge transfer (KT)
z Encourage ICT tools and the use of internet, for the study and research by women
z Increasing real representation of women in political bodies and governance institutions
in order to move from being objects of legislation to initiators of change
z Emphasise on value-based and value-oriented education to help realise the goals of
entrepreneurship and empowerment, without sacrificing ethical standards
z Not to ignore issues of quality and investment in education at various levels
z Reforms (Bills) pending in the education sector should be passed without further delay
5. CONCLUSION
The evils of poverty, unemployment and inequality cannot be eradicated by man alone.
Equal and active participation of women is obligatory. Unless women are educated they will
not be able to understand about their rights and their importance. Empowerment of women
aims at striving towards acquiring higher literacy level and education, better health care for
women and their children, equal ownership of productive resources, increased participation
in economic and commercial sectors, awareness of their rights, improved standard of living
and to achieve self-reliance, self-confidence and self-respect among women. Recently the
NDA Government has launchedBetiBachao, BetiPadhao scheme which aims at making girls
independent both socially as well as financially and which will help in generating awareness
and improving the efficiency of delivery of welfare services meant for women. Such schemes
should be implemented nationwide to bring the desired changes. What should never be
forgotten is that women like men need to be proactive in the process lifelong learning. That
is true empowerment. From “women for development” the time has come to shift focus to

“women in development”, with the cooperation of men through group engagement and
management. That will indeed be a ‘quality’ change for equality. While being attracted by
modernisation and globalisation we must be confident to say no to marginalisation.
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A RIGHT BASED APPROACH TO CORPORATE RESPONSIBILITY
Dr. Ashis Chatterjee *
ABSTRACT:
Bigger industries claim that their products are socially responsible. However, most of
their semi-finished products are being offloaded to various small and medium industries.
The first tier suppliers again offload the part of product manufacturing along with social
responsibilities to their own supply chain. Hence, when the product manufacturing is further
outsourced, the social compliance in the smaller industries gets diluted. Moreover, there are
inherent problems related to the small and medium industries, like, lack of manpower, finance,
technological knowhow, unfair price competition, etc. The study was conducted in 2012
December amongst small and medium enterprises (SMEs) in the NCR region. The objective
was to understand the parameters of social responsibility amongst SMEs who are suppliers
to the corporate houses. Qualitative data were collected based on informal discussion with
the factory owners, managers, and labourers. It was found that the fluctuations in demand
and high turnover of workers, force industries to go for taking workers from manpower
agencies. Social audit cannot prevent all non-compliance. Interventions are desired to deal
with the problems of integrating the supply chain in the business process to evolve a business
responsibility beyond law. The interventions should be at different levels, i.e. governmental
policy, local administration, NGO, industry and the purchasing organization.
Key Words: Emerging Issues, Environmental Sanitation, Social Audit, Social Compliance,
Trade Unions.
INTRODUCTION:
Production is undergoing unprecedented expansion creating thousands of jobs. But the
jobs that are being created are characterized by low pay, substandard working conditions,
and excessive working hours and are only offered as short term contracts, often via
employment agencies. Many companies are facing increasing challenges in their ability to
manage their supply chain in a socially responsible manner. Responsible Supply Chain
Management (RSCM), as part of a company’s Corporate Social Responsibility strategies and
policies, has become a key part of the strategy of many companies. At the same time, many
codes of conduct, standards, guidelines and principles have been developed with a supply
chain focus and international scope (Leipziger 2003). Some such initiatives are the United
Nations Global Compact (UNGC); ILO Tripartite Declaration of Principles concerning
Multinational Enterprises and Social Policy (MNE Declaration); and a wide variety of initiatives
Dr. Ashis Chatterjee, Sociologist, NTPC, PMI, Sector 16 A, NOIDA, UP, Cell: +91 96 5099
6099, Email: chattu@rediffmail.com
focusing on specific issues (like the Ethical Trading Initiative (ETI) focusing on improving
working conditions). The most recent development in this regards is ISO 26000 standard on
social responsibility. However, despite all these efforts and standards, a number of CSR
issues still remain unsolved. Companies still face many challenges when trying to manage
social and environmental issues in the supply chain. This supply chain comprises of
organizations, people, technology, activities, information and resources involved in moving
a product or service from supplier to customer. Today’s corporate responsibility, in terms of
supply chain, can be defined as a voluntary commitment by companies to manage their
relationships with suppliers in a responsible way. As a result of their purchasing activities,
companies may have some opportunities to influence constructively their suppliers’ social
and environmental performance. This can be done using several incentives, including
information and training, as well as audits of suppliers’ practices. Whatever mechanism is
used, the most effective way to achieve sustained improvement over time is through the
development of a long-term collaborative relation between corporate buyers and their
suppliers, through which suppliers can internalize change by participating in the shaping of
social and environmental performance objectives, based on their own perception of their
business capacity and needs (ICC 2007: 2). The ICC emphasizes ‘voluntary’ in its definition.
The sustainability of supply chain is the management of environmental, social and economic
impacts and the encouragement of good governance practices, throughout the lifecycles of
goods and services. The objective of supply chain sustainability is to create, protect and
grow long-term environmental, social and economic value for all stakeholders involved in
bringing products and serves to markets.”(UNGC 2010: 7)
THE PROBLEM:
Insecure work is the result of employment practices by employers designed to limit or
reduce their permanent workforce to a minimum, to maximize their flexibility and to shift
risks on workers. Resulting jobs typically are non-permanent, temporary, casual, and
contingent. Workers in such jobs often are not covered by labor law and social security
protections. This kind of work threatens the survival of stable employment and collective
bargaining. Yet collective bargaining remains one of the few mechanisms through which
workers can obtain a genuine voice regarding their working conditions. Excluding precarious
workers from collective bargaining not only denies them their human rights, it takes away
one of the few opportunities to improve their employment conditions. It is argued that freedom
of association and the right to collective bargaining are increasingly at risk, in law and in
practice, in special economic zones (SEZ). Whether this threat is brought about by law or by
lack of enforcement of existing laws, the result for workers is the same. SEZs are often set
up in economically deprived areas where labor is cheap and workers are more fearful of
losing their jobs; if they make demands. The workers pool in SEZs generally has a large
share of migrant, young and temporary workers, in short, workers in precarious positions.

Largely unorganized, these workers have little or no access to unions. In some cases, physical
barriers in the form of fencing, gates, guards and razor wire prevent union organizers from
making contact with workers (Jenny Holdcroft, 2009).
Economic upgrading does not necessarily translate into improved terms and conditions
in the job, especially for workers embedded in lower tiers of global production networks.
Instead, vulnerable jobs are on the rise for workers in the unorganized sector and for some
workers in the organized sector as well (Posthuma, A and Nathan, D, 2010). Bigger industries
claim that their products are socially responsible. According to them, their workers use
personal protective equipments, there is no wage discrepancy between men and women,
overtime is paid to the workers as per the prevailing norms, all their workers have PF and ESI
cards, their rights are protected by collective bargaining ( through various trade unions) and
so on. But most products they use are ultimately procured from various small and medium
industries. The bigger industries impose terms and conditions for their first tier suppliers to
be responsible. The first tier suppliers as well impose such conditions for their first tier
supplier. Ultimately, when the product manufacturing is further outsourced, the social
compliance in the smaller industries gets diluted.
Ciliberti, et al (2009) investigated the pressure exerted by supply chain partners, especially
large-scale business customers and public authorities, on small and medium sized enterprises
(SMEs) to adopt corporate social responsibility (CSR) practices. The study suggests that in
order to enhance the perception of supply chain pressure as a CSR driver by SMEs, derived
benefits should be more clearly identified (including moral, rational, as well as economic).
There is also the risk that when CSR requirements are imposed by large-scale business
customers and public authorities, SMEs have difficulties in implementing CSR and
consequently are tempted to behave opportunistically. An opportunistic behavior can be
associated to the large-scale business customers and the public authorities as well, when
their commitment in CSR is perceived as only superficial. Thus there seems to be the need
for a higher level of trust in such actors in order to share the potential benefits and costs
related to CSR among all supply chain partners. This social compliance problem in the
downstream small and medium industries is well known to the bigger industries. But this
problem does not come under the realm of these bigger industries. Safety inspector and
local administration also are not very serious about implementing social compliance in small
industries. Moreover, there are inherent problems related to the small and medium industries,
like, lack of manpower, finance, technological knowhow, unfair price competition, etc.
LITERATURE REVIEW:
Responsible supply chain management (RSCM) emerged in the 1990s as an important
part of the corporate responsibility (or corporate social responsibility - CSR) discourse. The
concept primarily emerged as a corporate response to human rights risks appearing in
suppliers’ operations, sweat shops, child labour, forced labour, safety and health neglect,
and similar violations. Lack of effective human rights governance in the home state of
suppliers, as well as stakeholder pressures on the buyers to react, paved the way for RSCM
as we observe it practiced by corporations today.
The European Union (EU) studied “Responsible Supply Chain Management”, potential
success factors and challenges for addressing prevailing human rights and other CSR issues
in supply chains of EU-based companies. It looks at how European companies apply
responsible supply chain management in practice. The study focuses on three industrial
sectors important to the EU (cotton, sugar from sugar cane, and mobile phones), in relation
to five key CSR supply chain management issues (child labour, freedom of association and
collective bargaining, an adequate standard of living, unfair price levels, and biodiversity).
The emerging results are correlated with the “Protect, Respect, Remedy” framework proposed
by Professor John Ruggie, the UN Secretary-General’s special representative on business
and human rights (EU 2011).
A new study on ‘Changing Course– A Study into Responsible Supply Chain Management’
authored by GLOBAL CSR and Copenhagen Business School for the Danish Ministry of Foreign
Affairs was conducted in 2011. The study deals with the current approaches of companies
to RSCM and identifies their shortcomings and challenges, which are of concern to both
international buyers, local suppliers in developing countries, government agencies, NGOs
and other parties. In relation to the findings presented in the study, a new approach to RSCM
is suggested, which focuses on creating ‘CSR risk free sourcing and investment zones’ in
specific territories, thereby targeting all suppliers and sub-suppliers in a given area. The
vision is for international buyers to be able to source from certain areas without the risk of
being involved in violations of internationally agreed standards (RSCM, 2011).
According to Barrientos, et. al (2007) where improvements are made, they generally
only reach first tier suppliers. The approach therefore appears to fail in reaching the most
disadvantaged groups of workers such as migrant workers, women, casual workers and workers
employed by third-party labour contractors. Furthermore, SMEs continue to face the risk of
exclusion because of the costs of certification and the rigorous and extensive nature of the
underlying code standards.
A supplier development program is entirely suitable in any industrial sector where
specialized subcontracting is involved and the partners (main contractors and subcontractors)
are committed to maintaining long-term relationships. Suppliers are given assistance to
improve technology and manufacturing standards. At Maruti engineers work with vendors
to improve plan layouts and manufacturing systems. Vendors are helped to establish quality
practices and acquire ISO certification. Where necessary, financial support is also given,
including supply of costly tooling. Maruti entered into joint ventures with a number of
suppliers, taking minority equity positions, but being fully involved in ensuring that quality

and productivity levels were as high as possible. There are now 11 such joint venture
companies and they greatly helped in attaining localization targets, as well as maintaining
high quality (UNIDO 2003).
METHODS AND TOOLS:
The study has collected a profile of small industries based on a structured questionnaire.
Quantitative data that were collected were related to location and manpower, state of
automation (digital, manual or both), ISO status, use of safety equipment and communication
of hazards to the workers. Type of inspection in the SMEs and non-SMEs were looked into.
The common system that was found to be followed was joint inspection followed by main
contractor’s inspection and certificate of conformance. This was relevant in terms of
development of the small industries in the supply chain. Ambience and perception about
business responsibility was also looked into through this structured questionnaire. An open
ended question was also kept to get some clues for qualitative data related to some of the
problems faced by the small industries in a supply chain.
Seven assumptions were kept in mind while initiating the discussion, whether
telephonically or personally. Findings of each assumption were supplemented with findings
from the desk work and observation. Analyses of the assumptions are presented on the
basis of findings of desk work, observation, discussion with professionals etc. The seven
assumptions discussed in this chapter are as follows.
1. Insecure employment prevents workers from joining trade unions;
2. Spending on audit has minor tangible impact on workers;
3. The burden of CSR is mainly on suppliers;
4. Exhaustive sub-suppliers list is more for cost efficiency than responsibility;
5. Corporate sourcing strategy eliminates small and medium enterprises;
6. Environmental sanitation in the industries is poor; and
7. Some big suppliers are difficult to be handled.
Qualitative data were collected based on informal discussion with the factory owners,
quality/ HR managers, labourers during the factory visit. Discussions with the workers were
held during their lunch hours (in a very informal atmosphere). Observation in the industry
was done for 4-5 hours in a day. The survey continued for about six months. Academicians
were selected from the field of supply chain. Senior officials from Labour and Employment
Ministry were selected for their opinion related to development of small and medium
industries. Trade union members were also consulted for collection of qualitative data. Some
of the interviews (buyer agency, academicians, trade union) were held telephonically. Few
manpower supplying agencies, supplying technical manpower to various industries

(particularly small and medium industries) in NCR, were contacted to elicit their opinion
related to strategy to develop the labour conditions in the industries. The study was conducted
in national capital region of Delhi.
FINDINGS:
The area selected for the study purpose was national capital region. One hundred small
industries were selected on a random basis. The Trade Union organizations contacted were
CITU, INTUC and HMS. The labor contractors contacted were A P Engineering, S K S, Larking
and Shiva Enterprise. The two NGOs were contacted for the study purpose were ASK and
Partners-in-change.
In one factory (N K Fabricator), during visit by the researcher, the quality department
staff said ‘do you see the change from your last visit. Yesterday was ISO audit. So you can
see visitors’ helmet kept outside.’ Even in the bigger factories with a high turnover, it was
observed that some workers use gloves, shoes, respirators, etc. (PPE), and some do not. The
workers, who were not using PPE, were asked as to why not they were using PPE? The reply
was simple, i.e., ‘they are company workers and we are workers of the contractors.’ This
practice, as opined by some PSU officials, was very much prevalent in the factory premises
of the PSUs. The PSU employees when get PPE, the contractors’ employees do not.
Informal discussion with Mr. Balvinder, Super Industries who has been working in the
factory for more than 10-12 years, gave a picture of different sort in some villages. According
to him, there is no union as such. But there was not felt need as well. It is a mutual give and
take. The workers understand the owner, the owner also understands them. It was more like
an ‘ Jajmani System’ in a rural economy. Out of turn help, apart from agreed conditions,
prevail in the factory. During heavy order, workers work very hard. Again, during lean period
the worker is not asked to leave the factory. Even the owner helps the worker and their
family members during marriage, illness, etc.
According to some of the owners (R K Industries, Super Industries and others) fluctuations
in production do not automatically sanction the use of temporary and or contract work.
Setting a proportional maximum of contract workers may be necessary. Supply chain pressure
on prices and lead times results in speeding up production outputs, cutting down on labour
costs and the demand for longer working days. This causes unfair wages and social hardship
for workers concerned. Competition amongst factories is fierce. The challenge for the
factories in such a competitive economy is to balance the desire to provide low production
costs with the duty to protect the right of adequate standards of living for workers. The
supply chain is complex during the manufacturing stage. Various companies may have
contributed to parts and stages of the product.
According to some of the NGO experts (ASK, Partners in change), there always seems to
be a market for unsustainable products and a lack of level playing field will maintain this

market. When adverse impacts are detected, companies are therefore encouraged to take
all reasonable steps to mitigate and remedy the abuses with the identified supplier, rather
than to “cut and run”, which could worsen the particular situation.
Spending On Social Audit
Some experts from Trade Unions (HMS, CITU) also admitted that though this kind of a
system is adverse to a right based approach, still it is the base of rural Indian economy; be
it agriculture or an industry in the supply chain of a big corporation. In such a situation,
perhaps the answer lies in raising awareness through training by the corporation. Audits
can improve use of PPE, environmental sanitation in the factory premises. But to get enabling
rights (freedom of association, collective bargaining, freedom from discrimination, etc.)
through social audit seems difficult, at least in the supply chain studied by the researcher.
Social auditing of rights-based standards throughout supply chains may not be able to detect
all non-compliances. There are many reasons for such audits not able to bring tangible
impact on the labour conditions in the factory.
International standards cannot always detect a labour problem of a small industry in a
remote locality. Social audit firms also do not become too rigid, lest they may lose the client
as there are many such audit agencies. Moreover, often the audit firms are hired to portray
a rosy picture of the company. The efficiency of the auditor is also questionable in terms of
audit to have tangible impact on the workers. During the survey it was revealed by some of
the workers that the situation may appear in accordance with the standards during the time
of audit, but that may not be the case in normal times. Moreover, in a formal atmosphere,
the workers do not come out with the real picture. So all the details related to social audit
might not have been obtained by the researcher in this case.
Social Compliance
Getting clearance from factory inspector is very difficult. They demand something extra
for timely clearance of products. This is a great burden on the factory, as it increases the
cost of the product. But this extra cost Some transparency system for government clearance
should be there so that exploitation of small and medium vendors can be minimized.
The present government has come out with a Shram Subidha Portal. In this portal, the
factory can declare that they comply with all the social norms. Inspection will be done through
computer on the basis of random selection. If a factory is found guilty, then it can be penalized.
This portal has done away with the immoral practice by the factory inspectors. But a question
always remains, if self certification for social compliance is for the benefit of the factory
owner only or it is beneficial to the owner as well as the worker both. There remains a
chance that many defaulters will go for self certification and declare them as socially
compliant, more so when the unions are not very strong now-a-days in remote localities.
All suppliers try to take pride that their supply chain is socially responsible and their
partners in the chain adhere to certification standards. At the same time, they want the
supplied products at a competitive price. More often, the comparison is done with suppliers
who often violate CSR standards, in spite of having some certification. Many of the suppliers
said that the buyers do not think of paying an extra price for their suppliers’ compliance.
During placing an order, the buyers do not have a provision of accepting a L2 supplier because
of the suppliers’ social compliance. Hence, CSR for the suppliers become a bad business.
Compliance becomes an audit formality.
The buyers expect a quality product in time. During emergency and bulk order also, they
cannot compromise quality. But as far as suppliers are concerned, for executing a bulk order
in time, the supplier either has to go for extra manpower or will have to ask the workers to
work overtime. This burden of overtime becomes intensified, when there is power cut for 1-
2 hours per day. The owners ask the worker to complete the job and then go home. But
because the buyers do not have provision of paying extra price for such case, the supplier
sometimes have no other alternate but to ask them to put extra effort without an extra price.
More or less this situation prevails with one or the other buyer. Hence, asking for an extra
effort by the supplier to the worker is nothing unnatural. The practice being followed in
every small factory, the workers also cannot resist much. But some factory owners give this
overtime to the skilled workers (in some other form) who have been working for some years.
Buyers often demand a minimum wage for the employees of the suppliers, keeping the
price of the product minimum. The supplier can only do this by cutting the facilities (PF/ESI
card, etc.), wage, overtime, etc. Wage increase often comes in conflict with the buyers’
demand of minimum wage as a part of keeping their supply chain socially responsible. So
the wage increase negatively impact suppliers’ competitiveness. The suppliers were rather
critical regarding the wage expectations of buyers since they were well aware that the
reason that they got orders in the first place, was due to their low prices, made possible by
low labour costs.
Conflicts are increased when responsible supply chain run parallel to normal supply
chain. But handholding in quality check, by the corporate houses does help small and medium
enterprise to work as a responsible partner in the supply chain of the big corporate houses.
Some industries employ retired employees of corporate sector to adhere to quality and social
compliance; though there are many challenges still prevailing. The limited knowledge on
best-practice examples hampers the possibilities of increasing the awareness on how to
solve these dilemmas. Furthermore, buyers are challenged as long as they operate with a
fragmented approach. The compliance challenges are very complex and more knowledge is
thus needed to enable sustainable solutions. Suppliers’ location is very crucial to keeping
the supply chain responsible. Requesting buyers to financially support the burden of suppliers’
compliance seem questionable. Suppliers transferring the full compliance cost to the buyer
will make the business non-competitive.

Exhaustive Sub-Suppliers List
It is unlikely that non-discriminatory, transparent, accountable and independently verified
supply chain with all suppliers from all tiers will ever happen. Even looking into the social
compliance for only the second tier supplier seems to be an uphill task. The non-core supplier
list is exhaustive. These non-core suppliers are not very important to the company. The
number of sub-suppliers is not known. Understanding the sub-suppliers compliance is a
huge challenge. Companies hold vendors conclave time to time for such information and
capacity building of the suppliers; at least the first and second tier supplier. According to
some managers, there should be a separate department to look into the social audit of the
production suppliers from third tier onwards. Buyers deal with several hundreds of first tier
suppliers and an even higher number of sub-suppliers as part of their supply chains. The
large number of suppliers is in itself a hindrance for achieving commonly desired standards
like non-discriminatory, transparent, accountable and independently verified supply chain in
the relationships between buyers and first tier suppliers.
Most of the suppliers agreed that integration at the site will be a problem for the company,
if small suppliers are involved directly in the supply chain. Nevertheless, areas may be
identified by the companies to involve small and medium enterprises directly as a part of
their social responsibility with respect to development of small and medium enterprise.
According to them, initially there will be problems like, difficulties in proper integration,
slight late in delivery, etc. But in due course of time, these small and medium enterprises
will be strengthened and that will contribute in reduction of cost.
Considering that most of the corporate houses do not include the sub-suppliers as far as
social assessment is concerned, the study tried to assess the reasons for such exclusion,
taking the view points of the experts. The main reasons identified were lack of contractual
control, resistance from the first tier supplier, difficulty in tracing the sub-suppliers in the far
end of the supply chain, manpower constraint of the corporations, etc.
The present system is passing the burden to the first tier supplier. Buyers are thus
attempting to start a ripple effect, where first tiers control of their own first tiers is an
attempt to manage the risk from sub-suppliers. Since corporations undertake risk
management and risks emerges from all tiers of suppliers, present challenges indicate a
need for establishing an approach that cuts across tiers and hence presents an alternative
to present approach. But unanimously all the experts interviewed agreed that tracing the
supply chain is the need of the hour. Hence, it can be said that an exhaustive list of sub-
suppliers intends more cost efficiency than social compliance.
Corporate Sourcing Strategy
Key factors for exclusion of small and medium enterprises (SME) are financial, human
resource and lack of infrastructure. The financial elements concern the combined effect of

SMEs having difficulties in acquiring loans due to lack of collateral, mobilizing own funds
due to limited earnings and the burden of cost of monitoring and auditing. The human
resource element is mainly concerned with skill and knowledge. A substantial part of these
human resources is needed to be employed in relation to auditing and monitoring visits.
Lacking skills in particular areas of expertise and in some cases lacking awareness of the
importance of responsible practices is also a matter of great concern. Lack of infrastructure
is also a great problem for the SMEs. If suppliers operate in a business environment
characterised by lack of basic infrastructure, it only aggravates the existing problems. The
researcher observed frequent power-cuts force suppliers involved to adapt to unfavourable
circumstances. The workers, normally in case of power cuts, are asked to compensate after
their normal working hours. The problems also include poor roads and transportation systems,
lack of assistance on how to deal with trade requirements, etc.
The interviews with suppliers, particularly SMEs, reveal that the SMEs predominantly
experience a win-lose (some would say lose-lose) situation, where fulfilling requirements
enable them to maintain orders, but at a cost probably leading to a decrease in earnings.
Another example reported is that the sales prices to the buyers remain stable or stagnant
because of competition while the cost of production (raw material, electricity, wages, etc)
constantly increases. The situation ultimately impacts the workers and the factories thereby.
Moreover, procurement in companies is done from the corporate office as well as project
sites. The orders from the site are normally of lower amount compared to that of the corporate
center. Naturally therefore, the smaller parties in supply chain get a direct contract from the
site. But the order from the corporate center, the SMEs get through comparatively bigger
vendors. So the site orders are executed mostly by the small and medium vendors. But for
corporate contract, the small and medium enterprises come at the third or fourth tier level.
It is difficult to get an estimate of how much is executed from the site and how much from
the corporate office. Moreover, as expressed by some of the officials and some of its first
tier suppliers as well as small and medium enterprise owners, there will be an integration
problem if piecemeal order is given instead of a package order.
Environmental Sanitation
Many small industries were found to be located in the area not marked for industrial
purpose. Though of course, while filling the format for quantitative data collection, many of
them reported that the industries are located in notified area marked for establishing an
industry. Loading and unloading of goods in front of the industries created a chaos in the
area. Just at the entrance, an administrative office for the factory owner/ a senior level
manager was a common feature. Most of such rooms were found to be fitted with an air
conditioner and an attach toilet. But the factory area, in small industries, was found strewn
with either raw material or wastes. Shades were found but were not sufficient enough to
accommodate all the 25-30 workers. Many of the workers were observed to be working

under the scorching sun while doing welding, cutting/ bending rods, polishing, etc. Dust,
noise, fumes, etc. was found to be very common with such small industries. Manual heavy
weight lifting for moving raw material/ finished products was very common. This kind of job
hazard could lead to ergonomic problems for the workers. Hips of garbage were very common
features in these industries. A tap meant especially for drinking water was rarely found with
any small industry. Plastic bottles with drinking water were kept aside for drinking purposes.
Provision of toilet was found in every industry. But entering such a toilet was found to be
very difficult, though the workers were using them without much complaint. It seemed they
are used to such kind of toilets. But many of the workers definitely pressed for provision of
water coolers.
Of course, there were exceptions. In quite a few industries, small greenery was observed.
Separate store rooms were found for raw materials, equipments, finished products, etc.
Different stakes with attached labels were found. A designated person was in charge of
issuing and receiving the materials. Scraps yards were there at the back of the industry
premises. The amount of scrap was not very high, as the scraps were sold regularly to keep
the premises clean. It also helped them in their earning. In quite a few small industries the
workers were found to be working under sheds. In some cases, the total workshop was in a
big room, which was found to be properly ventilated. This room was fitted with fans and
proper lights. Problem of load shedding was there. But small diesel generators were also
found. A small space was designated, in some industries, for keeping a water tap with a
label ‘Drinking Water’. Separate water tap was found for cleaning legs/ hands/ face after
the duty is over. Toilets were found to be moderately clean and usable. Stagnated water, just
outside the industry, which was a common feature in most of the industries, was not found
in these industries having a good sanitary condition. Waste water was found to be linked
with the sewage line. The researcher often felt that 5 S is implemented in such industries.
But when enquired, it was reported that 5 S certification was costly and hence not obtained.
But proper storage, minimum waste, cleanliness, etc was followed as a part of their work
culture. Few small industries had pantry for the workers as well.
Willful Defaulters
The researcher during factory visit observed some willful defaulting vendors. One such
example can be given here to prove a point that some big suppliers are very difficult to be
handled. There was an order for 20 pieces of slurry pumps for ash handling units. The inspector
visited the plant site along with the researcher on time. The quality manager of the factory
received the inspector. After preliminary look into the quality plan, the inspector was taken
to inspect the slurry pump. When the slurry pump was started, immediately it was noted
that the noise level was high. But the quality manager of the factory kept on insisting that
the higher level of noise was because of improper fixing on the test bed. His argument was,
at the site when the grouting will be done properly, the noise level will come down. The

inspector then insisted to show a slurry pump after proper fixing. The quality manager took
all efforts for proper grouting of the machine, which of course took considerable amount of
time. The properly fixed machine was started. According to the inspector, the noise level of
course came down; but it was still beyond the acceptable limit. Then quality manager of the
factory kept on insisting that if ash would be loaded into it, the noise level will go further.
But with the kind of experience that the inspector had, he did not buy the argument of the
quality manager. Then the inspector asked to keep the pump running for an hour. However,
within half an hour, the bearing of the pump got heated up. Then the quality manager
requested the inspector to mention in the report ‘party could not offer the slurry pump for
inspection’ instead of rejecting the product. The inspector turned down the request and
mentioned the defects so that the subsequent inspector finds it easier for inspection. But to
an utter surprise, the vendor gave a fresh inspection call for the next day. In the next day’s
visit, the slurry pump was not on the test bed. It had to be brought out and properly fixed for
testing. The defect of noise as well as heating was not removed. Few professionals, on
anonymous ground, said that such vendors do have reach at higher levels. They get the
quality details prepared in such a manner that small vendors will not be able to meet the
criteria. In that case, they get the tender and try to manipulate the monopoly situation to
their favor. The main points emerged out was that often inspectors are afraid of false
allegations by big vendors to the vigilance department. Such allegation, even if not proved
create controversies which prove to be counterproductive. This kind of an attitude definitely
does not come under socially responsible business practice.
EMERGING ISSUES:
Some of the issues emerged out of the study are described below.
Issues Description
Smaller vendor compete with the larger industries to get involved with
Development the company. But being unable to compete, they get involved indirectly
of SMEs with the company through large industries. It is a great barrier for them to
grow quantitatively as well as qualitatively. Corporations do not have any
policy in this regard. The attitude of professionals of the corporation
(quality department, contract department and the department of finance)
is also a matter of concern for the small and medium vendors.
Safety & Awareness about personal protective equipments (PPE)and health hazards
Health associated with work was very low even in ISO certified industries. Some
Culture of the workers deliberately avoided PPEs, because it was not a part of
their culture.
Because of the small size of the industries, these workers are not visible
Enabling
to the trade unions. Moreover, many workers are not aware about their
rights
rights nor they get any forum to voice their concern.

The researcher believes that there is always a market for unsustainable product, given
the socioeconomic condition of our country. People always really cannot afford to look into
the background of a product. Neither the local authority is strong enough to implement strict
regulation. Social audit cannot prevent all non-compliance. Purchasing companies should
think of going beyond law, i.e., ‘promoting values for supply chain integration’. Pulling out of
a small supplier on the ground of social non-compliance is always not a good solution.
Hence, investing in the SMEs on a partnership basis could be given a serious thought.
Moreover, the recent ‘Shram Subidha’ portal may have a side effect in terms of developing a
tendency towards avoiding social compliance norm.
RECOMMENDATIONS:
Based on the emerging issues from the study, it can be said that a supplier development
program is suitable in any industrial sector where specialized subcontracting is involved. At
Maruti engineers work with vendors to improve plan layouts and manufacturing systems.
Vendors are helped to establish quality practices and acquire ISO certification. Where
necessary, financial support is also given, including supply of costly tooling. Maruti entered
into joint ventures with a number of suppliers. Based on the researcher’s own experience
with the corporate world, it can be concluded that interventions are desired to deal with the
problems of integrating the supply chain in the business process to evolve a business
responsibility beyond law. The interventions at the corporation level will not be sufficient
enough to address these issues. CSR should have paradigm shift from philanthropy based
approach to a right based approached across the total supply chain. Bureau of public
enterprises has also set up a CSR guideline and advocated for avoiding philanthropy except
one time/ emergency (natural disaster, war, etc).
REFERENCES:
¾ Barrientos Stephanie, and Smith Sally, (2007). Report on the ETI Impact Assessment
2006: The ETI Code of Labour Practice – Do Workers Really Benefit?, Institute of
Development Studies, University of Sussex, www.ids.ac.uk/go/idsproject/ethical-trading-
initiative-impact-assessment.
¾ Ciliberti, Francesco, Baden, Denise, and Harwood Ian, A. (2009). Insights into supply
chain pressure on CSR-practice: A multiple-case study of SMEs in the UK. Operations
and Supply Chain Management, 2, (3), 154-166.
¾ EU, (2011). Responsible Supply Chain Management. http:// ec.europa.eu/ social/ main.jsp.
¾ ICC, (2007: 2). International Chamber of Commerce (2007): ICC guidance on supply
chain responsibility. Paris: ICC.

¾ Jenny Holdcroft, (2009): Creating conditions for collective labor relations to improve
labour rights in the electronics industry. www.ilera-online.org/ 15th worldcongress/ .../
CS1W_45_HOLDCROFT.pdf, retiieved on Dec 2014
¾ Leipziger Deborah, (2003). The Corporate Responsibility Code Book. Greenleaf Publishing.
¾ Posthuma, A. and Nathan, D. (Eds.) Labour in Global Production Networks in India, OUP.
¾ UNGC, (2010:7). United Nations Global Compact & BSR 2010: Supply Chain Sustainability,
A Practical Guide for Continuous Improvement, UN Global Compact and BSR.
¾ UNIDO, (2003). Guide to Supplier Development for programs to be implemented by
industrial subcontracting and partnership and exchanges (SPXs). Developmenthttp://
www.unido.org/ fileadmin/ import/ 9607_Guide to Supplier Development.pdf.

FINANCIAL INCLUSION: GIVING POWER TO RURAL WOMEN
THROUGH SHG – A STUDY IN SAMBALPUR DISTRICT
Ms. Bandana Meher *
ABSTRACT:
Poverty does not mean just scarcity of financial resources, but has larger connotations
like rights denied, opportunities curtailed & voices silenced (CARE, 2005). The patriarchal
society of India always put a check on women’s potential, capabilities as well as self confidence
just because of their economic dependence on men folk. But the concept of Self Help Group
(SHG) has started to include women in economic sector. SHG movement in India spread like
a wild fire. Many microfinance institutions open up, many banks make changes in their
policy level to support SHG, lot of social welfare agencies/NGOs play active role in mobilizing
women to participate in SHG and the major part was starting of SHG Bank Linkage programme
by NABARD. SHG Bank Linkage programme is quite successful throughout India. The present
study is conducted in Rengali, Bamra, Jamenkira and Maneswar blocks of Sambalpur district.
The SHGs are selected through simple random sampling from the universe of various SHGs
promoted by SARC and ADARSHA. In light of that, the paper tries to find the role of SHG for
economic empowerment of women in the family and village level. Few case studies are
included to analyse the pre and post situation after included in SHG.
Keywords: Economic Participation, Financial Inclusion, SHG, Women.
INTRODUCTION:
Women represent half of the population all over the world. Their contribution towards
the working sector is regarded as minimal and most of the time they face negligence. They
get less paid as compared to men for the same work. Their contribution in household work
usually carries no value. Various empirical and theoretical literatures suggests that women
are more capable of making optimal and best use of resources which will help in the
improvement of the family wellbeing. Holvoet (2005) compared the gender effects of two
subsidized credit programmes in southern India, the Integrated Rural Development
Programme (IRDP) and the Tamil Nadu Women’s Development Programme (TNWDP) and
finds that the decision-making influence of women only increases when transfers are made
to women and only for decisions regarding loans. So, when given the right power they have
the ability to make out the most. But in country like India where women represents
approximately 46% of total population, unfortunately this large number of human resources
go in vain because majority of them are socially marginalized & live in extreme poverty.
Ms. Bandana Meher, Faculty, Social Work, Sambalpur University, Jyoti Vihar, Burla, Cell: +91
9778792063, Email: bandanameher@hotmail.com

Poverty does not mean just scarcity of financial resources, but has larger connotations like
rights denied, opportunities curtailed & voices silenced (CARE, 2005). The patriarchal society
like India always put a check on women’s potential, capabilities as well as self confidence
and the reason for this situation is their economic dependence on men folk. Thus, out of
various way of empowerment of women in rural sector, economic involvement is crucial.
Women have great power in working in groups and in rural areas; they always shared a bond
with each other. With this spirit bonding SHG movement had started to bring women out of
the household and to keep them involved in the process SHG have an economic side that is
credit and saving. SHG movement in India spread like a wild fire. Many microfinance
institutions open up, many banks make changes in their policy level to support SHG, lot of
social welfare agencies/NGOs play active role in mobilizing women to participate in SHG
and the major part was starting of SHG Bank Linkage programme by NABARD. SHG Bank
Linkage programme is quite successful throughout India. Supporting the movement NABARD
extended its hand to support many local NGOs to work in close contact with women headed
SHG and brings them to the linkage programme. This helped both in economic as well as
skill development of the women. In the light of such thoughts this study is conducted in the
Sambalpur district of Western Odisha where two NGOs are working with NABARD SHG Bank
Linkage Programme. The focus of the study is to explore the development of the women at
village level through financial inclusion.
This paper tries to answer the vital question that “If equipped with economic
empowerment, can women change the attitude of the family and the society towards them?
Can they manage to evolve as resources to the family?”
Economic Empowerment, SHG and Women:
Women in India represent as a weaker section because of the gender imbalance and
discrimination. They are poorest members in the poor family. Many a time they are deviated
from the financial front. Financial inclusion plays a significant role in empowerment of women.
It supports the economic stability of women in family as well as in the society. The woman
who was previously confined to the household only can find way out by getting financially
independent and most importantly the social identity. To bring the women to that level, SHG
movement in India play linking facility. To understand Self Help Group (SHG), it is a small
association of poor people especially women, which form voluntarily by them from the same
social and economic background. They have a purpose to solve their common problems
through mutual help. These groups promote small savings among its members and such
savings are deposited in a bank in the name of SHG as collective fund (Arif, 2014). This
collective fund is accumulated by contributing small savings on a regular basis by each
member of the group. The group fund is then provided to their members as loan, with a
nominal interest decided by the members of the group. The loan amount is small, frequent
and for short period and this interest is very less than normal interest charged by informal

source. After period of six months, groups become eligible to avail government schemes if
their functioning found smooth and satisfactory. SHGs have low transaction cost and very
low risk cost for banks. All these activities help women to get their hand in financial matter;
they develop confidence in handing the finance, which in turn help as their financial inclusion.
Financial Inclusion is “the process of ensuring access to appropriate financial products
and services needed by vulnerable groups such as weaker sections and low income groups at
an affordable cost in a fair and transparent manner by mainstream Institutional players.”
(Rangarajan, 2008, The Committee on Financial Inclusion). For very long time the rural India
deprived of the being included in the financial sector. Many families do not have even a
simple bank account, availing the benefit and planning their money is different things. Thus
financial inclusion supports them to be part of the mainstream of the financial growth of
India. In case of women folks of rural India, this facility is far cry. But, SHG gave them a
bright chance to be part of the financial system of India.
Microfinance, SHG and financial inclusion is quite inter related. United Nations Capital
Development Fund (2005) emphasizes that because of the interconnection of the financial
power, poverty, and women, microfinance has an active role in improving economic equality.
Microfinance in the recent past has emerged as a potential instrument for poverty alleviation
and women empowerment. It has been well documented that an increase in women’s
resources results in increased well-being of the family, especially children (Mayoux, 1997;
Kabeer, 2001; Hulme and Mosley, 1996). SHG serve as platform for microfinance to work in
economic empowerment of women, especially at village level.
One of the powerful approaches to women empowerment and rural entrepreneurship is
the formation of Self Help Groups (SHGs) especially among women. Women self-help groups
are increasingly being used as tool for various developmental interventions. Credit and its
delivery through self-help groups have also been taken as a means for empowerment of
rural women. The SHG approach has proved successful not only in improving the economic
conditions through income generation but in creating awareness about health and hygiene,
sanitation and cleanliness, environmental protection, importance of education and better
response for development schemes (Archana, 2013). So SHG not only a help as source of
financial Inclusions for women but also empowering them to be independent and participate
in the decision making.
OBJECTIVES:
• To explore the pre and post situation of women after included in SHG
• To examine the influence of financial inclusion of women in the family and village level
METHODOLOGY:
The current study was conducted in 4 different blocks of Sambalpur district. The SHGs
are selected through simple random sampling from the universe of various SHGs promoted

by SARC (Social Action for Rural Development) and ADARSHA, which works in areas of Rengali,
Bamra, Jamenkira and Maneswar blocks of Sambalpur. These two NGOs are working in the
area of SHG promotion and livelihood development of rural pockets of Sambalpur districts.
All the SHGs, which are selected for the study, are under the NABARD SHG Bank Linkage
Programme. Data was collected through schedule from both the SHG and its members in
individual basis. Successful stories are collected in the form of case studies. Out of 523
SHGs promoted by both the agencies 50 SHGs having approximately 579 women members
are selected and 11 case studies are recorded.
PRE AND POST SITUATION OF WOMEN AFTER INCLUDED IN SHG:
Being the second gender, the periphery of a woman is always confined into the four
walls of home. She spends all her life in taking care of her husband and children. Regardless
she is always less considered as strength and resource to the family. Viewing other women
in the same conditions as her, she accepted this as her fate. The major reason for this irony
is the non financial contribution of women in household. Though they constitute the half of
the labour force, her position always remains as a non earning member of the family. Indian
society follows the patriarchal system, so the income dependency always lies in the hand of
the male members. This strict role division many a times reasons in collapsing of the family.
In case of rural society, men are burdened with the earning responsibility and the currently
devastation in the agriculture field making the situation worst. In situation like this the
family need financial support. On the other hand women, who have never stepped out of the
household line always able to save few money which can be used during crisis time. This
idea of small saving brings about the concept of SHG, which brings women to the financial
front, so that they can contribute the financial system of the family.
There are various reasons which led women folk to move out of their houses and join
SHGs. They always wanted to help the family in financial fronts. During the study it is found
that all most all the SHG members joined SHG have the similar reasons for participating in
the SHG, i.e. financial instability of the family.
From the following narratives shared by a member of Krishna SHG in Rengali block, can
be understood that the condition of women before joining the SHG;
“Before joining SHG I was taking care of my children and husband only. Whenever I
wanted to suggest anything to my husband, he seems ignore me. I do not have any role in
financial planning of my family. I studied upto 8th class so I always hesitate to say anything in
front of people. Earlier, I had never gone to any bank or talked with any officer. I was scared
of taking initiatives. But since 5 years I have overcome all these because of SHG. Now I am
not dependent on my husband for small expenses, I have a bank account and he also involves
me in his decisions.” (Kasturi Khanda, Age 35, Krishan SHG, Aintamal, Rengali Block)

From the above experience, it can be
understood that from being a non participant
member of family decision she become a involve
member. Though they were not much confident of
how they will move ahead in handling the finance
of their own, they all have courage of doing
something and bring changes in their lives. After
participated in the SHG, women have gained
experiences on financial front. They came in contact
with the financial institutions like Bank. Now not
only they have bank account of the SHG, but also
have created joint account with their husbands. As
shown in Diagram 1, 60% of the respondents choose
financial support as a reason for them to join the SHG. They utilize this account for saving
credit facilities of bank. Because of joining SHG, out of all the respondents now 90% of the
members have bank accounts in their name and utilizing it.
The women, who previously didn’t have any role in the financial planning of the family,
now contribute major. They have plan for utilization of the saved money. 53% of respondent
choose to invest their money in business and income generating activities. 41% of respondent
choose saving the money in the bank account so that they can use it in future purposes.
Following diagram shows the division of respondents for the option of utilizing money between
savings, investments and spending
This clearly shows that after involved in SHG,
women have a vision toward the financial situation
of the family. This financial involvement changed
their lives in various ways, which is not only in the
financial front but also in increasing the social
spaces of the women. Economic independence and
women’s empowerment are seen as inherently
synergistic. Microfinance has the potential to
transform communities by alleviating poverty and
empowering women through whom it is routed
(ISMW, 2009). Being able to handle finance and
emerge as entrepreneurs in the society these
women now have a voice in the village. They now can contribute to the economy of the
family. Their husbands are getting agricultural loans through SHG Bank Linkage programme.
The following narrative of Sukamani Kisan, who is a SHG member of Maa Laxmi SHG
shared her feeling after joining SHG.

“We have ten members in our group and in last three year we have developed mutual
understanding on one another to share our responsibilities. Because of SHG we are supporting
our family and also getting our space in the society. Now villagers consider our voice in the
decision making.” (Sukamani Kishan of “Maa Laxmi” SHG, Lingapali of Kuchinda Block)
From the above narrative it can be illustrated that because of the SHG they able to
develop their own space in the family as well as in the society. People of the village started
to consider them as resource for their village. From confined four wall of household, women
now represent themselves in the bigger society. It is journey from ‘me to we’. Be that having
a vision toward finance of the family or getting a social identity, the involvement in SHG act
as a milestone in their lives. There are definite changes in their lives; the most important is
creating social space in the community.
INFLUENCE OF FINANCIAL INCLUSION OF WOMEN IN THE FAMILY AND VILLAGE:
Regardless of witnessing significant progress in financial sector reforms in India, it is
quite unfortunate that nearly half of the rural households even today do not have any access
to any source of funding institutional or otherwise. Hardly one-fourth of the rural households
are assisted by banks (Porkodi and Aravazhi, 2013). Thus financial inclusion plays a crucial
role in changing the poverty scenario of India. Empowering SHGs is one of the important
connotations of financial inclusion in India. Participation of women in the economic activities
is utmost important to achieve inclusive growth. To expedite the process of inclusiveness, a
number of financial inclusion activities have already been started in Odisha through increasing
number of banks and MFIs and significant economic and social empowerment of women
through SHGs have already been pictured. By putting the economic power in women hand
not only results in women development but also results as beneficial to the family.
To support that, the following case studies are presented. These case studies depict
how the financial inclusion of women helps in creating better environment in their life and
in their families.
CASE STUDY – 1:
Ms. Jasobanti Patel lives with her husband and two children in Lingapali village of
Kuchinda block. Their agricultural income didn’t support much for the family economy and
as a result her children education was suffered. She joined Maa Laxmi SHG one year back,
which was promoted by SARC. She saved Rs. 100/- month and gain knowledge about saving
and credit. Gradually she attended various skill development workshops organised by SARC
and NABARD. In due course of time she managed to go on an exposure visit to Gujrat by
OMFED. This exposure visit gave her inspiration and she gained knowledge about diary.
Returning from Gujrat, she took loan on Rs. 2500/- through SHG Bank Linkage and with help
of internal lending she managed to purchase a cow. Now the cow have one month of calf
and give milk 10-12 litre per day. She keeps one litre for her family and sells rest of it to

OMFED in the rate of Rs. 24/- per litre. Through this she manage to earn approx. Rs. 7500/-
per month. Apart from the expenses on the maintenance of cow, she managed to send her
children to boarding school. She said all the expenses of the children education is managed
through this income. Currently she has earning of her own, which not only giving support to
her children education, but also nutrition to the family health. She opened bank account and
is planning to buy more cows so that she can provide her children higher education. Through
economic support she has a vision for her family and apart from the agricultural income she
also supports her husband.
CASE STUDY – 2:
This is the case of Ms. Ambira Pradhan, 52 years who reside in Rantikra hamlet of
Katarbaga village. She doesn’t have any earning member in the family. She was separated
from her husband and was staying with her son and daughter – in – law. The untimely death
of her son pushed the family into cycle of poverty. By the motivation of the NGO, she joined
Maa Mangala SHG in 2012. Initially she was reluctant to join the SHG and was not active
after joining it. But after one year, she took loan of Rs. 1500/- in her first credit linkage and
Rs. 4500/- in second credit linkage through SHG Bank Linkage programme. Now she sells
dry prawn and fish in and around the village. She manages to earn approx. Rs. 1000 – Rs.
1500 per month, which support a lot to the family economy. Now she has a bank account and
she makes regular saving. She manages her own financial demand. Because of joining the
SHG, she is able to gets basic education that she lacked, so that she can manage her business
by her own. She said, because of SHG, I am able to get out of the darkness of poverty.
CASE STUDY – 3:
In case of Mrs. Radhabai Meher of Katarbaga village, Rengali Block, she joined the SHG
to support her husband in his business. Her husband sells Sambalpuri textiles door to door
and also in daily market. It was quite hectic for her husband to earn moderately, as most of
his time and money spent in travelling. They always wanted to open a shop that was just
difficult due to financial constrains. With a wish to help her husband in the business she
joined the SHG promoted by SARC. After a year, through SHG bank Linkage programme Ms.
Radhabai took a loan of Rs.1700 and with some investment from the savings she started an
in-house shop of Sambalpuri textiles, when her husband continue the door to door selling.
After a year and few struggles, this idea worked really well and their income doubled. Now
she has a future plan to purchase a sewing machine and open a tailor shop nearby. From
being confined only to house works, she is now transformed into a partner in her husband
business. She is not only making financial contribution to the business but also helping her
husband to improve it.
Participating women in SHG helps them becoming financially capable and gained
confidence in becoming entrepreneurs. If the women in the above case studies were not

able to get financial power in their hands, can the change in their family be possible? They
represent examples of women, who is not only supporting the family income but also serve
as a great resource to the family. The financial inclusion empowers women within the four
walls of house to plan about their future as well as the future of their children. It brings out
the women folks of the family as an important resource. They are challenging the traditional
patriarchy system of the society and bringing up the power of handling the financial front of
the family. Now they are capable of changing the scenario.
FINAL THOUGHTS
The patriarchy system always neglects the half of human resource of the society, which
in return overburdened the other half. In case of rural India society, the power of patriarchy
is higher, which constrains the women more. Financial Inclusion of women through SHG, act
as the rescuing strategy. Many a times, people criticise the system of SHG as they believe
finance cannot be handled by women. But a number of studies have found that SHG approach
reduces the transaction cost for banks and loan availing cost of borrowers. In financing
SHGs, the requirement of co-lateral by banks has been replaced by peer group pressure and
hence this approach has enabled social and economic inclusion of women by waiving the
requirement of co-lateral. It suggests that SHGs can play significant role in achieving the
financial inclusion especially for women and low-income families. Financial inclusion of
women acts as a major milestone in rural development. Before introduction of the
“Pradhanmantri Dhan Jan Yojna”, women in rural India are already accustomed with bank
account and started to deal with their own money and financial processes. Financial inclusion
helps in enlighten women through economic empowerment but also giving a social identity
of a decision maker in the family as well as in society.
REFERENCES
¾ Archan, H.N. (2013). Financial Inclusion and Role of Institution’, Innovative Journal of
Business and Management, July – August : 44 - 48
¾ Arif Md, (2014). Self Help Group: A Potential Tool for Financial Inclusion, Shiv Shakti
International Journal in Multidisciplinary and Academic Research (SSIJMAR) Vol. 3, No. 1
¾ Batra, A. (2013). Financial Inclusion & Women Empowerment: A Myth or Reality,
International Journal of Research in Finance & Marketing, Vol. 3, December: 16-25.
¾ CARE, (2005). Asia Impact Report 2005-2010
¾ Holvoet, N. (2005). The impact of microfinance on decision-making agency: evidence
from South India, Development and Change 36 (1): 75–102
¾ Hulme, D., and Mosley, P. (1996). Finance against poverty, Vols. 1 and 2, London: Routledge
¾ ISMW, (2009). Annual Report 2008-2009, Ahmedabad, Gujarat: Indian School of
Microfinance for Women.
¾ Kabeer, N. (2001). Conflicts over credit: Re-evaluating the empowerment potential of
loans to women in rural Banglades, World Development, 29(1):63-84
¾ Mayoux, L. (1997). The Magic Ingredient? Microfinance and Women Empowerment, a
briefing paper prepared for the Microcredit Summit: Washington
¾ Panda, B. M. (2012). Financial Sustenance for Women’s Empowerment - A Measure
towards Inclusive Growth, Odisha Review, February-March: 26-30.
¾ Porkodi, S., and Aravazhi, D. (2013). Role of Micro Finance and Self Help Group in Financial
Inclusion, International Journal of Marketing, Financial Services & Management Research,
Vol.2, March: 137-149
¾ Rangarajan, C. (2008). Report of the Committee on Financial Inclusion, January

CORPOREAL DIFFICULTIES AMONG THE FEMALE COMMERCIAL SEX
WORKERS DURING OLD AGE: A STUDY IN MUMBAI-KARNATAKA REGION
Dr. Gangadhar B. Sonar *
ABSTRACT:
This paper is an empirical attempt to explore the corporeal difficulties experienced by
female elderly commercial sex workers after 45 years. It has adopted qualitative
methodologies along with quantitative techniques. 600 female elderly commercial sex
workers in Mumbai-Karnataka region were studied. It is found that female elderly commercial
sex workers are the section of women who are the weakest among weaker sections for being
women, elderly, vulnerable, stigmatised, marginalised, excluded, and resource poor. It is
also found that female elderly commercial sex workers have encountered with several
corporeal difficulties due to hazardous working conditions. The paper suggests measures to
ameliorate the corporeal conditions of female elderly commercial sex workers.
Key Words: Female Commercial Sex Workers, Elderly, Corporeal, Social Exclusion, Vulnerability.
INTRODUCTION:
The commercial sex work in the world in general and in India in particular has been a
serious problem for many years. In the countries like Thailand, Sri Lanka and Indonesia, this
problem is largely confined to urban areas. However, in India, commercial sex work is fairly
widespread in rural as well as in urban areas (Astbury and Cabral, 2000). In Karnataka, The
practice of sex work is largely found in Mumbai-Karnataka region in the districts of Bijapur,
Bagalkot and Belgaum (Singh, 2009). Sex workers are largely found in these areas due to
four reasons. The existence of Devadasi system; being border of Maharashtra (customers
from Maharashtra visit these districts); increased risk of poverty and hunger; and international
tourism encouraged commercial sex work and thereby increase demand is found for the
female commercial sex workers in this region.
Gender justice, equity and equality are the essential components of development process.
It is to be noted that the female elderly commercial sex workers in Mumbai-Karnataka region
is one of the major parts of weaker sections and marginalized. Without having adequate
and appropriate programmes and sound policies the development is not possible.
Development is always inclusive. The socio-psychological, physical, health, economic and
empowerment components have bearing in connection with the female elderly sex workers.
So there is a need to examine the status and conditions of the female elderly commercial
sex workers with a holistic perspective to have a comprehensive understanding of them
(Sonar, 2010).
Dr. Gangadhar B. Sonar, Assistant Professor & Local Head, Department of Studies and
Research in Social Work, Rani Channamma University P.G.Centre, Toravi-586108, Tq & Dist:
Vijayapur, Karnataka, Cell: +91 9480267502, Email: sonargb@rcub.ac.in
A good chunk of female commercial sex workers enter the profession soon after puberty.
Since they will not have the formal schooling, grow as illiterate and unskilled adults. Further,
they are largely been exploited physically, economically, emotionally and mentally and
experience miserable conditions. Untimely consumption of food, adopting multiple habits,
untimely sleep, lack of recreation, and sedentary lifestyle are the major threats affect their
physic and health. These unhealthy life style and hazardous working conditions expose them
to myriad of corporeal and health complications in their early 45s (Sonar, 2010).
CORPOREAL DIFFICULTIES AND COMMERCIAL SEX WORKERS: A REVIEW
Corporeal and health status of the female elderly commercial sex workers are correlated
with their quality of life. Health is broadly defined as a state of physical, mental and social
wellbeing. Factors which influence on the health of individuals have varied over time and
across geographic locations (Sonar, 2014). In most societies, work plays a pivotal role in the
lives of its citizens. Hence, it is essential to learn the impact of sex work on the corporeal
status of female elderly commercial sex workers.
Farley and Barkan (1998) explore the corporeal and health problems including joint pain,
respiratory symptoms and cardiovascular symptoms among the street based sex workers.
Rekart (2005) reveals that the physical health of sex workers may be affected by a range of
practices and strategies implemented by sex workers themselves in an effort to modify risks
or cope up with particular situations. These strategies are often based on personal beliefs
and experiences, traditions and cultures and advice from peers. Although these strategies
are intended to reduce risk, some may worsen the situation. For instance, sex workers may
use various products to remove excess vaginal lubrication following intercourse incurs risks
including increased risk of infection because of a lack of mucosal integrity, increased risk of
ascending infection caused by propelling bacterium up the cervical canal, potentially infertility
and vaginal irritation (Peterson, 1990; Morton and others, 2002; and Wong and others, 2006).
A glance at available literature clearly shows that there is a paucity of data on the
female elderly commercial sex workers in general and their corporeal issues. Most of the
studies focused on the young female sex workers addressing the issues of HIV AIDS,
reproductive health, sexually transmitted infections and sexually transmitted diseases.
Therefore, it is worthwhile to explore the corporeal difficulties experienced by female
commercial sex workers in their old age. This would help the policy makers, planners and
development practitioners to devise programmes and interventions to address their difficulties
and enhance quality of life for their successful aging.
METHODOLOGY:
This paper is an attempt to explore the corporeal difficulties experienced by the female
elderly commercial sex workers after 45 years and above. The study adopted descriptive
research design using qualitative methodologies along with quantitative techniques. It was
framed null hypothesis for testing. The universe of the study constitutes 8,383 female elderly
commercial sex workers aged 45 years and above. It was adopted multi stage stratified
random sampling and drawn 600 female sex workers with the help of community based
organizations working in Mumbai-Karnataka region viz., Bijapur, Bagalkot and Belgaum
districts of Karnataka. Semi-structured interview schedule was used as a tool and interview,
observation and case study methods were used as a technique of data collection. The data
collected according to above methodology were subjected to processing and analysed with
the help of bi-variate tables using percentage and proportions. Chi-square test is applied to
see the association between corporeal difficulties with quality of life and life satisfaction.
Select case studies are presented in support of quantitative data.
MAJOR FINDINGS:
Out of 600 female elderly commercial sex workers, a majority of them (67%) entered
profession between 13 and 18 years of age; (69.2%) belong to Scheduled Caste; (81.7%)
are Hindus; (92.3%) are illiterates; (66.3%) withdrawn from sex work and taken up self
employment and labour work; and (51.3%) aged between 45 to 50 years. The mean age is
found at 53.60. The minimum age of the respondent was 50 and maximum 72 years.
Corporeal Aspects:
The corporeal activities performed by the female elderly commercial sex workers and
availability of Aids in case of any difficulties are explored in order to understand their corporeal
issues. It is explored the corporeal activities such as; seeing, hearing, walking, climbing and
eating.
Corporeal difficulties experienced by Female Elderly Commercial Sex Workers and
availability of Aids in case of difficulties:
Sl. No. Activities Able to Total Availability of Aids in Total
case of Difficulty
PerformPerform Unable
with to Available Not NA
Difficulty Perform Available
324 264 12 600 68 208 324 600
1 Seeing
54.0% 44.0% 2.0% 100% 11.3% 34.7% 54.0% 100%
416 180 4 600 00 184 416 600
2 Hearing
69.3% 30.0% .7% 100% 00% 30.7% 69.3% 100%
3 Walking 400 180 20 600 00 200 400 600
66.7% 30.0% 3.3% 100% 00% 33.3% 66.7% 100%
4 Climbing 388 192 20 600 00 212 388 600
64.7% 32.0% 3.3% 100% 00% 35.3% 64.7% 100%
5 Eating 404 168 28 600 00 196 404 600
67.3% 28.0% 4.7% 100% 00% 32.7% 67.3% 100%

Out of 600 female elderly commercial sex workers, a majority of them more than three-
fifth is able to perform hearing, eating, walking and climbing. A good proportion more than
half is able to perform seeing. A significant proportion more than two-fifth perform seeing
with difficulty. A good proportion more than one-fourth performs climbing, hearing, walking
and eating with difficulties. Further, a small number of the respondents (28) are not able to
perform eating, climbing, and walking, seeing and hearing. With reference to availability of
the Aids in case of difficulty in performing, more than one-tenth has optical goggle for
seeing. A significant proportions more than three-tenth does not have any aids for climbing,
walking, seeing, eating and hearing respectively.
It is clear from the above table that a significant percent of the female elderly commercial
sex workers have got the difficulty in performing corporeal activities such as; seeing (44
percent); climbing (32 percent); hearing and walking each (30 percent); and eating (28
percent) respectively. Further, it is only (11.3 percent) of the respondents have got the Aids
for seeing. Many of the respondents do not have any Aids such as optical goggle for seeing
(34.7 percent); a stick for walking (33.3 percent); dental set for eating (32.7 percent); and
hearing Aid for hearing (30.7 percent).
Majority of the female elderly commercial sex workers have developed difficulties in
performing corporeal activities due to increasing vulnerability and miserable working
conditions. The corporeal difficulties they have been developed are; hearing, seeing, eating
and walking. They hardly get examined their corporeal status. They also lack motivation for
maintaining a balanced diet and sound health. Their poor socio-economic conditions hardly
make them to have the Aids essential for performing corporeal activities. It is true in the
case of Shahajahan (name changed) who is in early 50s. She has developed hearing difficulty
since last two years. Also developed joint pain recently. She is also economically weak and
has no one to support. So far, she has not approached any Doctor for want of both diagnosis
and treatment. Shajahan is managing her life with couple of corporeal difficulties.
Association of Corporeal fitness with Quality of Life:
Physical Quality of Life
fitness Mostly Mostly Mostly Mostly Mostly Mostly Total
Pleased Satisfied Mixed Dissatisfied Unhappy Terrible
34 4 0 4 0 12 54
Satisfied 63.0% 7.4% 0.0% 7.4% 0.0% 22.2% 100.0%
32 54 4 36 16 12 154
Mixed
20.8% 35.1% 2.6% 23.4% 10.4% 7.8% 100.0%
Dissatisfied 0 4 24 76 168 120 392
0.0% 1.0% 6.1% 19.4% 42.9% 30.6% 100.0%
Total 66 62 28 116 184 144 600
11.0% 10.3% 4.7% 19.3% 30.7% 24.0% 100.0%
Chi-Square Value: 404.827 DF: 10 Significant Level: 00 Result: Significant

An attempt is made to explore the association between corporeal fitness of the female
elderly commercial sex workers with their quality of life. Out of 600 respondents, a majority
of them, i.e. more than three-fifth is dissatisfied on their corporeal fitness. Among them,
more than nine-tenth are either dissatisfied or unhappy or terrible with their quality of life.
A significant proportion more than one-fourth respondents have got mixed opinion on their
corporeal fitness. Among them, more than two-fifth respondents are either dissatisfied or
unhappy or terrible with quality of life. A small proportion less than one-tenth respondents
are satisfied with their corporeal fitness. Among them, about three-tenth are either dissatisfied
or unhappy or terrible with quality of life. When the quality of life is compared within
satisfaction on corporeal fitness of the respondents, it is female elderly commercial sex
workers who are dissatisfied with corporeal fitness (92.9 percent); mixed (41.6 percent);
and satisfied (29.6 percent) are either dissatisfied or unhappy or terrible with quality of life.
The Chi-square test is applied to see the association between corporeal fitness and
quality of life of the female elderly commercial sex workers. The significant level is found at
(0.00). Hence, it can be stated that there is an association between the physical fitness of
the female elderly commercial sex workers and their quality of life. Thus it calls for the
rejection of null hypothesis.
It is clear that the female elderly commercial sex workers who are satisfied with their
corporeal fitness have better quality of life when compared to those whose corporeal fitness
is deteriorating. It may be true because corporeal fitness is important factor which helps
the respondents to remain independent in order to manage life on their own. If their corporeal
fitness deteriorates, the dependency level increases. This further worsens their life
conditions. Hence, those who are physically fit are likely to have better quality of life when
compared to their counterpart.
Association of Corporeal fitness with Life Satisfaction:
Physical Life Satisfaction
fitness Satisfied Least Satisfied Dissatisfied Total
38 12 4 54
Satisfied 70.4% 22.2% 7.4% 100.0%
14 102 38 154
Mixed
9.1% 66.2% 24.7% 100.0%
Dissatisfied 4 26 362 392
1.0% 6.6% 92.3% 100.0%
Total 56 140 404 600
9.3% 23.3% 67.3% 100.0%
Chi-Square Value: 519.782 DF: 4 Significant Level: 00 Result: Significant

It was also attempted explore the association between corporeal fitness of the female
elderly commercial sex workers with their life satisfaction. Out of 600 respondents a majority
of them more than three-fifth are dissatisfied with their corporeal fitness as stated earlier.
Among them, more than nine-tenth are either least satisfied or dissatisfied with life. A
significant proportion more than one-fourth respondents have got mixed opinion on their
corporeal fitness. Among them, more than nine-tenth respondents are either least satisfied
or dissatisfied with life. A small proportion less than one-tenth respondents are satisfied
with their corporeal fitness. Among them, about two-fifth are either least satisfied or
dissatisfied with life. When the life satisfaction is compared within satisfaction on corporeal
fitness of the respondents, it is female elderly commercial sex workers who are dissatisfied
with corporeal fitness (98.9 percent); mixed (90.6 percent); and satisfied (29.6 percent) are
either least satisfied or dissatisfied with life.
The Chi-square test is applied to see the association between corporeal fitness and
life satisfaction of the female elderly commercial sex workers. The significant level is found
at (0.00). Hence, it can be stated that there is an association between the corporeal fitness
of the female elderly commercial sex workers and their life satisfaction. Thus it calls for the
rejection of null hypothesis.
It is clear that the female elderly commercial sex workers who are satisfied with their
corporeal fitness are satisfied with life when compared to those whose corporeal fitness is
deteriorating. It may be true because corporeal fitness is an important factor to remain
independent and manage life on own. If the corporeal fitness deteriorates, the dependency
level increases. Increased dependency and lack of support system worsens their conditions.
Hence, those whose corporeal fitness is good are likely to be satisfied with life than their
counterpart. It is true in the case of Premala (name changed) a 47 years old commercial sex
worker developed hearing difficulty and joint pains since past five years. The vulnerable and
hazardous working conditions made her to develop couple of corporeal difficulties. Premala
looks like a 60 years elderly women though she is in her late 40s. The corporeal difficulties
affected her quality of life. She is unhappy with life due to increasing corporeal complications.
CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTIONS:
The female elderly commercial sex workers have developed several corporeal difficulties
in their old age. Since they enter the profession in young age their corporeal status
deteriorates at their early 45 years due to miserable life experiences and hazardous working
conditions. A majority of them have developed difficulties in performing corporeal activities
such as seeing, hearing, walking, eating and climbing. Among those who have difficulties
very few have access to Aids and vast majority of them does not have access to Aids. Their
corporeal difficulties are hardly diagnosed. Poverty and lack of access to health services
are the major threats for not undergoing proper diagnosis. Many of them are deprived from
the quality treatment, as treatment is a costly affair and not affordable to everyone.
Government hospitals lack facilities in terms of specialized services, timely and quality
treatment. In order to ameliorate their corporeal conditions following suggestions are made;
z Free health check up camps need to be organized for the female commercial sex workers
who are in early 40s to identify several corporeal and health problems and prevent the
possible hazards at their later stage of life.
z The Aids essential to perform corporeal activities be provided free of cost by the
Government hospital and non-governmental organisations working in the field of health.
z Female elderly commercial sex workers need to be oriented about Yoga, meditation and
Jogging in order to keep their corporeal status intact.
z Comprehensive health care system needs to be developed considering various corporeal
and health issues of female elderly commercial sex workers.
z The commercial sex workers need to be motivated to make health insurance policies in
order to meet out the costly treatment during old age.
z Quality of living conditions be ensured to the female elderly commercial sex workers
such as food, water, housing and other aspects of living as they have direct bearing on
their corporeal conditions.
z The issues of poverty and hunger need to be addressed over poverty alleviation and
livelihood promotion programmes. Reducing economic inequality is the only solution to
improve the life condition of female sex workers and empower them economically. This
also has a bearing on their social empowerment and inclusive development.
z Social work profession has a great deal in working with female elderly commercial sex
workers. The methods of social work can be used to help them in becoming independent.
The social work interventions can bring desirable change in their life in order to ensure
healthy, successful, productive and active aging.
REFERENCES:
¾ Astbury, J., and Cabral M. (2000). Women’s mental health: an evidence based review.
[Online] Available at: <http://www.who.int/mental_health/media/en/67.pdf> [Accessed
on 12 May 2013].
¾ Farley, M., and Barkan, H. (1998). Prostitution, violence, and posttraumatic stress disorder.
Women and Health, Vol.27 No.3, pp.37-49.
¾ Morton, A., Tabrizi, S., Garland, S., and Lee, P. (2002). Will the legalization of street sex
work improve health?. Sexually Transmitted Infections, Vol.78 No.4, pp.309.
¾ Peterson, (1990). The Category “Prostitute” in scientific inquiry. Journal of sex research,
Vol.279 No.3, pp.397-407.

¾ Rekart, M., (2005). Sex-work harm reduction. The Lancet, 366, pp.2123-2134.
¾ Singh Ram Shankar, (2009). Encyclopaedia of Women and Children Trafficking, New Delhi:
Anmol Publications Pvt. Ltd.
¾ Sonar, B. Gangadhar., and Others, (2010). Social Exclusion: A study on Female Elderly
Commercial Sex Workers in Developmental Perspectives: Issues, Challenges and
Interventions, Agra: Current Publishers.
¾ Sonar, B. Gangadhar., and Others, (2014). Living Conditions of Female Elderly Commercial
Sex Workers: A study in Mumbai-Karnataka region in Innovations in Women
Empowerment: Social Work Perspective. Bijapur: KSWU, Prasaranga.
¾ Wong, W., Holroyd, E., Gray, A., and Ling, D. (2006). Female street sex workers in Hong
Kong: Moving beyond sexual health. Journal of Women’s Health, Vol.15 No.4, pp.390-
399.

MARRIAGE, FAMILY AND SEX: SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE
Dr. Richard Pais *
ABSTRACT:
Marriage is the beginning of family life. Sex occupies an important place in marriage
and family life. Sex, marriage and family are intimately connected. Marriage and family
bring stability to society by maintaining orderly behaviour among the individuals in fulfilling
their needs. Though marriage has many motives, it is considered as holy. Marriage has
undergone changes and monogamy is becoming the rule. Though the origin of the family is
obscure, over the years it has transformed itself into different forms. Now, the family is
transforming from joint into nuclear. Significance of the family is attributed to the different
functions it performs to the individual, family and society. With industrialisation nay
information technology, family faces newer challenges. This has impact on the children
similarly the problems of the aged are increasing. In the modern times, due to the instability
of marriage and family divorce is on the increase and sex gratification is sought outside
marriage. Both pre-marital and extra-marital sex is on the rise and it has taken new forms.
INTRODUCTION:
Marriage is of critical importance in any society. It is the beginning of family life. Sex
occupies an important place in marriage and family life. Sex, marriage and family are
intimately connected. Marriage and family bring stability to society by maintaining orderly
behaviour among the individuals in fulfilling their needs. In the modern times the institutions
of marriage and family are undergoing change. Due to the instability of marriage and family
divorce is on the increase and sex gratification is sought outside marriage. Newer forms of
sex and sex gratification are on the increase.
MARRIAGE:
Though, in popular usage marriage is considered as a union between a man and a woman,
social scientists understand it differently. Anthropologists consider it a socially sanctioned
union which is accomplished by different rituals and ceremonies. Sociologists view it as a
system of roles involving primary relationships. Marriage is a dividing line between the
family of orientation and family of procreation in terms of the nature of roles one performs
in the two families. Marriage is a miniature social system which has to be maintained through
the performance of social roles by the partners.
There are different motivations to marriage. In the early societies people married for
economic reasons as people were required to work in the fields or the parents wanted
someone to look after them in their old age. Sociologists have highlighted the motivations in
Dr. Richard Pais, Retd. Professor, St Aloysius College (Autonomous) Mangaluru. Cell: +91
9945413289, Email: richardpais123@gmail.com
marriage in different traditional societies as: sex gratification, desire for home and children,
companionship, social position and economic security and protection. It is also done for
caring and rearing of children, transmission of culture and inheritance of property. Main
motivation in marriage in the modern world is companionship which does not exclude sex
gratification. Companionship was to escape from the feelings of loneliness.
Though marriage is universal, different religions understand it differently. In the traditional
Hindu society, the main objects of marriage are threefold. They are dharma (righteousness
or the performance of duty), praja (progeny) and rati (pleasure). Among these, dharma was
accorded highest importance, followed by praja and rati. Hindu marriage is considered a
sacrament because it is fulfilment of one’s religious duties (dharma) to get married and it is
associated with many religious rights as kanyadan, panigrahana and saptapadi. The union
was considered indissoluble because husband and wife were bound to each other not only
till death but even after. Marriage was considered to be a social duty towards the family and
community. Today, Hindu marriage has undergone changes due to social legislation,
education, urbanisation and other factors.
Muslim marriage, called Nikah, is considered to be a civil contract. Its objectives are:
regulation of sex, ordering of domestic life, procreation of children and their upbringing.
Marriage among Muslims is also a religious duty. Essence of Muslim marriage consists of
proposal and its acceptance. The bridegroom makes the proposal to the bride just before
the wedding ceremony in the presence of two witnesses and the Maulvi (priest). The Muslim
men can marry as many as four wives whereas Muslim women can marry only once. The
contract of marriage can be dissolved either with the intervention of the court or without its
intervention i.e. by husband at his will, called talaq.
Marriage among Christians is also a sacrament. Marriage among Christians is a union
between a man and a woman, normally intended to be binding for life, for the purpose of
sexual union, mutual companionship and the establishment of family. The Christians practise
monogamy strictly. Marriages take place under the Christian Marriage Act, 1872 (amended
many times) covers all aspects like who is to perform marriage, the place it has to be
performed, the minimum age of the partners and the conditions under which it is to be
performed. The priest also reads bans to the public three consecutive Sundays before the
marriage.
‘In the traditional societies in India, the selection of mates was done by the parents.
While selecting a partner, the focus is on avoiding blood relations, social status of the
family, education, character, qualities and physical fitness of the selected mate. However,
in some parts of South India uncle-niece marriages and marriages of cross cousins was
common. Very important factor of match selection is caste or sub-caste endogamy i.e. the
person had to marry a person of one’s own caste. Again, in Tamil Nadu caste factor was
more important than religion i.e. the person had to marry a person of the same caste
irrespective of other’s religion.

Marriage in India has undergone changes. Though polygamy was found among the Hindus
and Muslims, monogamy has become the rule. Though Muslims males can marry as many
as four times, due to changed social and economic conditions, they also follow monogamy.
Though traditional Hindus consider dharma as the aim of marriage modern Hindus consider
marriage to be of life-long companionship. There are many instances where elderly people
have married after they have become widow/widower.
Though mate selection was done by the parents, now it is done by the partners
themselves. More importance is given to individual interests, preferences and considerations
rather than to family considerations. It is because the young people meet very often in
Colleges and Universities, at workplaces and during travel which gives them ample chance
to meet persons of opposite sex and decide on their marriages. Even traditional way of
selection of mates has undergone changes. Many people find their partners with the
advertisements in the newspapers and through internet matrimonial sites. Increasing love
marriages often lead to divorces. According to Spurgeon, the increasing number of divorces
shows the unpreparedness of the present generation. Our young people take more time to
choose dress and accessories than choosing their life partner. This is not right. The dress
you have selected can be changed or discarded whenever you want to but you cannot change
your husband or wife like that (Times of India 2015: 2).
In the study of Pais of 220 employed Scheduled Castes in Mangalore, he found nearly
five percent of them had married inter-caste. He had a closer study of 10 couples of which
two were women and eight men. His study concluded that all the Scheduled Castes who had
married inter-caste had high economic status and thus ventured into marrying persons of
upper castes. One Scheduled Caste male pointed out: “It is a challenge for educated and
employed Scheduled Caste youth to marry from an upper caste and overcome their inferior
status” (2004: 189). If it is the case with Scheduled Castes, lowest in the caste hierarchy,
there will be more people marrying inter-caste among the general population.
Though, child marriages were common in medieval times, now they have become rare.
In spite of the minimum age of marriage for girls being 18 and for boys 21, there are instances
of parents marrying their children before the age in slums and in villages. In developing
society like India some people don’t marry. Psychologists attribute it to ‘gamophobia’, meaning
fear of getting married. But in most cases it is sociological. Some people don’t take life
seriously and they do not take up any job which deprives them of financial gains. As a result
girls do not want to marry unemployed persons. Girls prefer a boy with a secure job nay with
a regular and high income. It is very sad to note that there are many young people who
postpone their marriage for the sake of their career. Similarly, often failures in love affair
may find it difficult to get a proper match.
In India, due to the importance given to education by the government, education is
increasing in selected groups. In such groups girls study more than the boys. While boys go
for technical education, girls go for general education. It is a fact all over India that girls fare

better than the boys due to sociological factors. Since girls do better in studies they are able
to get jobs easier than the boys. Employers also prefer to appoint girls because they are
docile and less critical. Due to these factors some girls are forced to marry boys who are
less qualified and earning less which creates problems in the family, sometimes leading to
divorce. Here is a case.
Nita (name changed) is a beautiful and attractive girl from a village near Mangalore.
She did her graduation and post-graduation from a college in Mangalore. When she was 22
and after her first year of post-graduation she was married off to boy (not so good looking)
of the nearby village who was a graduate in Hotel Management and working in a merchant
ship. After one year of their marriage they got a baby girl. Soon, problems with the mother-
in-law started. Though she insisted that they should have a separate house, in spite of
having good income, he refused. So, Nita left her in-law’s house with her daughter and came
to live with her mother in a flat in Mangalore. Soon, being a bright student, she found a job
of a lecturer in the same college where she studied. Now, both the parties are trying for a
divorce.
System of dowry is associated with marriage. The dowry system is thought to put great
financial burden on the bride’s family. In some cases, the dowry system leads to crime
against women, ranging from emotional abuse, injury to even deaths. Dowry is also prevalent
in India in spite of the economic progress made. It can be in the form of a payment of cash
or gifts from the bride’s family to the bridegroom’s family upon marriage. There are variations
on dowry prevalence based on geography and class. Dowry also varies by economic strata.
Upper-class families are more likely to engage in the dowry system than the lower class.
This could be in part due to women’s economic exclusion from the labour market in upper
classes. Though education has put an end to the practice of dowry in some communities, in
some others it has increased. In some communities, the education and employment of the
woman is considered dowry.
Does Skin Colour Matter in Indian Marriages?
Psychology has shown that colour affects our perception. It seems that having fair skin
still matters in Indian marriages. There are some possible answers to this. Maintaining the
purity of the blood of the upper castes and an association between darker skin and lower
class working under a hot sun is the first reason. Secondly, due to the fact that skin colour
represents one’s class in India, people prefer fair skin (upper class) to darker skin (lower
class). Another reason for the preference for fair skin is a mind-set acquired because of
British rule. Under the British rule, Whites were superior to Indians who were dark. I have
observed that when both the husband and wife are either fair or dark, there is no problem in
marriage. When the husband is dark and wife is fair, still there is no problem. Only when
wife is dark and husband fair nay in such cases when the wife’s economic position is higher
than that of man, it creates problems in marriage. Such marriages are doomed to fail. Below,
I give two case studies, one which I came across in Australia and second, in Mangalore.

Marylyn (name changed) is a dark complexioned lady doctor migrated from Bangla Desh
to Australia. When I met her as a colleague and friend of my daughter she was working in a
hospital in Sydney. As her father was a retired Ambassador from Bangla Desh to many countries
she was very rich. She has one brother in the United States of America. She narrated her life
history to me when she invited me to a dinner along with wife and daughter and also showed
me her husband’s photo. Her richness was evident with a very big bungalow with surveillance
cameras and an Alsatian dog. She was married to a fair and good looking Lecturer in History
from Bangla Desh and brought him to Australia and found a job for him. They have no
children because she was not able to conceive because of her biological defect. Within two
years of their marriage, the husband has left her and lives separately. Since she is alone,
she has brought her distant nephew from Bangla Desh. He is staying with her and studies.
Gabriel (name changed) is a handsome young man aged 30 years and he is my neighbour.
He is a graduate and of middle class family He has a brother aged 40 and unmarried. He
decided to marry a dark looking girl from well-to-do family. She is the only child and was
brought up with care. After marriage, they decided to stay in separate house. As she was not
accustomed to cook, she wanted her husband to cook. As a man, he resented this and
brought her to his parent’s house. There too, she refused to help in the kitchen. With this,
she went to her parent’s house and both are trying for a divorce.
FAMILY:
Family is the basic unit of society and the oldest among other institutions. It is the most
important primary group and occupies the central position in the social organisation. It is
family which passes on the traditions, values and other cultural elements of a society to the
younger generation. Human beings satisfy their basic needs - biological, social and also
psychological during their family life. Being the most stable social institution, it has been
existing in all societies since time immemorial. It is understood as the biological social unit
composed of husband, wife and children. It is an intimate domestic group, made up of people
related to one another by bonds of blood, sexual mating or legalities.
The origin of family is obscure. But over the years the family has transformed itself in
many forms. According to A.R. Desai there are four types of families. They are: Clan,
Matriarchal Joint Family, Patriarchal Joint Family and Nuclear family. They represent four
stages of economic development i.e. hunting and food gathering, domestication of animals,
domestication of plants (agriculture) and industrial production (1994: 70). These stages are
not exclusive but overlap nay even now. However, in traditional agricultural societies
Patriarchal joint families are prevalent and in industrial societies nuclear families are found.
Though family is a social group, it is small in size. Nuclear family consists of not more
than two generations and joint family consists of three to five generations. The sex relationship
is established through the institution of marriage. It is a social relationship established
under social norms between two individuals and also based on emotions. The family satisfies
the economic and social needs of the members. The economic needs are satisfied by the

head of the family and in modern times by both the parents. For the satisfaction of social
needs, a family establishes a house or a home. With this the family has formative influence
on the individual.
The family performs several functions for the individual, the family and the society.
Primarily, it satisfies and regulates the sex needs of the individuals. Through family new
members are added to the society nay the family socializes them by the transmission of
culture. Family alone provides legitimate status to the child. It also teaches the individual to
accept different roles, with its rights and responsibilities, in life. In addition, family also
performs economic, religious, educational, health and recreational non-essential functions.
Every society assigns different roles to the members of the family. Man, woman and
children are assigned certain rights and responsibilities. Certain status is associated with
roles performed by different people in the family. Women have always been considered part
of nature because of their reproductive capacity. Men, on the other hand, are considered
part of culture. Since women reproduced life and did not produce material goods, which men
did, their activity was believed to be important. As a result of this critical devaluation of her
reproductive and associated capacities, the woman came to be marginalised in the decisions
regarding ‘ordering’ of the society. This historically led to men taking up the task of ordering
society (Widge 1995: 38).
Sociologists have identified different forms of family. On the basis of size, structure and
the depth of generations, family can be classified into nuclear and joint family. A.M. Shah
terms them as simple households and complex households. A simple household is composed
of a complete elementary family or a part of an elementary family. A complex household is
composed of two or more elementary families, or of parts of two or more elementary families
or of one elementary family and parts of one or more other elementary families (1998: 53).
There is a belief that joint family is rural, urban family is nuclear and urbanisation leads
to disintegration of the joint family. A.M. Shah says, “Many have considered such basic
institutions as caste and joint family as essentially rural in character, or as having their
origin in rural society and, therefore, rural even if they occur in cities (1988: 2). In fact, some
sociologists have pointed out that urbanisation does not lead to disintegration but only
transformation of the joint family. Some others hold that though join family changes,
‘jointness’ still persists. Whatever the perspective regarding this, there are changes in the
family, either nuclear or joint.
In an industrial society, for the first time women have had right to enter labour market
on their own and to obtain jobs or promotions without the help or permission of male kin
(Goode 1989: 129). Secondly, unlike the agricultural or domestic labour where women have
been able to carry out their tasks with the help of their children or at least with their children
close by, industrialisation has separated women’s jobs from their children. In Indian situation,
work outside home for women has led to their exploitation. They have to work at home and
also outside. It is common for women to cook for the family, pack the children to school,

attend to the needs of the husband and go to the office and work.
One day, after taking the first hour lecture (9 to 10 a.m.) I went to college office and I
found one lady clerk taking her breakfast. I enquired with her why she has no time to have
her breakfast at home. She told me that she was too busy in preparing breakfast and lunch
and packing of the children to school. I told her that many sociological studies have shown
that women have to work at home and also in office and the husbands rarely assist them in
their work at home. She replied. “Sir, your studies are correct even my husband does not
help me in my work”.
In another incident where I did some marriage counselling, I found the wife very devout
to her work at home, including looking after two children, and also in the office. The husband
who was partially employed had no habit of helping his wife started drinking, became an
alcoholic and died at the age of 52 (His detailed case study will be given later).
Women who work outside the home sometimes have no liberty to spend their earnings
at their discretion. Patriarchy prevalent in the joint families is still present in the nuclear
families. As a result, some women humbly submit their salary to their husband in the
beginning of every month.
What are the motives for women to work? Some women have no choice. They have to
work because the husband’s salary would not be enough to live comfortably nay with children.
Secondly, educated women would like to show their talents and earn some money and be
independent. Thirdly, it is the competition of the sexes. When both husband and wife are
equally educated and employed may compete with each other to improve their worth in the
society.
Information Technology (IT) and Family
Information technology in India is an industry consisting of IT services and business
process outsourcing (BPO). In India since the labour costs are low and the availability of
huge numbers of English speaking and skilled graduates, most big software companies
from the US and Europe are taking advantage of this situation. The sector has increased its
contribution to India’s GDP from 1.2 percent in 1998 to 7.5 percent in 2012. This sector has
also led to massive employment generation. IT sector employees are also blessed with the
highest wages in the Indian economy but with long and irregular hours of work. The working
hours vary between 10-12 hours or more in different companies depending on the project
pressure, with employees having to work on weekends and holidays as well, with little free
time left. There have also been cases of suicides among the IT workers mainly due to
unreasonable work pressure, targets and deadlines. The work stress also causes social
problems like marital disputes where both the partners are IT workers working long hours.
Apart from those in the IT sector, the call centre workers in the BPO industry also face
many similar or even worse problems. Chief among them is the tyranny of shifts, where they
have to work in 8 hour shifts that are rotated throughout the week. So a person could be

working in the morning today and the night tomorrow, putting their sleep cycles into disarray
and being completely unable to plan anything before they know their shift rota. While young
women employees in the IT enjoy relatively better gender equality status with their male
counter parts, but for many the return home in the late hours after the unearthly night shifts
has turned into a nightmare. There are umpteen number of rape and murder cases.
IT professionals typically find themselves confronted by large workloads, often comprising
of technical information, jargon, and vast blocks of data that produce stress among them.
Stress affects us in many ways: Physically, psychologically and socially. The study of Reimara
Valka and Vasanthi Srinivasan (2011) on ‘Work–family balance of Indian women software
professionals’ highlights the felt need to balance and integrate family needs and career
requirements. In a changing society like India, where the traditional roles of women as
homemakers and caretakers are deeply entrenched, the work–family balance becomes a
challenge for women and their employers. The nature of the industry and the fact that women
software professionals are in the crucial phase in their lives, 23–38 years, where women are
drawn into marriage and motherhood, puts increasing pressure on maintaining a work–life
balance. According to one respondent, ‘Being single means that managers expect you to
come to work and they take you for granted. You have to do night shifts, travel extensively.
When being single you do not have a family, and people are not aware of what is personal.
Can there be a personal life without a family? Married women acknowledged that they have
less time and energy to spend on their husbands due to their multiple roles that require time
and involvement. Women reported to have less time to spend with relatives due to their
busy work schedules combined with the fact that, in some cases, relatives live far away. The
study also revealed that decisions about motherhood created tension around a woman’s
point of identity and its relationship to other aspects of herself. Women software
professionals, already mothers or intending to become mothers, struggled with their identities
and role priorities as they managed to shape their desired identities. Even among dual-
earner career couples women spend more time on both housework and childcare than their
partners. According to Kamalakara Rao (1913), the fast changing lifestyles coupled with
work pressure and stress in software industries are contributing to the male infertility.
Education has changed in the past few decades and it has become really competitive
today. Just keeping up with everyday home-work, assignments and school work can be a
close to full-time job for parents, especially if you’re the kind who is completely involved in
your child’s studies. Adding to this is the concept on continuous assessments and evaluations.
So you need to be on your toes almost all through the year.
Work in industry nay work in IT industry leads to a boom of pre-marital and extra-marital
affairs. The youth who work hard and getting handsome salary spend on wine and women.
Sometimes, night shifts also encourage them to have pre-marital and extra-marital affairs.
Many men continue to involve in extra-marital affairs after they become fathers. This simply
complicates the family life equation.

Impact on Children
India is in transition. It is changing from traditional agrarian society to modern industrial
society. More and more people are migrating to urban places. With greater education women
opt to work in offices and industries. A working woman has to manage her home also in
addition to her work. Women’s employment status does have effects on families and children.
In the long run, in a situation where both parents are working and not spending enough time
with their children, it can have an adverse effect on the child’s development. Children may
feel neglected and seek stimulation outside the house. Servants can look after a child’s
basic needs, but they cannot be responsible for the child’s intellectual, social and emotional
development. It is common to observe that several working mothers to be diagnosed with
anxiety related disorders or the children of working mothers facing depression.
In India, state intervention in family affairs is almost absent. As a result, day care centres
for the children of working mothers is not demanded. The members of the family are expected
to bear the responsibility of management of the family. Often, working mothers have to
depend on their relatives or nannies and maids to take care of their children. Child-care
costs are increasing with each passing day. And with the kind of salaries and hikes which
people are getting year on year, many times it just does not make economic sense to have
more children. Many working couples are satisfied with one child. In the absence of the
mothers, the children of don’t grow up healthily and in a congenial environment for their
development.
Problems of the Aged
Now as a result of the break-up of the joint family the people who suffer most are the
old parents and the unemployed members. Sometimes, the old parents are to fend for
themselves or to opt to live in a home for the aged. It is a fact that a nuclear family lives in
economic solvency. But if any emergency crops up, the small family finds few helping hands
to share their trouble. Besides, the child or the children of a nuclear family live isolated from
the mainstream of society and so they often grow as strangers to fellow feeling.
SEX:
Sex is the most primitive and primordial human instinct. Sex and sexuality are important
for overall personality. It is not possible to stay happy or contribute effectively to the self or
society if an individual is sexually inadequate or frustrated. Sex is important for procreation.
It is essential for preservation of human species. It is also essential to maintain good physical
health. Sex hormone is essential for many attributes of physical health. It has been
established that people with lower levels of Testosterone, the main male sex hormone, tend
to suffer from depression, the cognition impairment (risk of memory loss, Alzheimer disease),
pot belly, poor muscle mass and the reduced bone density (osteoporosis) (Wadia, 2011).
People, who indulge in regular sex with a steady partner, stay healthier even in old age nay
an active sex life slows the aging process. In addition to physical health, sex is required to
maintain good mental health. It releases physical and mental tension, gives a sense of
psychological fulfillment, enhances body image and boosts self-esteem.
Perhaps the biggest role that sex plays in human life is the strengthening of the bonds
of intimacy between two steady partners. Often it is said that bed is the place where all the
tensions between two loving partners, end. Various researches show that regular sex with a
caring partner burns calories and tunes muscles; improves circulation reducing thereby the
risk of cardiac diseases; relieves migraine, reduces arthritic pain. In women, sex regulates
periods, makes menopause easier; lessens miscarriage/stillbirths; increases fertility and
reduces menstrual cramps. Sex problems are often seen to co-exist with diabetes,
dyslipaedemia (deranged fats), hypertension (high blood pressure) and, therefore, often
gives a clue to look for these diseases and unmask them.
Sex is important for negative reasons too. Sex is a very personal world. It acquires a very
special place in a man’s life as it is considered to be a symbol of his manliness. It has come
to occupy the same platform for women, as an issueless woman is often socially ostracized
and faces the ignominy of being labeled a baanjh - a social stigma. Sexual inadequacies can
break a relationship or a marriage. It can also be a ground for divorce and matrimonial
alimony/compensation.
Sex in Marriage
Sex relationship between the husband and wife is the basis of marriage and family. Sex
is the only thing one shares with one’s spouse that one doesn’t share with anyone else. Sex
need is natural and biological in all animals and birds. Human beings satisfy this need
culturally through the institution of marriage. Sex creates intimacy between the couple.
According to Bible (1 Corinthians 7: 3-5), the wife’s body does not belong to her alone but
also to her husband. In the same way, the husband’s body does not belong to him alone but
also to his wife.
In The Sex-Starved Marriage: Boosting Your Marriage Libido: A Couple’s Guide, (2003)
Michele Weiner-Davis writes: Sex is an extremely important part of marriage. When it’s
good, it offers couples opportunities to give and receive physical pleasure, to connect
emotionally and spiritually. It builds closeness, intimacy and a sense of partnership. In short,
sex is a powerful tie that binds. In the modern world, often employment forces a person to
be away from the spouse. It often leads to disastrous consequences and the following case
study will make it clear.
Albert, aged 30, was my neighbour in my native place who went to the Gulf country of
Oman for better employment. He got a good employment with handsome salary. After two
years, he came down to the native place and decided to marry. After 15 days of marriage he
went back to Oman and joined the work. In the mean time, his wife became friendly with a
neighbour. After two years, Albert came for holidays and found that his wife was friendly
with the neighbour. He complained to the village panchayath and the girl said that she
prefers to be the wife of the neighbour than of Albert. Poor Albert was left without a wife.
Marriage sex experts estimate that one out of every three couples struggles with
mismatched sexual desire. When one partner wants sex other does not want. There are
thousands of people with low desire are simply not concerned about or troubled by their
lack of interest in sex in marriage. Nor are they particularly motivated to do much about it.
Following is a case study of a College Professor who had a wife with low sexual desire.
Aryan is a College Professor in one of the college in Bangalore. He married a girl who
studied up to PUC. Later, he made her to do B.A. and B.Ed. With his influence, he got her a
job in a local High School. They had one daughter. With their earnings, soon, they bought a
house and registered in the name of his wife. After some years they bought a car and
registered it in her name since he could not drive. After all the comforts, the wife had a
carefree life and she did not want to have sex with her husband nay they started sleeping
separately. When her husband approached her she would say that it is meant for animals.
Urbanisation is another factor which forces people to have sex less often. People are
busy with their work, long hours of travel and the household chorus. One of the major
casualties of the harried pace of modern marriage is the loss of sexual intimacy. This issue
frequently rears its head when a couple has a busy family life or if one or both partners has
a demanding job. The following case study will make clear this point.
In October 2010, I had been to Mumbai and stayed with my sister. Next day after my
arrival, my sister told me that George (name changed), our relative, has become an alcoholic.
Since you have studied psychology can do something. I said I will try and asked her to call
George. She called him for lunch and told me that if George asks for liquor, please tell him
that you do not know anything about it. George came around 12 noon and was drunk. I
enquired about his health and asked him where he sleeps. Before he could reply, my sister
told me that he sleeps in the hall and his wife and children sleep in the bedroom. (The flat
has only one bedroom). Then when my sister went inside, I asked him slowly when he had
sex last. He said, it was four months back. Then I told him that I should meet his wife also
and he agreed to bring her in the evening. Then as we were getting ready for lunch, George
enquired with me whether liquor is available, exactly as my sister had predicted. I told him
that I don’t know anything about it.
In the evening, George came with his wife Beena. While George was working as an LIC
agent Beena was working in a co-operative bank. She was a good lady who used to get up
early in the morning, cook for the family, pack the children to school and used to go for her
work. In the evening she used to bring the children from tuition classes and cook the evening
meal. Since she had no domestic help she used to all the domestic chores as cleaning and
laundering. I called her inside and asked about the problem of George. She told me that
George drinks a lot, nearly a bottle per day; he was not helping her in her work and used to
be at home most of the time. Then I advised them that George should help his wife in
household chorus and there should be more intimacy among them that they should sleep
together. In fact, they took my advice and George after six months George succumbed to his
drinking.

Spouses sometimes withhold sex. This is a serious problem, if sex is used as a weapon
to punish one another. It’s particularly toxic if an unresolved grievance from the past is
offered up as the reason for the withholding of sex. Once one partner ends up sleeping in
another bed instead of the marital bed, the end is probably near. A marriage where sex
never or very rarely occurs is an issue that has gained more attention in recent years. Studies
estimate that a whopping 15 percent of married couples have not had sex with their spouse
in the last six months to one year. In some cases, this can be an indication that the marriage
has died and the couple has decided to stay together for other reasons like money, children
or health insurance. In some marriages, a breakdown in the sexual relationship may be an
indicator of deeper problems in the relationship such as lack of trust, intimacy, resentment,
anger.
Knowledge about sex is very essential for the adolescents and the youth. Evaluations of
school programmes show that young people who have had sex education are more likely to
delay sexual intercourse and to have it safely when the time comes. Young people have
good knowledge of sex but there is no direct relationship between knowledge and values
regarding sex. Following case study will make it clear.
Once I was taking moral science class to II B.A. students. The topic was marriage and
sex. All the students were intently listening to the lecture except one boy who was found
talking. I enquired with him while all were listening why he was talking. Quick came his
reply, “Sir, I know everything of what you are teaching”. First, I was taken aback because I
had taken trouble to prepare for the class well because of the delicate subject of sex. Then,
I said, “Not only you may know everything of what I know, you may know more than what I
know about sex because if you open the internet you get all the knowledge about sex. But,
my purpose is not to give you knowledge but to give values regarding sex and marriage. I
would be happy, if you don’t have sex before your marriage”. The boy understood clearly and
came to me after the class and apologised.
Sex outside Marriage
For the civilized man, sex presented the problem of disciplining and organising it to promote,
social harmony and we-being. Therefore, the institution of marriage with associated codes of
morality evolved into social practice. When marriage became the rule, sex outside the matrimonial
bounds came to be looked upon as sinful, immoral and illegal. However, marriage could not
completely meet the sexual need and demands of all. Therefore, there arose different practices
of sex outside marriage. The prevalent forms of sexual deviations are briefly discussed below.
Premarital sex is sexual activity practiced by people who are unmarried. Historically, premarital
sex was considered a moral issue which was taboo in many cultures and considered a sin by a
number of religions, but since about the 1960s, it has become more widely accepted, especially
in Western countries. In India, pre-marital sex is becoming common in urban areas. We find
significant portion of people engaging in premarital sex, although the number willing to admit to
having done so is not always high. There are many reasons for pre-marital sex. Pressure from

parents, friends, peer group, lecturer, boss and future partners is one of the causes. Curiosity,
environmental influence, ignorance, lack of discipline, idleness and loneliness lead to pre-
marital sex. Books, magazines and electronic media also lead to it. Bad parenting and broken
homes are the sociological reasons.
Extramarital sex occurs when a married person engages in sexual activity with someone
other than his or her spouse. It also refers to a single person having sex with a married
person. Engagement in extramarital sex has been associated with individuals who have a
higher sex drive than their partner. Extra marital relations are condemned by most of the
world relations and prescribe punishment for it. Judaism prescribed death penalty through
stoning for adultery. The Bible states (1 Corinthians 6: 9-10): Do you not know that the
unrighteous will not inherit the kingdom of God? Do not be deceived: neither the immoral,
nor idolaters, nor adulterers, nor sexual perverts, nor those who practice homosexuality, nor
thieves, nor the greedy, nor revilers, nor robbers will inherit the kingdom of God. According
to Islam, premarital sex could be punished by up to 100 lashes, while adultery is punishable
by stoning. In ancient Hindu society, it was banned but we have Vatsyana’s Kamasutra explains
how men can seduce different types of women.
Extra-marital affairs happen because of various reasons. Physical dissatisfaction is
probably one of the most common reasons for people to get involved in an extramarital
affair. Sometimes a couple grows emotionally disconnected from each other, the top reasons
being lack of time and lack of communication with each other. Some others feel that they
have married for the wrong reasons. Inability to deal with changes such as a serious illness
in the family, death, loss of employment, financial loss, etc. may turn people to others.
Often disagreements on core values, differing life priorities or no common interests lead to
extra-marital affairs. Sometimes, it is done just for fun i.e. to satisfy the need for excitement.
Finally, sad but true. Some people get into a relationship simply because they believe it can
advance their career.
Extra-marital relationship often takes the form of prostitution. Prostitution is the business
or practice of engaging in sexual relations in exchange for payment or some other benefit. It
is described as commercial sex. Since ancient times this practice is found. In India, prostitution
itself is not illegal, but a number of related activities, including soliciting in a public place,
owning or managing a brothel, prostitution in a hotel, pimping and pandering, are crimes. In
India, prostitution is found in most of the metropolitan cities. It is Kamathipura in Mumbai,
Sonagachi in Kolkata, Budhwar Peth in Pune, Meeraganj in Allahabad, Shivdaspur in Varanasi,
Ganga Jamuna in Nagpur, Chaturbhujsthan in Muzaffarpur and GB Road in Delhi.
Homosexuality is romantic attraction or sexual attraction between members of the same
sex. The most common terms for homosexual people are lesbian for females and gay for
males. Though most of the scientists consider it as abnormal behaviour, there is no consensus
among them about why a person develops a particular sexual orientation. Many scientists
think that nature and nurture i.e a combination of genetic, hormonal and environmental

influences are the causes of homosexuality. Though Western society has become increasingly
accepting of homosexuality over the past few decades, it is lowest in Asian and African
countries. It is estimated that there are about 2.5 million gay people in India. Homosexuality
is a danger to society since it cannot produce children to further the society. In India, there
are many instances of homosexuals married to hetersexuals ruining their marriage.
‘Wife Swapping is basically the exchanging of wives between two couples, for sensual
and sexual pleasures. It was during World War II (1941-1944) that wife swapping activity
was known, especially among the US air force pilots. In the last 15 to 20 years wife swapping
has become common in Indian cities. The most common platform for wife swapping comprises
of the wife swapping parties. In such parties, the usual rules are that only those couples
come who are interested in the swapping concept. After the party gets over, all the husbands
put the keys of their car in a bowl and the wives are asked to pick the keys. Thereafter, the
person to whom the car keys belong takes the wife who has picked them. Now not only the
metro dwellers who are interested in the concept; the residents of small cities are equally
willing and enthusiastic about it.
CONCLUSION:
Sex, marriage and family are closely related. Marriage is the beginning of family life.
Though the purpose of marriage and family is bearing and rearing of children, sex plays an
important part in marriage and family. Further, though marriage legalizes sex, there have
been individuals and groups having recourse to extra-marital sex. This has taken many forms
in the modern times.
REFERENCES:
¾ Desai, A.R. (1994). Rural Sociology in India. Bombay: Popular Prakashan.
¾ Goode, William J. The Family. New Delhi: Prentice-Hall of India Private Limited.
¾ Holy Bible, (1997). Secundrabad: The Gideons International.
¾ Pais Richard, (2004). Scheduled Castes: A Study in Employment and Social Mobility.
Mangalore: Mangala Publications.
¾ Rao Kamalakara, (1913). Work Pressure and Stress in Software Industries in Times of
India, Nov. 17
¾ Shah, A.M. (1988).Division and Hierarchy. Delhi: Hindustan Publishing Corporation.
¾ Shah, A.M. 1998. The Family in India: Critical Essays. New Delhi: Orient Longman Limited.
¾ Spurgeon, V. (2015). Family Work Interface in Times of India, Sept. 29.
¾ Valka Reimara., and Srinivasan Vasanthi, (2011). Work–Family Balance of Indian Women
Software Professionals: A Qualitative Study in IIMB Management Review. Volume 23,
Issue 1, March.
¾ Wadia, V.K. (2011). http://www.sex-relationship.com/importance_of_sex.html Accessed
on October 4, 2015.
¾ Weiner-Davis Michele, (2003). The Sex-Starved Marriage: Boosting Your Marriage Libido:
A Couple’s Guide. http://www.amazon.in/The-Sex-Starved-Marriage-Boosting-Couples/
dp/0743227336 Accessed on October 7, 2015.
¾ Widge Anjali, (1995). Patriarchy, Social Control and the Female Body in Heredia, Rudolf
C. and Mathias, Edward (Ed.) The Family in a Changing World. New Delhi: Indian Social
Institute.
BARRIER TO REINTEGRATION- PROBLEMS OF WOMEN PRISONERS
DUE TO INCARCERATION
Mrs. Beulah Emmanuel *
Ms. Sowmya Kumar **
ABSTRACT:
“Leaving prison is like stepping on a land-mine... When you are in, you really want to be
out and then the gate opens and everything is different, traffic, buildings, family, and this is
really hard to cope with…” -The Voice of a Prisoner (Anonymous quote from an Irish Prison)
The transition of prisoners into the community following release is a challenge that has
received increasing attention among the Researchers and the prison administrators and the
organizations working for the cause., This study presents an analysis of various crimes into
which women get into, the challenges they face during incarceration, post-release, to
reintegrate into the community. The study was conducted at a Women Prison (Name is
unrevealed) in Tamil Nadu with 50 women prisoners’ convicted of various offences using
simple random sampling and the using an interview schedule specifically designed to enquire
about the problems during incarceration and in reintegration. The problems faced during
and due to incarceration is that 28% of the women faced mental health problems, 19%
physical health problems, 16 % lack family support and 15% had financial problems. 10% of
the prisoner’s children were stigmatized, 5% of the women prisoners were homeless, with
their aged parents and 2% of the women prisoners face problems to meet their relatives
since the place of stay is very far from place of imprisonment. The problems guessed by the
Women when they would be released were 30% of the women may face problem due to
unemployment and employment issues and 22% had problems because of illiteracy. 14% of
the women said that they may have problems with partner and family relationship, 10% said
they will face accommodation problem and they are homeless, 6% have problem with peer
pressure/ bad influence of family and friends and 2% may have alcohol and drug misuse
problem. Overall the Women in Prison face adjustment problems, and psychological problems
and problems of being accommodated back into the family and accepted by the society.
Key words: Problems, Reintegration, Women Prisoners
Mrs. Beulah Emmanuel, Senior Lecturer in Social Work, APCA, Vellore-632002. Cell: +91
9787685687, Email: beulahyesus@gmal.com
Ms. Sowmya Kumar, Research Coordinator, APCA, Vellore-632002.

INTRODUCTION:
Reintegration relates to activities whose emphasis is directly upon identified social or
environmental problems facing the offender on release. It encompasses issues such as
changes in offending behaviour, the creation or re-creation and maintenance of social supports
and networks upon release from prison, along with participation in activities considered the
‘norm’ in one’s community. In addition, women who are released from prison are faced with
several tasks. They must simultaneously reunite with children, find housing and employment,
and comply with parole or probationary conditions, among other things. Many of these women
have a low level of education, not many have job skills, and very less work experience as
well as problems with health. Confronted with so many responsibilities, many of these women
revert to their former life of substance abuse, prostitution and other crimes that may
eventually return them to prison. The ever-increasing cost of this cycle of crime,
incarceration, and release is borne by the in-mates’ children, the taxpayers, and society
at large (Conly, 1998). Considering the growing number of women who commit crimes and
the implications of their incarceration, it is important to under-stand these women and the
types of crime that they commit be-cause that understanding offers the hope of improved
corrective and preventive measures aimed at crime.
Reintegration following release from prison forms a part of a wider process of
rehabilitation that is considered to be one of the main purposes of imprisonment. The provision
of effective reintegration support to prisoners and ex-prisoners is central not only to their
individual progress, but also to the reduction of re-offending and of the overall number of
people imprisoned in the State, ultimately leading to significant reduction in the number
and cost of prison places in the prison system. Prison represents a serious restriction on the
rights of the prisoner, quite apart from the deprivation of liberty; it carries with it profound
negative social impact on the prisoner’s family and on his or her community and often the
consequences of even a short period of imprisonment are permanent for both the prisoner
and those close to him or her. Losing contact with family, losing employment and social or
community services, even for a short period, can have long-lasting negative effects. These
are problems that are likely to constitute obstacles to a non-offending lifestyle following
release. Whereas the goal is similarly that of reducing reoffending, the focus of reintegration
in this context is towards the specific problem (rather than the general skills of the offender),
and the goal of reintegration activities is the resolution or management of the identified
issue.
As a concept, reintegration also covers the difficulties and challenges faced by both the
ex-prisoners and the community upon someone’s release from prison. The paper focuses
around the experiences of female convicted offenders in prison with a particular emphasis
on their problems in reintegration due to incarceration.
International Standards on Reintegration:
The UN Standard Minimum Rules for the Treatment of Prisoners is based on the
understanding that social reintegration should start at the beginning of a prisoner’s sentence.
As such, almost everything that goes on in prisons should be assessed on the basis of its
contribution to the social reintegration of offenders (in addition to ensuring safety and
security). The prison atmosphere, the relationship between prisoners and staff, the openness
of the prison to the outside world, the approach to security measures, healthcare,
psychological support services, access to education, vocational training, work, recreational
activities and sports are all factors that influence offenders’ social reintegration. How prison
administrations deal with these elements of prison life is at the same time a management
issue
• From the beginning of a prisoner’s sentence consideration shall be given to his future
after release and he shall be encouraged and assisted to maintain or establish such
relations with persons or agencies outside the institution as may promote the best
interests of his family and his own social rehabilitation. (Standard Minimum Rules for
the Treatment of Prisoners, Rule 80)
• Before the completion of the sentence, it is desirable that the necessary steps be taken
to ensure for the prisoner a gradual return to life in society. This aim may be achieved,
depending on the case, by a pre-release regime organized in the same institution or in
another appropriate institution, or by release on trial under some kind of supervision
which must not be entrusted to the police but combined with effective social aid.
(Standard Minimum Rules for the Treatment of Prisoners, Rule 60 (2))
• With the participation and help of community and social institutions, and with due regard
to the interest of victims, favourable conditions shall be created for the reintegration of
the ex-prisoner into society under the best possible conditions. (Basic Principles for the
Treatment of Prisoners, Principle 10)
• The duty of society does not end with a prisoner’s release. There should, therefore, be
governmental or private agencies capable of lending the released prisoner efficient
after-care directed towards the lessening of prejudice against him and towards his social
rehabilitation. (Standard Minimum Rules for the Treatment of Prisoners, Rule 64)
• Service agencies, governmental or otherwise, which assist released prisoners to re-
establish themselves in society shall ensure, so far as is possible and necessary, that
released prisoners be provided with appropriate documents and identification papers,
have suitable homes and work to go to, are suitably and adequately clothed having
regard to the climate and the season, and have sufficient means to reach their destination
and maintain themselves in the period immediately following their release.
• The approved representatives of such agencies shall have all necessary access to the
institution and to prisoners and shall be taken into consultation as to the future of a
prisoner from the beginning of his sentence.
• It is desirable that the activities of such agencies shall be centralized or coordinated as
far as possible in order to secure the best use of their efforts. (Standard Minimum Rules
for the Treatment of Prisoners, Rule 81)

METHODOLOGY:
Statement of the Problem:
The present study aims at assessing the barriers to reintegration for the women offenders
in special prison for women Tamilnadu. Not much research has been conducted on women
prisoners. Women prisoners are neglected part of the society and their problems are not
given much importance. Therefore, there is a need to address the problem of women prisoners
and to identify their needs.
Objectives of the study:
1. To find out the frequency of crime committed by women prisoners, Tamilnadu.
2. To explore the problems faced by them due to incarceration.
3. T0 identify the problems faced by the Women Prisoners during the Re-socialisation
process.
The Universe:
The Universe of this present study is the women prisoners who were convicted on
various offences in special prison for women, Tamil Nadu. (The name of the Prison not
specified due to security issues)
Sampling Method:
Simple Random sampling technique was adopted to collect the data’s from the samples
and the sample size of this study is 50 women prisoners’ who were convicted of various
offences and the research tool used was the interview schedule
Main Study:
After the pilot study with 10 women prisoners, the main study was conducted and
necessary changes were made in the interview schedule.
RESULTS:
Socio Demographic Factors:

Figure 1: AGE
The majority 36% of the women belong to the age group of 31-40 years, 28 percent
belong to the age group of 21-30 years, 24 percent belong to the age group of 41-50years
and the remaining 8% belong to the age group below 51-60years and 4 percent above 60years.
Figure 2: EDUCATIONAL QUALIFICATION
The majority 58% completed their primary education, 16% completed secondary education
and only 4% were graduates. The remaining 22% were illiterate before imprisonment.
Figure 3: MARITAL STATUS OF THE RESPONDENTS
The majority 56% of the women was married, 22% of them were widow, and 18% of
them are single and the least 4% of the women were divorced. Upon release the married
Women whose family accepts them would go back to their families. But the ones who had
murdered their husbands’ would not be supported by either their in laws or their own parents
in some cases.

Figure 4: EMPLOYMENT BEFORE CONVICTION
The majority 46% of the women were employed in Agriculture work and house work
before imprisonment, 22 percent were unemployed, 14 percent were self employment and
the least 9% of the women were employed before employment. Almost all of them who were
employed were either coolies or agricultural labourers.
Figure 5: NATURE OF CRIME COMMITTED BY THE WOMEN OFFENDER
The majority 54% of the women committed theft, 22% committed attempt to murder
and 4% of the women committed murder and, 10% of the women were convicted for illicit
liquor and 10% committed other petty offences.
Figure 6: EXTENT OF CRIME COMMITTED

The majority 90% of the women were first time offenders and the remaining 6% and
4% of the women were twice convicted and thrice convicted in which some of them were
convicted for same offences twice. The first time offenders were involved in attempt to
murder, theft cases and other petty offenses like involving in a fight with the relatives and
neighbours.
Figure 7: CHILDREN OF WOMEN PRISONERS WHO WERE UNDER THE AGE GROUP OF
18 YEARS
30% of the women have children below the age group of 18 years and 24% of the women
don’t have children and the majority 46% of the women has children above the age group of
18 years. Most of the children were stigmatized and they were taken care by their friends
and own family members.
Figure 8: SUPPORT AFTER RELEASE FROM PRISON (indicate only one):
The majority 42% of the offenders lack support from family and friends. The remaining
14% of the women says that their children will support them after release, 12% by their
parents, 8% by their husband/Spouse, and the remaining 12% and 8% by their friends and
others.

Figure 9: SENTENCING PERIOD
The majority 54% of the women was convicted for a period of 3-5years, 22 percent of
the women was convicted for more than 5 years, 10 percent of the women was convicted for
1-3years, 8% for 6-12months, 2% for less than 6months and the least 4% for life imprisonment.
Figure 9: CURRENTLY SERVED PRISON SENTENCE
38% of the women served a prison sentence of 1-3years, 26% of them served 6-12
months of imprisonment, 14% served 3-5years of imprisonment, 10% of the women served a
prison sentence of 5-10 years, 8% served less than 6 months of imprisonment and the
remaining 4% served above 10years of imprisonment.
Figure 10: PROBLEMS FACED BY WOMEN OFFENDER DUE TO IMPRISONMENT

From the above figure it is obvious that 28% of the Women Prisoners face symptoms of
mental health problems like Depression, Anxiety or stress for which basic symptom questions
were asked. Almost all of them agreed that they have sleep problems due to incarceration.
Every single woman in the Prison is worried about their children and family.
There are 19% among the Prisoners who agreed that they have physical health problems
like Diabetes, Hypertension, cardiac problems and Skin diseases after coming to Prison.
Separation from their children weighs heavily on incarcerated mothers16 % of the women
faced lack of family support where the children of the prisoners either refused to meet their
mother or unable to meet the mother as they are too young to meet the mothers on their
own. the in laws family reject the woman if she has killed her own husband and the parents
themselves neglect the daughter if she had illegal affair and committed murder because of
the affair.
15% of them faced financial problems like needed money to pay for their children
education, to manage the debts, the savings like chits they were paying before coming to
prison. 10% of the prisoners children were stigmatized in the schools, neighbourhood and in
the society as whole. Wherever they went they were branded as children of a prisoner, 5% of
the women prisoners were homeless and were worried about the wandering family outside
or worrying about settling down post release, few of them had aged parents and 2% of the
women prisoners face problems to meet their relatives since the place of stay is very far
from place of imprisonment.
Figure 11: BENEFITS OF IMPRISONMENT
The majority of women said that they were benefited in many ways during their
imprisonment. 26% of the women learned new work and 12% got work experience in tape
making and tailoring, 14% of the women improved their work skill like painting, handicraft
etc., 6% benefited in improved in literary like reading and writing, 20% of them improved
their education levels from primary to secondary and graduation.26% said that their criminal
behavior was reduced and the use of drug and alcohol was controlled.
Figure 12: PROBLEM OR NEED AFTER RELEASE
The majority 58% of the women said that they may face mental health and 52% of them
may face physical health problem, 46% of them will face lack of family support, 30% of the
women may face problem due to unemployment and employment issues and 22% may have
problems because of illiteracy. 14% of the women said that they may have problems with
partner and family relationship, 10% said they will face accommodation problem and they
are homeless, 6% have problem with peer pressure/ bad influence of family and friends and
2% may have alcohol and drug misuse problem.
CURRENT SCENARIO & THE NEED ANALYSIS:
Based on the study with the female prisoners, it is identified a number of important
issues and the current scenario in which women prisoners are helpless and need help. These
will be described in more detail by Mitch Byrne in our paper tomorrow..Nearly two thirds
were mothers, most having a child under 16. Fears about lack of contact with children and
families were a common concern.70% had no previous employment. Most had no previous
prison sentence or convictions. Sexual, physical and emotional abuses were common, though
there is no analysis in the report of how rates would compare with those for relevant
comparison groups. Accommodation problems in the community were significant. Substance
abuse, particularly poly-drug and heroin use, was common. Most had poor employment and
poor educational histories.

Need for Liberal Use of Parole and Pre release counselling: The use of structured release
on a temporary basis is considered of utmost importance in preparation for transition from
life in prison to life back in the community. Parole need to be sanctioned for women prisoners
liberally which would connect them to their family. Often prisoners are released on a short
notice. If they do not go on parole they would be literally scared or confused to find their
own families as the world changes drastically everyday and second.
Counselling: It is observed that Women tend to internalize stress, which explains that as
why female inmates engage in self-harming behaviour such as cutting, carving and burning;
women have more frequent suicide attempts and use medical and mental health services at
more than twice the rate of male inmates. As most of the Women expressed that they
acquired diabetes, hypertension and other related diseases after entering Prison.
Interviews by family: Women generally do not receive as much family support as men in
prison. There is a greater family shame dynamic that occurs when a woman goes to prison,
and the family’s anger is often shown by refusal to visit or write letters. Many women who
are to be considered as victims of crime are accused of crime. Those women blame their
husbands or male / female companions, who have forced them to criminal life. They are
always worried and concerned about their children’s future, aged and ailing parents and are
guilty that they are not able to take care. They fear that their children may succumb to bad
company, unclean habits, leading to crime. After Care.
Families visit are a few and many time the distance between the Prison and the family
is very far where many hours of travel, time and expenditure is involved. Family mostly
neglects the inmate in important decision making except for a few prisoner. Children are
mostly neglected or, in some instances, taken care of by blood relatives, who are reluctant
to meet them due to societal stigma. children are forced under the care of some relative
who is also unwilling to care for the children.
The need for women reintegration: Women indulge in less violent crime than men. Most
of the crime stories are emotional outbursts and based on lust.
Housing: Finding housing is one of the largest challenges that released prisoners face upon
their release, as it influences their ability to successfully transition into the free world.
Finding a place to live is one of the concerns for prisoners seeking reintegration . For instance,
landlords and property managers are more inclined to reject applicants who are ex-convicts
(Helfgott, 1997).
Open prisons: Open prisons concept in Rajasthan is an excellent model that could be followed
in all the states of India. It allows the women prisoners to stay with their family after 7 years
of sentence spent in Prison. The women find their employment, take care of the family and
her dependants by fetching employment on her own in the society. This process helps her to
resocialise with the society and family. This concept is not yet applied throughout India. The
need of opening such prisons all over India is the concern of the prison department. Many
prisons have accepted the concept in principle but yet to agree to practice.
Pathways to criminality: “Women’s most common pathways to crime are based on survival
of abuse/domestic violence, family issues and poverty.., Physical, sexual, and emotional
abuse is very common in the life histories of women offenders.
Women Prisoners and their needs: Social reintegration in the prison setting refers to
assisting with the moral, vocational and educational development of the imprisoned individual
through working practices, educational, cultural and recreational activities available in prison.
It includes addressing the special needs of offenders, with programmes covering a range of
problems, such as substance addiction, mental or psychological conditions, anger and
aggression, among others, which may have led to offending behavior.
Reintegration encompasses the prison environment, the degree to which staff engage
with and seek the cooperation of individual prisoners, the measures taken to encourage and
promote contact with family, friends and the community, to which almost all prisoners will
one day return. It also refers to opportunities provided for prisoners’ gradual re-entry into
society, such as furloughs (home leave) and half–way houses. Post release reintegration
refers to conditional release (parole), which is a measure designed to enable offenders’
planned and gradual transition from prison to life outside. It also includes all social,
psychological and other support provided to former prisoners after release by various agencies
and organizations.
Successful treatment for drug addiction and desistance from returning to former drug
circles is another key issue for many, and here the family support is crucial. Probation
services, where they exist, or similar bodies, have a key function in all of these areas –
helping ex-offenders rebuild their relationships with their families, with finding a job,
encouraging professional treatment for problems such as drug addiction and in general
enabling a positive life strategy. But success, to a large extent, depends on community
support; and in countries where a Social Reintegration -probation service does not exist
(which will be in a majority of cases in developing countries) the role of other organizations
of civil society is central. Unfortunately, due to factors that include lack of resources, prison
overcrowding, and inadequate attention given to the post-release needs of ex-offenders,
the social reintegration needs of offenders are often a low priority in practice. In prisons,
the resources that are available are typically used to improve security, safety and order,
rather than investing in prison workshops, skills training, educational facilities, sports and
recreation in the mistaken belief that security can be achieved by using more restrictions
and disciplinary measures rather than by improving the prison environment, providing
constructive occupation for prisoners, and encouraging positive relations between staff and
prisoners.
Governments do not typically place a high priority on assisting prisoners with post-
release care either. In fact, in some countries former prisoners confront new restrictions to
employment and education due to their criminal record upon release, hindering the process
of reintegration significantly and contributing to re-offending. Another problem often
encountered is the lack of coordination between pre-release preparations in prisons with
the services provided in the community. Finally, many countries lack an overall reintegration
strategy adopted by relevant authorities (e.g. Ministry of Justice, Health, Employment, Social
Services etc).
Women Prisoners barriers to reintegration:
The barriers include:
1. Homelessness
2. Employment/managing finance
3. Relationship Issues
4. Lack of community support
5. Education
6. Contact with outside world
7. Lack of Family support
8. Mental Health
MAJOR FINDINGS OF THE STUDY:
z 36% of the women belong to the age group 31-40 years, 28 percent 21-30 years, 24
percent 41-50years and the remaining 8% belong to group between 51-60 years and 4
percent above 60years.
z 58% completed their primary education, 16% completed secondary education and only
4% were graduates. The remaining 22% were illiterate before imprisonment.
z 56% of the women were married, 22% of them were widow, and 18% of them are single
and the least 4% of the women were divorced.
z 46% of the women were employed in Agriculture work and house work before
imprisonment, 22 percent were unemployed, 14 percent were self employment and the
least 9% of the women were employed before employment.
z 30% of the women have children below the age group of 18 years and 24% of the women
don’t have children and the majority 46% of the women has children above the age
group of 18 years.

z Te majority 42% of the offenders lack support from family and friends. 14% of the women
says that their children will support them after release, 12% by their parents, 8% by their
husband/Spouse, and the remaining 12% and 8% by their friends and others.
z 54% of the women was convicted for a period of 3-5years, 22 percent of the women
was convicted for more than 5 years, 10 percent of the women was convicted for 1-
3years, 8% for 6-12months, 2% for less than 6months and the least 4% for life
imprisonment.
z 38% of the women served a prison sentence of 1-3years, 26% of them served 6-12
months of imprisonment, 14% served 3-5years of imprisonment, 10% of the women
served a prison sentence of 5-10 years, 8% served less than 6 months of imprisonment
and the remaining 4% served above 10years of imprisonment.
z 28% of the women faced mental health problems, 19% of them faced physical health
problems, 16 % of the women faced lack of family support and 15% of them faced financial
problems. 10% of the prisoners children were stigmatized, 5% of the women prisoners
were homeless, there have aged parents and 2% of the women prisoners face problems
to meet their relatives since the place of stay is very far from place of imprisonment.
z 26% of the women learned new work and 12% got work experience in tape making and
tailoring, 14% of the women improved their work skill like painting, handicraft etc., 6%
benefited in improved in literary like reading and writing, 20% of them improved their
education levels from primary to secondary and graduation.26% said that their criminal
behavior was reduced and the use of drug and alcohol was controlled during their
imprisonment.
z 58% of the women said that they may face mental health and 52% of them may face
physical health problem, 46% of them will face lack of family support, 30% of the women
may face problem due to unemployment and employment issues and 22% may have
problems because of illiteracy. 14% of the women said that they may have problems
with partner and family relationship, 10% said they will face accommodation problem
and they are homeless, 6% have problem with peer pressure/ bad influence of family
and friends and 2% may have alcohol and drug misuse problem.
CONCLUSION:
Female elders are less likely to be a risk to society, and less likely to re-offend, and this
allows for the possibility of designing future prisons / alternatives to prison with the older
female in mind. Prisons are not well suited for the social reintegration of offenders, who
might be isolated from society for long periods, in a closed environment, where they will be
susceptible to all the harmful and de-socializing effects of imprisonment. However, if

offenders are imprisoned, then the aim must be to ensure that the adverse effects of prison
are minimized and support provided to prisoners to live law-abiding lives upon release.
Women should enjoy the same rights as men regarding access to all regime activities,
including education, work and vocational training in particular - areas where they may have
suffered from discrimination before imprisonment. Women are also likely to suffer particular
discrimination after release from prison, due to social stereotypes. Their families might
reject them and in some countries they may lose their parental rights. So often they will
need particular psychological, social and legal assistance during imprisonment and after
release.
Gaining vocational skills, work experience and education, in particular, are essential to
the successful reintegration of prisoners after release. In principle work provided for prisoners
should include vocational training and increase offenders’ chances of employment after
release, rather than being any kind of work available. The process of preparation for release
and resettlement begins in prison and continues after release. There is a need for continuity
of assistance spanning this entire period. This requires close liaison between social agencies
and services, as well as relevant community organizations and prison administrations during
sentence. In terms of policy implications, the allocation of resources for reintegration should
be targeted at these areas: The challenge of connecting ex-prisoners with relevant services,
supports and treatment options is of critical importance from a penal planning perspective.
Unless we begin to address the points raised today, elders in prison will be lost to the
welfare contract and lost in the penal system. It is imperative, that the prison system provides
not only comprehensive opportunities whilst in prison and appropriate resettlement
programmes, but also alternatives to the traditional custodial framework that elders find
themselves growing old in.
REFERENCE:
¾ Braithwaite, G. J. (1994). Thinking harder about democratizing social control, in C. Alder
and Joy Wundersitz (eds) Family Group Conferencing in Juvenile Justice: The Way Forward
of Misplaced Optimism?. Canberra, Australia: Australian Institute of Criminology.
¾ Conly, C. (1998). The women’s prison association: Supporting women offenders and their
families. Retrieved June 10, 2003, from United States Department of Jus-tice, Bureau of
Justice Statistics Web site: http://www.ncjrs.org/pdffiles/172858.pdf
¾ Coyle, A. (2001) ‘Restorative Justice in the Prison Setting’, paper presented at the
Conference of the International Prison Chaplains Associations, London, ICPS, May.
¾ Codd, H. (2008) In the Shadow of Prison: Families, Imprisonment and Criminal Justice,
ullompton: Willan Publishing;

¾ Department of Corrections (2008). A Backgrounder to the Department of Corrections,
Rehabilitation Consultation Workshop, 12-13 June 2008, Rehabilitation Group,
Department of Corrections May 2008.
¾ Liebling, A., Maruna, S. (Eds.) (2005) The Effects of Imprisonment Cullompton: Willan
Publishing.
¾ Mc Carthy, Phil (2006) Reintegrating Prisoners Back into Community on Release –
presentation to Corrective Services Ministers’ Conference, 3 May 2006, Adelaide, South
Australia.
¾ O’Donnell, I. (2008) ‘The Harms of Prison’ in Studies, An Irish Quarterly Review, Vol.17,
Issue 388.
¾ Irish Prison Service (2009) Annual Report 2009 (available at: http://www.irishprisons.ie/
documents/IPSannualreport2008e.pdf), p.9.

ROLE OF EDUCATION IN PROMOTING HEALTH
Mrs. Deepika D.*
ABSTRACT:
Development is a result of interactions between various technical, economical, social
and institutional factors. The concepts like Human resource development and sustainable
development have become pivotal components of the development process. (D. Deepika
2015) Human resource development focuses on education and health. Health is related to
overall growth and development of a nation. There exist a strong link between education
and health. When women are educated their families are healthier, better fed, their income,
savings and reinvestment increases. Health is a basic human right. The health status of a
country can be accessed through indicators such as infant mortality rate, maternal mortality,
life expectancy, nutritional level along with incidence of communicable and non-
communicable disease. Though women constitute about half the total population in India,
they suffer from many disadvantages as compared to men in relation to health. More than
fifty percent of married women between the age group of 15 and 49 have anemia and
nutritional deficiency which has contributed to nineteen percent maternal deaths. (D. Deepika
2015) One of the challenges faced by the health sector in India is reducing Maternal and
Infant Mortality. Goal four and five of Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) focus on
reducing Child Mortality and maternal mortality. The aim of the paper is to analyze the
impact of education on fertility rate, infant mortality rate, maternal mortality, and life
expectancy in our country. This paper is based on secondary data collected from various
sources such as books, journals, reports, newspapers, internet and micro study through primary
data. Studies reveal that there is positive correlation between education and health. This
paper also reinforces the same. Health and nutrition cannot be addressed without attention
to education and vice versa. Illiteracy, poor health status and poverty are viciously
interconnected and barriers for economic and social development.
Key words: Education, Health indicators, Human development, Inclusive development,
Women.
INTRODUCTION:
Building of Human Capital is necessary not only for improving the quality of life for the
present individual but also for improving the living conditions for generation to come. The
various sources of human capital formation are investment on education, investment on
health, investment on on-the-job training, investment on migration and investment on
information. Of these education and health are of most important as they improve the quality
of life. Education is crucial to development as it provides the individual with adequate skill
for participating in various economic activities. Education brings out improvement in health,
hygiene, demographic profile, productivity and quality of life.
Mrs. Deepika D., M.A., M.Phil, Lecturer Department of Economics, Poornaprajna College,
Udupi, Cell: 9481958358, Email: deepikadayakaran@gmail.com

According to National Rural Health Mission about 56,000 women in India die every year
due to pregnancy related complications. Similarly, every year more than 13 lacs infants die
within 1year of the birth and out of these approximately 9 lacs i.e. 2/3rd of the infant deaths
take place within the first four weeks of life. Out of these, approximately 7 lacs i.e. 75% of
the deaths take place within a week of the birth and a majority of these occur in the first two
days after birth. (D.Deepika 2015) The 17 proposed sustainable development Goals to be
launched at UN Summit in September 2015 include ensuring healthy lives and promoting
well being for all at all ages. The MDGs Report 2015 indicate that though India is on track to
achieve the hunger targets ,the nation remains home to one quarter of the worlds
undernourished population, over a third of worlds underweight children and nearly a third of
the worlds food-insecure people.
The Human Development Index(HDI) developed by the UN ,a broad indicator reflecting
the capacity of the economy to provide health, education and purchasing power to the citizens
places India in relatively low position among the many countries in the world. The India
Human development report 2011(Institute of Applied Manpower Research, 2011) notes that
India Ranked 119 th. Among 192 considered in terms of HDI moving up by just one step as
compared to the rankings in 2005.The same report also points out that India ranks among
the top ten countries in the world in terms of GDP growth performance. Thus while the
measures of purchasing power has shown considerable improvement over the years, the
measures relating to health and education remain harder to improve.
As per the HDR 2013, India with a 0.554 HDI in 2012 had a global ranking of 136 (out of
186countries). China, Indonesia, Egypt, South Africa and Vietnam as per HDR 2013 have
better overall HDI. The existing gap in health and education indicators in India as compared
to many developed and developing countries highlight the need for much faster and wide
spread of basic health and education. Education has been conceived as one of the basic
human capital. It improves productivity, health, and nutrition of the people of a country, and
slows down the population growth .Education encourages modern attitudes. There exists a
strong link between education and health. In all situations, whether it is access to health
service or access to educational facilities, women and girls are affected on account of social
norms and biological factors. They face increased risk for adverse health and poor educational
standards. When women are educated their families are healthier, better fed, their income,
savings and reinvestment increases. Demographic studies of infant and child mortality have
shown that literacy is one of the important powerful factors explaining different mortality
levels with and between the societies. Studies from many developing countries have shown
that mother’s literacy and schooling are closely related to child health and survival.

OBJECTIVES:
1. To analyze the impact of education on various health indicators such as total fertility
rate, infant mortality rates, life expectancy, birth rate and death rate.
2. To analyze the various health medicines such as preventive, curative and social medicine
METHODOLOGY:
This paper is based on secondary data collected from books, journals, newspapers and
internet. It is descriptive and analytical. It is based on quantitative and qualitative data.
Primary data is collected through direct personal interview.
REVIEW OF LITERATURE:
Demographic studies of infant and child mortality have shown that literacy is one of the
important powerful factors explaining different mortality levels with and between the
societies. Studies from many developing countries have shown that mother’s literacy and
schooling are closely related to child health and survival.
Shetty S. Priya and Lobo Norbert in their paper “Education: a Contributor to Women’s
Health” are of the opinion that literacy level of women have influence not only on their
health but also on future generations. With education girls become more self reliant and
manage health problems.
Shaukath Azim in the paper “Women Get Sicker, But Men Die Quicker: a Sociological
Study of Health Status of Women in Karnataka” is of the opinion that even after several
decades of health improvement programmes, success rate has not even reached 50 percent.
Unless women become active agents of new program for women’s health by and large
women’s health issue will persist.
Hans V. Basil in his paper “Women, Health, and empowerment” is of the opinion that
health, health care and health status of women is not just a medical concern but a social
concern and economic necessity.
Table1: Basic Population Particulars
State Decadal Population Growth Sex Ratio
2001-2011 (Female per 1000 males)
Andhra Pradesh 11.0 993
Assam 17.1 958
Bihar 25.4 918
Gujarat 19.3 919
Haryana 19.9 879
Himachal Pradesh 12.9 972

Karnataka 15.6 973
Kerala 4.9 1084
Madhya Pradesh 20.3 931
Maharashtra 16.0 929
Odisha 14.0 979
Punjab 13.9 895
Rajasthan 21.3 928
TamilNadu 15.6 996
Uttar Pradesh 20.2 912
West Bengal 13.8 950
All India 17.7 943
Source: Southern Economist, October1, 2014, Vol 53,No:11
As it is evident from table no: 1 Decadal growth rate is least for Kerala (4.9) and highest
for Bihar 25.4.This could be attributed towards to lower birth rate in Kerala as compared to
Bihar, Migration is another reason. Kerala is the only state with over 1000 females than males.
Table: 2 Major Health Indicators
State Life IMR* Birth Rate Death Rate TFR** Female
Expectancy literacy rate
at birth
Andhra Pradesh 65.8 41 17.5 7.4 1.8 58.68
Assam 61.9 55 22.5 7.9 2.4 63.00
Bihar 65.8 43 27.7 6.6 3.6 46.40
Gujarat 66.8 38 21.1 6.6 2.4 63.31
Haryana 67.0 42 21.6 6.4 2.3 59.61
Himachal Pradesh 70.0 36 16.2 6.7 1.8 73.51
Karnataka 67.2 32 18.5 7.1 1.9 66.01
Kerala 74.2 12 14.9 6.9 1.8 100
Madhya Pradesh 62.4 56 26.6 8.1 3.1 54.49
Maharashtra 69.9 25 16.6 6.3 1.8 69.87
Odisha 63.0 53 19.9 8.5 2.2 50.97
Punjab 69.9 25 16.6 6.3 1.8 62.52
Rajasthan 66.5 49 25.9 6.6 3.0 47.76
Tamil Nadu 68.9 21 15.7 7.4 1.7 73.14
Uttar Pradesh 62.7 53 27.4 7.7 3.4 51.36
West Bengal 69.0 32 16.1 6.3 1.7 66.57
All India 66.1 42 21.6 7.0 2.4 65.46
*Infant Mortality Rates **Total fertility rates Source: Southern Economist, october1, 2014, Vol 53, No: 11

The above table indicates data on some important health indicators for major states.
Life expectancy at birth is highest in Kerala, which has lower IMR and BR. This could be
because of high literacy (94%) IMR is high for Uttar Pradesh and Odhisha: lack of nutritious
diet for pregnant mothers and lack of timely medical attention can be the reasons. Kerala
shows a better health status. (Southern Economist, october1, 2014,)
MATERNAL MORTALITY RATE: Maternal Mortality, defined as death during pregnancy or
the post-partum period, is commonly used to indicate levels of maternal health and
development. Complications of pregnancy and childbirth are often major causes of morbidity
and mortality among women in child bearing ages. Children are highly influenced by health
of their mothers. The most recent estimates available are for 2010 and show national maternal
mortality ratio of 200 maternal deaths per 1,00,000 live births ,is three to five times higher
than those of other BRICK countries-Brazil(56),Russia(34) and China(37)(WHO
2012).Estimates at the state level from 2008 data indicate wide disparity within the country,
ranging from81 to 97 maternal deaths per 1,00,000 live births in Kerala and Tamilnadu,
respectively to 359 in Uttarpradesh and 391 in Assam(office of Registrar General India
2011).The regional variations in deaths of mothers in the states of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar,
Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh Chhattisgarh ,Odisha, Rajasthan and Assam show that the
percentage of maternal deaths is six times higher than in the Southern States.
Table 3- Level of Maternal Mortality Rates by Regions 2007-2009
Region Maternal Mortality Rates %to Total Maternal Deaths
(EAG) states &Assam 308 61.6
Southern States 127 11.4
Other States 149 27.0
India 212 100.0
(EAG-Empowered Action Group states include Bihar, Jharkand, Uttarpradesh, Uttarakhand,
Madhyapradesh, Chattisgarh, Orissa, and Rajasthan)
Source: Yojana October 2012
Under nutrition is one of the major health problems faced in India. Maternal malnutrition
is widely prevalent among the poor people leading to poor weight gain during pregnancy
and high prevalence of low birth weight among the infants. Studies reveal that Anemia is
one of the major causes of maternal deaths in Assam. Problem of anemia and malnutrition
are deep routed in gender differential existence in our country.
Maternal health, the health of women at the time of pregnancy, child birth and lactation,
mostly depends on antenatal care taken by them. Important elements of antenatal care

include the provision of iron supplements for pregnant mothers, two dosed of tetanus toxoid
vaccine and a drug to get rid of intestinal worms. But unfortunately poor illiterate people do
not consume these medicine (iron supplements) even though it is provided free of cost by
govt. as they believe that the child born to them will be dark in color or they would face
health problems such as constipation.
In old Hyderabad pregnant women follow a generation old practice of eating limestone
in the misguided hope of bearing fair-skinned babies. Women consume them in order to
lighten the skin color of the unborn child and later get addicted. By consuming over a period
of time they lose their appetite, develop anemia and suffer stomach ailments. As they find
calcium rich food including milk a rarity they go in for such practice which they think is right.
(The Hindu September 2015)
Table 4
South Asia: Selected Indicators (1990 and 2010)
Indicators Year India Bangladesh Bhutan Nepal Pakistan Srilanka China
GNI per capita 1990 877 543 1280 513 1210 1420 813
(in$) 2010 3560 1800 4950 1200 2780 4980 7570
Life expectancy 1990 58 54 52 54 61 69 68
at birth(yrs) 2010 64 67 67 67 67 74 73
IMR (per 1000 1990 81 99 96 97 96 26 38
live births 2010 48 38 44 41 70 14 16
Under -5 1990 115 143 139 141 124 32 48
mortality rate 2010 63 48 56 50 87 17 18
MMR 1990 570 870 940 870 490 91 110
2008 230 340 200 380 260 39 38
TFR 1990 3.9 4.5 5.7 5.2 6.0 2.5 2.3
2009 2.7 2.3 2.5 2.8 3.5 2.3 1.6
Infant 1990 59 64 88 44 48 86 95
Immunization(DPT) 2008 66 94 96 82 80 98 96
Measles 1990 47 62 87 57 50 78 95
immunization(%) 2008 71 98 97 80 82 97 94
Mean years of 1990 3.0 2.9 - 2.0 2.3 6.9 4.9
schooling 2010 4.4 4.8 - 3.2 4.9 8.2 7.6
Access to improved 1990 18 39 - 11 2845 70 41
sanitation (%) 2008 31 53 65 31 - 91 55
Female literacy 1991 49 38 - 33 61 93 91
rate(%)age15- 2009 74 77 68 77 39 99 99
24yrs
Proportion(%)of 1990 59.5 61.5 34 - - 29 13
underweight 2007 43.5 41.3 12 38.8 21.6 4.5
children
Source: Yojana January 2012(Special Issue)

INDIA: DECLINE IN SOUTH ASIA
India has started falling behind every other South Asian Country in terms of social
indicators. To start with comparison between Bangladesh and India has shown much richer
than Bangladesh: per capita income was estimated to be 60%higher in India than in
Bangladesh in 1990, and 98%higher in 2010.But during the same period, Bangladesh has
overtaken India in terms of a wide range of basic social indicators: life expectancy, child
survival, fertility rates, immunization rates. For example life expectancy was estimated to
be four years longer in India than in Bangladesh in 1990, but it had become three year
shorter by 2008.Most social indicators look better in Bangladesh than in India despite
Bangladesh having barely half of India per –Capita Income. Nepal also seems to be catching
up rapidly with India, and even overtaking India in some respects. Around 1990, Nepal was
way behind India In terms of almost every development indicator. Today, Social indicators
for both the countries are much the same, in spite of per capita income in India being about
three times as high as in Nepal. Overall, India had best social indicators in South Asia in
1990, next to Sri Lanka, but now looks second-worst. (D.Deepika)
HEALTH STATUS IN KARNATAKA:
Karnataka is the eighth largest state in India in both area and population The state of
Karnataka has an area of 191,791 sq. km. and a population of 52.85 million. There are 29
districts, 176 blocks and 29406 villages. The State has population density of 275 per sq. km.
(as against the national average of 312). The decadal growth rate of the state is 17.51%
(against 21.54% for the country) and the population of the state is growing at a slower rate
than the national rate. The Total Fertility Rate of the State is 2.0. The Infant Mortality Rate is
38 and Maternal Mortality Ratio is 178 (SRS 2007 - 2009) which are lower than the National
average. The Sex Ratio in the State is 968 (as compared to 940 for the country). The Child
Sex Ratio as per 2011 census is 943.Among the southern states Karnataka is marginally
better than Andra Pradesh, But way behind Kerala (1) and Tamil Nadu (5) with respect to all
indicators of Human Development.
Table no5::Estimated crude birth rate, and total fertility rate based on 2011 census.
Name of the district CRUDE BIRTH RATE TOTAL FERTILITY RATE 2011
Belgaum 19.9 2.4
Bagalkot 22.4 2.7
Bijapur 22.6 3.0
Dharwar 18.0 2.1
Gadag 18.8 2.3
Haveri 18.6 2.2

Uttara Kannada 15.5 1.7
Bellary 22.6 2.7
Bidar 20.0 2.7
Gulbarga 22.1 3.0
Koppal 22.8 2.9
Raichur 22.5 2.9
Yadgir 25.9 3.5
Bangalore 17.5 1.7
Bangalore rural 16.3 1.9
Chitradurga 17.0 2.0
Chikballapur 15.5 1.8
Davanagere 16.6 1.9
Kolar 16.5 1.9
Ramnagar 14.3 1.6
Shimoga 15.4 1.7
Tumkur 14.6 1.7
Chamrajnagar 14.5 1.6
Chikmagalore 13.4 1.4
Coorg 14.1 1.5
D.Kanada 14.8 1.5
Hassan 13.2 1.5
Mandya 13.7 1.5
Mysore 15.2 1.7
Udupi 12.8 1.2
Karnataka 17.8 2.0
Source: Southern Economist August 15, 2014
The above table indicates that the fertility has declined all across the state. The highest
birth rate is observed in Yadgir (25.9) and the lowest birth rate is seen in Udupi (12.8) district.
Udupi has the highest literacy rate. The school dropout rates is high in five districts of north
eastern region of Karnataka (Bijapur, Bidar, Yadgir, Gulbarga and Koppal).Therefore education
induces fertility.
HEALTH INDICATORS IN UDUPI DISTRICT:
Udupi district is one of the 30 districts in Karnataka state with 3 taluks namely Udupi,
Karkala and Kundapura. The literacy rate in the district is 86.24% as against the state
75.6%.HDI In Udupi taluk has the highest index value(0.783)showing very good status in
human development. Karkala has HDI of 0.606 and rank second. Kundapura with HDI of
0.562 rank lowest.
Table no: 6 Taluk wise health indicators (2011-2012)
Taluk LEB* CBR** CDR*** IMR**** CMR***** MMR******
Karkala 73.7 12.7 7.2 13 13 48
Kundapura 73.3 15.7 5.9 11 12 42
Udupi 71.7 11.7 6.5 10 11 58
District 72.9 13.3 6 11 13 15
Source: Udupi district Human Development Report 2014
(LEB*-Life Expectancy at Birth, CBR**-Crude Birth Rate, CDR***-Crude death rate,
IMR****-Infant mortality rate, CMR******-Child mortality rate, MMR******-Maternal
mortality rate)
MICRO STUDY RELATING TO SOCIO-ECONOMIC HEALTH CONDITION AMONG WOMEN
WORKERS AT COAL GODOWN IN UDUPI DISTRICT:
Udupi district with low growth of population and high out migration of local people in
recent years is witnessing an increasing flow of migrant workers. The women working in the
coal godown are also migrants from north Karnataka. There are 5 to six women working.
Two of them are elderly people others are of the age group 20-35.With respect to educational
status they are educated up to primary level. On an average each women has three children
.As they send their wards to nearby anganwadi and government school they get some kind
of education and food. The nature of work of these women involves weighing, packing and
loading packed coal. Two of their husbands are involved in transporting and distribution of
the same to nearby areas. The others are casual workers and one is a widow. They are paid
on daily basis and their family income is in the range of 4000-5000 rupees. Four of them live
in small houses close to the godown without proper ventilation. They make use of a common
toilet. With respect to health care, as they work with coal and live around the godown they
inhale polluted air. With respect to pregnancy related issues they go to government hospitals.
In the case of one woman she went into labour pain as she was working. She was rushed to
the nearby MCH (specialized maternal and child health care hospital) by her relatives for a
normal delivery. As this women is not well educated and not aware of family planning there
is not enough spacing between births of children. Her elder daughter was around 1 year
when she gave birth to the next one. With respect to antenatal care she was under bed rest
for few weeks. Due to the active participation and house visit by health workers she and her
new born child received medicine and vaccination from them. She also received benefits

from health programs for mothers through Anganwadis. Example commodities like jaggery,
wheat, green gram are given to mothers after delivery every month for few months. Due to
their poor economic background these women cannot stay at home for long after delivery.
As these women are migrants they cannot avail the benefits from the government such as
anthyodya or Bhagyalaxmi Yojana.
FINDINGS:
Positives:
1. In spite of poor economic living condition these women are hygienic and maintain their
surroundings clean.
2. The active participation of health care workers is of great help to these women in receiving
health care
3. As children are sent to nearby anganwadi’s they receive some nutrition and food.
4. Due to lack of proper health care facilities in their native place, the relatives of these
women who are pregnant come to Udupi as Udupi has one specialized maternity and
child care hospital.
Negatives:
1. The average no of children per women is 3.Since most of the women are in the child
bearing age if proper family planning measures are not followed then it might increase.
2. Lack of time space between the births of children.
3. Indifferent attitude towards health care facilities provided by the government. Example
during pulse polio vaccination children are not taken to the nearest pulse polio vaccination
centre, they wait for health care workers to come to their house next day.
4. As their work environment is not safe and they use the same coal for cooking, without
proper ventilation there are more chances of them falling sick.
Limitations of the study:
1. The Study is limited to only to a very small group of women working in one coal godown
factory.
2. As these women are migrants from North karantaka, language is barrier in collecting
information.
3. Because of the above mentioned problem, observation is a powerful tool in collecting
information.
SUGGESTIONS:
Low female literacy has adverse impact on safe motherhood and the maternal care that
their children receive. Therefore attitude towards early marriage, expectations about child

bearing and disregard for the need for spacing between children need to be altered. Attitudes,
mind sets can be changed through education and awareness .If female education is given
more importance by reducing the number of school drop outs and female children are made
aware of personal hygiene and health care needs it would have positive impact on women’s
health .Participation at the individual level, family, society and the nation is required for
inclusive development
Illiteracy, poor health status and poverty are viciously interconnected and barriers for
economic and social development. Unless the social barriers are removed in the backward
society’s inclusive development is a far reached goal.
PERFORMANCE OF PREVENTIVE, CURATIVE AND SOCIAL MEDICINE:
Preventive medicines are those which prevent the occurrence of disease such as
vaccinations. With respect to preventive medicine the various health programs have been
successful in reducing IMR and under five mortality in our country. Curative medicines are
those which are given during illness and social medicine is with respect to spreading health
literacy.
INFANT MORTALITY RATES:
Reduction in Infant Mortality Rate has been the major focus of health programmes in
India. In 2012 the rural IMR is around 46, the urban rate is 28.
Source: Yojana, October 2012

UNDER FIVE MORTALITY;
Routine immunization contributes significantly to reducing under five mortality and
morbidity. Over the past several years, the focus of the government has been on child health
and immunization that has helped in bringing down the child mortality and achieving polio-
free Country.
Source: Yojana, October 2012

PULSE POLIO-IMMUNISATION: Seven million children die globally before they reach their
fifth birthday of these 1.7 million are in Indi-highest anywhere in the world half of these
deaths occur within a month of the child being born. While India has made some progress
with under five mortality from 116 per 1000 live births in 1990 to 59 per 1000 live births in
2010this is still inadequate. These figures also mark the gross inequalities between the
state and different social, cultural, gender and economic groups within them. India’s major
achievement of the recent past has been eradication of poverty. The WHO has removed
India from the list of polio-endemic countries, as India has not had a case of polio since
January 13, 2011.
UNIVERSAL IMMUNIZATION PROGRAMME: Immunization Programme is one of the key
interventions for protections of children from life threaten conditions, which are preventable.
In India full immunization coverage is increasing but constitutes about sixty percent and
lesser in rural settings. Under UIP vaccination is carried out to prevent seven vaccine
preventable diseases i.e. Diptheria, Pertussis, Tetanus, Polio, Measles, severe form of
childhood Tuberculosis and Hepatitis B. The standard Immunization schedule developed for

the child immunization program me specifies the age at which each vaccine should be
administered and the number of doses to be given.
Social medicine: With respect to social medicine role of educated people and health care
professions is important .Education and awareness among various health and information
sciences students, health care professions, hospital administrators, policy makers and
software developers have a key role in promoting health.
CONCLUSION: The Interstate and inter district comparison of various health data indicates
literacy has a positive impact on the various indicators of health. Demographic studies of
infant and child mortality have shown that literacy is one of the important powerful factors
explaining different mortality levels with and between the societies. Studies from many
developing countries have shown that mother’s literacy and schooling are closely related to
child health and survival. This paper also reinforces the same. Low female literacy impacts
adversely on safe motherhood and the maternal care that their children receive. Attitude
towards early marriage, expectations about child bearing and disregard for the need for
spacing between children need to be altered. Health and nutrition cannot be addressed
without attention to education and vice versa. Illiteracy, poor health status and poverty are
viciously interconnected and barriers for economic and social development. Unless the social
barriers are removed in the backward society’s inclusive development is a far reached goal.
Education plays a key role in the ability of a developing country to absorb modern technology
and to develop the capacity for self-sustaining growth and development. The progress of
India also depends on Education. Good health is both means and end of development.
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¾ Patel Swapna, L., and Patil, D.L. (2010). “Health and PHCs in Karnataka: an Inter-divisional
Analysis,” Southern economist, 49. (3): 37-40.
¾ Shetty Priya, S., and Lobo Norbert, (2015). “Education: A contributor to women’s health”
in Mukund Malini (ed.), Women and health. Mangalore: Mangala publications.
¾ Udupi district Human development report (2014).
¾ nrhm.gov.in/nrhm-in-state/state-wise information/Karnataka.html.

SCOPE FOR SOCIAL WORK INTERVENTION IN CORPORATE SOCIAL
RESPONSIBILITY FOR COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT – STUDY IN THE
OUTSKIRTS OF MANGALORE
Dr. Sr. Jenis Mary P. *
Dr. A. L. Anthony Sebastian **
ABSTRACT:
Industries are essential for the socio-economic development of any region. Industries
have a social responsibility towards the people who surrender their land, property, community
and social life. Although the concept of Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) has been
advocated for decades and is commonly employed by corporations globally, agreement on
how CSR should be defined and implemented remains a contentious debate amongst
academia, businesses and society. This gap is problematic for corporations because they are
increasingly being required to align with societal norms while generating financial returns.
The CSR practitioners and organisations, validate the segments like production and distribution,
wealth, ethical systems, sustainable management practices by applying approaches that
may be unique. This may help the organisations to develop CSR strategies that may be
useful for the development of the community and nation as a whole.
The study is conducted in Mangalore Industrial as well as the operational area of Corporate
Social Responsibility (CSR) with 200 respondents using purposive sampling. The region covered
is Baikampady, Chitrpura, Kulai, Guddekoppala, Janatha Colony, Ottekayeru and Boregudda.
The tool of data has been interview schedule and the collected data was process in SPSS.
In the study, the respondents expressed that they did not have any chronic illness in their
family. The residents pointed out that the present condition of the electricity is good. They
didn’t have a proper drainage system, waste management, water facility in the area. A
relative majority pointed out that they had public distribution centre and ration shops in
their vicinity. Majority of the women are not member of any self-help groups.
The approach “doing well by doing good” will reassure stakeholders that new behaviours
will outlast good intentions. Finally, CSR/CSP is now a global expectation that requires a
compre-hensive, strategic response for the company and the society.
Dr. Sr. Jenis Mary P., Director, Adelaide Center for research, School of Social Work, Mangalore,
Asst. Professor, School of Social Work, Mangaluru, Karnataka.
Dr. A. L. Anthony Sebastian, Principal of Christ College, Chennai. Faculty in the University
of Madras and in the National University of Singapore.

INTRODUCTION
Corporate engagement with society is termed as corporate social responsibility (CSR).
It has become a commonly used term in contemporary society and refers to the process by
which an organization expresses and develops its ‘corporate culture’ and social consciousness
(Rupp et al., 2006 & Calderon, 2011). CSR has been receiving lots of attention from various
backgrounds of researchers worldwide (Ismail 2011), it has attracted a great deal of attention
over the past decade (Zu & Song 2008). Therefore business leaders, government officials,
and academics are focusing more and more attention on the concept of “Corporate Social
Responsibility” (Reinhardt et al 2008).
Through CSR a firm goes beyond compliance and engages in attracting new investors as
part of branding strategy and as obligation from the government. (Ismail, 2011). However,
CSR does not mean just taking part in charitable activities and events; it means holding the
responsibility to develop the society by envisioning future plans for socio-economic justice
and be conscious about their responsibility for the welfare of society around them.
The activities of Corporate Social Responsibility need to bear the Ethical responsibilities
and moral judgements about what is right and wrong in mind in the decision making and in
the implementation of the programme. In a business ethics are decided upon and formed by
each company. The decision to behave ethically as one individual to another is easy for any
decent moral human being, but it is easy to forget the impact a large, faceless business can
have on the world.
The most applicable CSR definition includes the following characteristics: the importance
of stakeholders and the business-stakeholder relationship; social, environmental and
economic business responsibilities and the strategic alignment CSR activities and business
operations.
As per United Nations, the external organisations which can be potential partners for
corporate citizenship include the governmental and non-governmental organisations,
corporations such as Small Scale Enterprises (SMEs) and Multinational Companies (MNCs).
It is the responsibility of these organisations to instil creativity and self-reliance in the
community for short and long term goals taking forward the community development as an
educational as well as organisational process.
It is the responsibility of the not only the organisations but also the citizens in the
country to the development of their community.
Operational Definition of CSR:
Community stands for a group of interdependent people who live in close proximity and
interact regularly for fulfilment of needs. This interdependency creates a sense of responsibility

in the minds of the community members along with the prevailing expectations. In order to
sustain the co-operative relationship, there is a need for community development which
calls for partnering initiatives with external organisations for empowering community
members or corporation to empower individuals based on ideals of social justice and mutual
respect.
The World Business Council for Sustainable Development (WBCSD) defines CSR as “the
continuing commitment by business to contribute to economic development while improving
the quality of life of the workforce and their families as well as of the community and society
at large.”
Aim of the study:
¾ To study the role of Corporate Social responsibility in community development.
Objectives:
• To understand the growth and evolution of CSR.
• To assess the economic argument in CSR.
• To identify the problems faced by the families in the industrial areas
• To find out the intervention of CSR in Community Development
Methodology:
The study is conducted in Mangalore Industrial as well as the operational area of
Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) with 200 respondents using purposive sampling. The
region covered is Baikampady, Chitrpura, Kulai, Guddekoppala, Janatha Colony, Ottekayeru
and Boregudda. The tool of data has been interview schedule and the collected data was
process in SPSS.
REVIEW OF LITERATURE:
Growth and Evolution of CSR
The CSR concepts have developed over the years. In 1950’s, it was related to social
responsibility of the businessmen, based on this concept the businessmen pursue policies,
to make decisions or to follow lines of action in terms of the objectives and values of the
society (Bowen, 1953). In 1960-70’s, it dealt with the stakeholder approach, which dealt that
a responsible enterprise takes into account the interest of employees, suppliers, dealers,
local communities and the nation as a whole (Johnson, 1971), and the three dimensional
approach which dealt with corporate responsibilities (economic, legal, ethical and
philanthropic), social issues of business (labour standards, human rights, environment),
and corporate actions (reactive, defensive, accommodative and proactive), (Carroll, 1979).

In 1980’s -90’s, three dimensional model of principles, policies and processes were used
where there was integration of principles of CSR, the policies of issue management and the
process of action into an evolving system (Wartick and Cochran, 1985) and institutional
framework and extended corporate actions which involves four types of responsibilities
economic, legal, ethical and philanthropic were linked to three institutional levels, while
corporate actions are extended to assessment, stock holders management and
implementation management(Wood, 1991). In 2000’s, CSR deals with three domain approach,
economic, legal and ethical (Schwartz and Carroll, 2003) and new concept were a process to
integrate social, environmental ethical, human rights and consumer concerns into business
operations and core strategy in close corporations with the stakeholders (European Union,
2011).
The Scope of Corporate Responsibility:
There are many challenges to corporate responsibility, not the least of which is agreeing
upon its definition and scope. While there is substantial agreement that it is concerned with
the societal obligations of business, there is much less certainty about the nature and scope
of these obligations. And there is a clear difference between corporate responsibility
stemming from a desire to do “good” and that which reflects an enlightened self-interest.
Terminology also varies; some prefer the term corporate citizenship while others use the
term sustainability to refer to corporate social and environmental responsibilities. While
some companies use these terms to refer to philanthropic activities, our view is that corporate
responsibility and sustainability are primarily to do with a company’s social and environmental
impacts in its core business activities.
Role of Small and Medium Enterprise:
Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) is nowadays a prominent issue for many
businesses. The concept is closely related to sustainable business development, which
requires companies to balance their social, environmental and economic responsibilities
towards business stakeholders. It has gained increasing relevance for small and medium
size enterprises (SMEs); however industry-specific insights of the CSR meaning for this
business type are widely lacking.
The CSR has found recognition among enterprises, policy- makers and other stakeholders
as an important element of new and emerging forms of governance which can help them to
respond to all types of global change. The CSR is not confined to multinational companies
alone but, it has better role for Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs), irrespective of their
status. The SMEs are implementing socially and environmentally responsible practices
without being familiar with the CSR concept of communicating their activities. The SMEs
community and social engagement could be characterised as being local in scope, occasional

in nature and unrelated to business strategy. Small business often forms association to
safeguard their interest, and through these they can combine and form CSR programme to
build a larger impact and to raise awareness.
It is important to integrate the CSR Policies like employment and social policies, corporate
policies, environmental policies, consumer policies procurement policies which help develop
the organisation as well as the locality and nation at large. The cities should be made self-
sufficient.
Carroll’s four-part model of CSR (1991) sets the different natures of CSR into relations
and developed a pyramid with four interrelated level of business responsibilities that
companies can perceive (as cited in Crane and Matten, 2007). The individual layers of the
pyramid are Economic Responsibilities were any business is expected by the stakeholders
to commit to the profit for shareholders, fair conditions for employees or quality products
for customers. Legal Responsibilities means companies are expected to respect legal
requirements, such as the laws or regulations when doing business. Ethical Responsibilities
address business concerns that are genuinely perceived as right without being imposed by
any sort of legal obligations. They are “expected by society”, rather than “required” as the
previous responsibilities. Philanthropic Responsibilities is concerned with “activities that
are within the [business] discretion to improve the quality of life of employees, local
communities, and ultimately society in general”. They are placed last, as they are not a
required or expected by society, but a desire of the company.
Community Sector/ Not-for-Profit:
Although social entrepreneurship has only recently received significant aca-demic and
professional attention, the fundamental concept has been in practice by individuals
throughout the history of business enterprises. Some examples from the past include David
Brower (the United States), Vinoba Bhave (India), Florence Nightingale (the United Kingdom),
and Jean Monnet (France). Vinoba Bhave founded the Land Gift movement in India, allowing
the redistribution of more than 7,000,000 acres of land to the landless untouchables,
individuals who were low-caste Hindus and viewed as “polluted” and separated from the
rest of society. Florence Nightingale revolutionized health care through the founda-tion of
the first school for nurses.
Not-for-profit social entrepreneurship is represented by organizations that have legally
defined themselves as existing for some other purpose than to generate profit. However,
within this model, many of these organizations are engaging in what would typically be
classified as for-profit business practices to attain sustainability within their business model.
In not-for-profit sector, three primary types of organizations exist—public benefit, mutual
benefit, and religious. The most common use of social entrepreneurship within this sector is
within those designated for public benefit. This is because of the nature of the models; a
public benefit not-for-profit exists to benefit the public. Both mutual benefit and religious
not-for-profits are less focused on widespread social improvement and are more focused on
providing services for a very specific audience. Individuals such as these, along with countless
social advocacy groups and Social Entrepreneurship community initiatives, have all set the
foundation from which the current identity of social entrepreneurship has been derived.
Community development is based on the principles of fairness, equality, accountability,
opportunity, choice, participation, mutuality, reciprocity and continuous learning with core
emphasis on educating, enabling and empowering community members. A true development
in the society will exist when all the citizen from all strata of the society engage in community
programmes, strategies and activities.
Moral Argument for CSR:
The relationship between business and society has, for long, been a source of intellectual
interest to business ethi-cists (Carroll, 1999: 268; Heinze, 2005). People live in a society
and everyone is part of the social organi-sation. Business is wholly dependent on society. It
can only thrive in well-organ-ised societies where individuals cannot, themselves, produce
all their needs and wants; for when people are wholly self-sufficient, the concept of business
serves no purpose on their lives. Thus, a stable and well-organised society fundamental-ly
makes it possible for people to engage in business.
Schreuder (1978) acknowledges the inseparability of business and ethics. For him, the
slim wedge between business and ethics can be bridged by a concept of Corporate Social
Responsibility (CSR). He defines CSR as the performance or non-performance of certain
activities by a private enterprise or corporate organi-sation without the expectation of direct
economic gain or loss, for the purpose of improving the social well being of the community
or one of its constituent groups.
Surprisingly, CSR can be a controversial topic. Supporters argue that a strategic approach
to CSR has benefits related to risk management, cost savings, access to capital, customer
relationships, talent management, and the capacity to innovate. Because good CSR programs
engage with internal and external stakeholders, they enable enterprises to better anticipate
and maximize fast changing societal expectations and operating conditions, driving new
market development and creating opportunities for growth. With the right approach,
successful CSR programs yield benefits for society and the corporation.
The Hyundai Motors India Limited has launched a public charitable trust, Hyundai Motors
India Foundation (HMIF) solely funded by it. The programs undertaken by this trust vary from
vocational training, environment, road safety, arts, research, Disaster management. As a
part of its community development project it has adopted villages around its factory in Tamil
Nadu and has been working for their socio economic up liftmen.
The above case study is essential for a just and moral based Community Development
activity. CSR broadly represents the relationship between a company and the principles
expected by the wider society within which it operates. It assumes businesses recognize
that for profit entities do not exist in a vacuum and that a large part of their success comes
as much form actions that are congruent with societal values as from factors internal to the
company. The moral touch towards the growth of the industries is more valuable in the eyes
of public adding ethics to the already existing organization only add to the gloss and
acceptability by the whole society as well as its own employees. The sense of socially
recognition is a proud movement for the firms. Trophies are won and awards laminated and
hung on the wall showing the good deed done.
While academics and others will continue to debate the pros and cons of CSR, the reality
today is that there is growing public expectation that corporations will be significant players
and models. The growth of social and digital media has “turned up” that public expectation;
the conversations companies have with shareholders, customers, prospects, etc. have
expanded. The era of the one-way street, when companies “talked to” shareholders and
customers is over. The definition of a company’s shareholders or audiences has become
both magnified and fragmented, allowing just about every consumer to have an opportunity
to “talk” with a corporation. In the study, in spite of the negative view points by
environmentalist and community workers a good number stated that those companies in
their region are good.
Economic Reason for CSR
The critics of CSR point out that the main aim of firm is to make profits. The companies
by operating profitably create job and fuel economic growth that ultimately benefit the
society. Towers Perrin (2009), CSR is the third most important drivers of employee
engagement. CSR helps to reduce the negatives consequences of the industrialization by
encouraging conscience focused market places with focus on the ethical business processes.
Studies concluded that the awareness level of managers towards CSR is high, but it is
not followed by reporting (Nik Ahmad and Abdul Rahim, 2003; Williams and Ho, 1999). Even
though the number of CSR studies is high, there is no empirical study of the impact of CSR on
financial performance. The lack of information from academic literature concerning whether
CSR has any substantiated impact on financial performance in local companies may be one
of the possible reasons why companies disclose little of their CSR activities. Gelb and Strawser
(2001) state that firms have incentives to engage in stakeholder management by undertaking
socially responsible activities and that providing extensive and informative disclosures is
ONE SUCH PRACTICE.

FINDINGS:
Profile of the Respondents:
The profile of the respondents is that the 76 percent are Hindus. Most the respondents
were spread over an age range of 20-40 years. The computed average is 41 years.
Chart No. 1
Occupation of the Respondents
The above chart depicts the occupation were majority (28%) of male respondents have
their occupation as fishing while, 27 percent of them work for private companies and 18
percent are self-employed and 9percent have their own business establishment such as
tailoring, petty shops. 9 percent of the male respondents are unemployed. Majority (68%) of
the females are housewives and 25 percent are involved in Beedi rolling. It has been one of
the strongest unorganized labour intensive industries.
Only 2 percent have income of rupees above 20,000/- and Half the size of the respondents
live below the poverty line. 34 percent have completed SSLC, two percent have completed
doctorate and six percent are illiterate.
Problems Faced by the People in the Industrial Areas:
Due to the pollution caused by the industries it leads to various illnesses in the members
of the family residing in the industrial area. Some illness may be chronic while others may
be only for a span of time. Due to the release of poisonous gases into the atmosphere it will
affect the individuals in the surrounding in long run. If the individual is too close to the
industry the effect may be seen immediately, they may develop asthma, skin allergies etc.,

Table No. 1: Problems caused by Industries
Problems Companies
MCF MRPL HPCL BASF
No problem 56% 32% 18% 20%
Environmental problems 10% 32% 26% 32%
Water Pollution 2% 2% 2% 2%
Fishing 4% 14% 0% 0%
Health related problems 8% 4% 2% 10%
Sea water pollution 0% 2% 0% 2%
Traffic Problem 0% 2% 2% 0%
Not aware 20% 12% 50% 34%
Total 50(100%) 50 (100%) 50(100%) 50(100%)
The above table shows the problems faced by the individuals residing near the industries.
In the study majority (56%) of the respondents said they have no problems related to the
industries in MCF, while 10 percent, 8 percent conveyed that they have faced problems
related to environment and health respectively. A mere of 4 percent and 2 percent of them
residing near MCF faced water pollution and fishing related problems.
Equal number of respondents in MRPL (32%) conveyed that they had no problem by
company and they also suffered from environmental problem 14 percent of them faced
problems related to fishing. A mere of 2 percent of them faced problems related to sea,
water and traffic.
Quarter (26%) of the respondents residing near HPCL said that they have environment
related problems, while 18 percent had no problem by the company.
A relative majority (32%) of the respondents in BASF suffered from environmental related
problems, while 20 percent of them had no problem by the company and 10 percent suffered
from health problems.
Knowledge of Industrial Hazards:
The study conducted in Industrial area having 200 families as the respondents reveals
that the nearly half the size (50%) of the respondents assert that they have no knowledge
about the contribution and danger caused to the region and the people. A small section of
the people state the industries are good for the region. Few among them also give a negative
opinion. The technical issues highlighted to them by the environmentalists, community
activities and politicians have reached them in a particular way. They were influenced by
the negative aspects of the issue. 32 percent are aware about the environmental problems.

In a general way most of the families say that the chemical industries damage their
environment and health as they process chemical items. Heavy traffic also takes away the
peace of mind. They encounter problems in fishing as they water sources are contaminated.
Relative majority (39%) of them assert that the companies have done nothing for them.
Community Development Programmes by Companies:
Chart No. 2: Programmes undertaken by the Companies
In the above chart a relative majority (39%) of respondents have stated that the companies
have not helped in community development, while 29 percent are not aware of the
programmes undertaken by the companies and 12 percent feared to respond. A mere
percentage of respondents conveyed that the companies provided Scholarship for Children
(7%), while 3 percent helped in arranging for drinking water facility. They also provided
support to the youth and the places of worship (2%) and only one percent of them said that
the companies have helped in construction of roads, built Primary Health Care Centres (PHC)
& Anganwadies, supported Self Help Groups (SHG), organised Camps/child lab respectively.
Social Work Intervention in Community Development:
The Social workers with their professional skills, knowledge and methods can make CSR
activities effective. They can devise appropriate strategies to reach out the entire community
with the package of services.

People’s power also needs to be mobilized to reduce the harm done by the industries.
The study also brings to the light the needs and expectations of the people those are providing
skill trainings and the job opportunities, to promote and to maintain community infrastructure.
Scarcity and contamination of Water seems to be a threat for the good health of the people.
The social workers need to be a mediator between the industrial authorities and the
local authorities to promote a project to supply pure and continuous flow of drinking water
and thus to ensure people’s participation in development.
Health Care Services need to be enhanced in order to render the optimum level of quality
service to the people who suffer from various illnesses. Periodical general health check up
programmes the health related problems need to be diagnosed.
The corporate bodies can provide scholarship, evening class, and guidance to parents
as well to children to promote the educational status of the people. The Social workers can
also identify the educational related needs of the children and connect them towards need
for education with the resources. Vocational training and career guidance for the youth can
promote their economic status.
Plantation of trees needs to be facilitated as the industrial areas are becoming warmer
every year. Every company should take a responsible role in forestation of the surrounding
areas. Regular Community based programmes can bring people together to plan their
developmental strategies.
CONCLUSION:
The concept of CSR has had a long and diverse history in the literature. The CSR has a
vital role to play in reality too. Social work Intervention has the potential to link the need,
problems, and resources through professional approach and methods building the
communities and for the welfare of the people of the locality. In the 21st century, compa-nies
would be expected to demonstrate their commitment to society’s values on social,
environmental, and economic goals through their actions; to fully insulate society from the
negative impacts of company actions; share the benefits of company activities with key
stakeholders, as well as shareholders, and demonstrate that the company can be more
profitable by doing the right thing. This “doing well by doing good” approach will reassure
stakeholders that new behaviours will outlast good intentions. Finally, CSR/CSP is now a
global expectation that requires a compre-hensive, strategic response. (Archie B. Carroll,
2012).
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Forschungsinstitut, zur Zukunft der Arbeit, Institute for the Study of Labor, 12

RECENT TRENDS ON LABOUR WELFARE IN INDUSTRIES TO CONTROL
ABSENTEEISM-A LEGAL INTERVENTION
Mr. Pradeep M. D. *
Dr. Ravindra B. K. **
ABSTRACT:
In the era of industrialization and mechanization, the Labour welfare provides an extra
dimension to attain satisfaction which even good wage cannot. Competitive work culture
seeks greater emphasis towards increasing production by economic and rational utilization
resources. Workmen retention has become a challenge for the industries and workforce is
facing terrible problems to survive with their earning as the world is getting costlier. In India,
absenteeism is inevitable because of social constraints. Only happy and satisfied employees
can contribute more to the organization. Now the expectation of labours has widened to
cover facilities like canteen, housing, recreation, transportation etc. Even though the welfare
legislation and regulations provide part of the legal context, employers have identified welfare
as a strategy to reduce the absenteeism. This study will help to know the level of awareness
about welfare facilities, give in-depth understanding of the impact of the welfare facilities
in reducing the absenteeism and improve morale and performance by elaborating causes of
absenteeism and employers legal obligation towards initiating new strategies of welfare
measures and encourage the policy makers to come out with more effective welfare provisions
to enrich the morale of the employees. The study found that there is a direct relationship
between the welfare measures to the employees and the absenteeism within the industry.
Key words: Absenteeism, Industrialisation, Labour Welfare, Performance, Workforce.
INTRODUCTION:
An organization is composed of people who come from different walks of life with
different values, attitudes and beliefs. Human beings is the most complex being in the
world” Sophocles quotes the wonder of the wonder is man who has infinite capacity to
think, to develop, to create, to feel, to love, to give, to kill, to respect and to hate, to analyze
or destroy. Human resource consists of the total knowledge, skills, creative abilities, talents
and aptitudes of an organizations workforce, as well as the values, attitudes and beliefs of
the individuals involved in it. In the words of Oliver Sheldon “No industry can be said to be
efficient unless human force is recognized because they are not machines, technical process,
or complex of matter, but a complex of humanity. It fulfills its function not by the virtue of
Mr. Pradeep M. D., Research Scholar, Alliance School of Law, Alliance University, Bengaluru.
Cell: 9845922767, Email: mdpradeepnair767@gmail.com
Dr. Ravindra B. K., Dean, Alliance School of Law, Alliance University, Bengaluru. Cell:
9448158863, Email: ravindra.bk@alliance.edu.in
some impersonal force, but a human energy. In Asian Regional Conference the ILO has
observed that welfare include standard of hygiene, safety, social insurance schemes,
protection of women and young workers, limitation on hours of work, paid vacations, working
conditions, day to day problems and social relationships at the work place. Welfare measures
may be both statutory and voluntary. Voluntary benefits are the result of employers generosity,
enlightenment and philanthropic feelings. According to the Labour Investigation Committee
Report (1946) Labour welfare is “anything done for the intellectual, physical, moral and
economic betterment of the workers by employers, government or other agencies over and
above what is laid down by law”. According to International Labour Organisation resolution
(1947) “Services, facilities and amenities of canteens, rest, recreation, arrangements for
travel, accommodation to improve the conditions under which workers are employed”. Raja
Kulkarni (1993) social welfare measures should not be treated as nonproductive and a
social liability instead, as an investment for converting ordinary human being into human
resource for economic and industrial development. Today, welfare has been generally accepted
by employers as a social right. The state only intervenes to “widen the area of applicability”.
The committee on labour welfare (1969) describe welfare measures as social security
measures to combat the sense of frustration, relieve from personal worries, improve health
and contribute to improve the conditions of work in India. Employers have also realized the
importance of their role in providing these extra amenities. Arun Monappa (1985) Labour
welfare, though it has been proved to contribute to efficiency in production, is expensive.
Each employer depending on his priorities gives varying degrees of importance to labour
welfare. National Productivity Council of India (1981) recommended that providing good
welfare facilities is an important tool for the improvement of quality of work life of the
employees. It is because the government is not sure that all employers are progressive
minded and will provide basic welfare measures, so it introduce statutory legislation from
time to time to bring about some measure of uniformity in the basic amenities available to
industrial workers.
HISTORY AND PRINCIPLES OF LABOUR WELFARE OF LABOUR WELFARE IN INDIA:
The need for labour welfare was strongly felt by the committee of the royal commission
on labour (1931) the philosophy was included in resolution passed by the Indian National
Congress on Fundamental Rights and Economic Programme in Karachi Session. According to
Punekar S. D. (1995) Constitutional privileges were initiated through Fundamental Rights
and Directive Principles of State Policy to build labour commitment and protect the workforce
from harsh treatment of employers. The Government of India appointed a study team to
study the range of welfare facilities of industrial employees in 1959 and sought
recommendations to be included in the Third Five Year Plan. Committee of experts on Welfare
Facilities for Industrial Workers Conveyed by the ILO in 1963 divided the entire range of the
labour welfare activities into three groups. Firstly, welfare within the precincts of an
establishment covering latrines and urinals, washing and bathing facilities, crèches, rest
shelters, canteens, drinking water, prevention of fatigue, health services, safety, administrative
arrangements, uniforms and protective clothing and shift allowance. Secondly, Welfare
outside the establishment covering Maternity benefit, social insurance schemes, gratuity,
pension, provident fund, rehabilitation, benevolent fund, medical facilities, educational
facility, housing, recreation, tours, workers cooperatives, vocational training for dependents,
transportation as welfare outside the establishments and Thirdly, as social security. Annual
Plan of Labour Department (2002-2003) mentioned that the objective of the labour
department is to ensure satisfactory working conditions and create favourable industrial
climate by ensuring welfare, safety and amicable settlement of disputes for economic
development of the country.
The following principles are followed to achieve the successful implementation of welfare
Programmes.
• Adequacy of Wages has to be provided.
• Social responsibility focus in creating accountability to the employers to provide welfare.
• Totality of welfare spreading the welfare benefits to all the levels in the organization.
Co-ordination or Integration focus on promotion of healthy development of worker at
work, home and community which ensures harmony.
• Association or democratic values depicts that workers being mature and rational
individuals they has to be consulted by involving them in the planning welfare
programmes.
• Responsibility between the employees and employers to make welfare work simpler
and easier.
• Accountability requires periodical assessment of welfare services by higher authority to
judge the success of welfare Programmes.
• Timeliness in the proper direction which enrich the credibility.
• Self-help aims at helping workers to help themselves in the long run.
LEGAL IMPLICATIONS ON LABOUR WELFARE:
1. CONSTITUTIONAL MANDATES
According to Bakshi P. M. (2002) Constitution of India, in its directive principles of state
policy, emphasizes the state with following welfare aspects. Securing a Social order for the
Promotion of Welfare of the People (Art. 38) to ensure justice, social, economic and political.
It has to minimize the inequalities in income, and eliminate inequalities in status, facilities
and opportunities among individuals. (Art. 39) It should direct its policy towards securing
adequate means of livelihood, ownership and control of material resources of the community
for the common good, operation of the economic system does not result in concentration of
wealth and means of production to the common detriment, equal pay for equal work for
both men and women, tender age of children are not abused and citizens are not forced by
economic necessity to enter vocations not suiting to their age and strength (Grih Kalyan
Kendra Workers Union v. Union of India (1991) 1 SCC 619 paragraph 6). Childhood and youth
are protected against exploitation and against moral and material abandonment was decided
in M.C. Mehta v. State of Tamil Nadu (Art. 41) it shall within the limits of its economic
capacity and development, make effective provision for securing the right to work, education
and public assistance in cases of unemployment, old age, sickness and disablement, and in
other cases of undeserved want. (Art. 42) Make provision for securing just and human
conditions of work and for maternity relief. (Art. 43) secure by suitable legislation to all
workers work, a living wage, decent standard of life and full enjoyment of leisure and social
and cultural opportunities and promote cottage industries on an individual or co-operative
basis in rural areas”. Thus, the need for social ad industrial welfare in India in all sectors is
clearly enunciated in our constitution. According to First Five Year Plan The planning
commission also realized the necessity of labour welfare, when it observed that “in order to
get the best out of a worker in the matter of production, working conditions require to be
improved to a large extent.
2. LEGISLATIVE INITIATIVES TOWARDS LABOUR WELFARE:
A brief outline of various welfare facilities which are mandatory which has to be provided
under different labour enactments is given below
(1) FACTORIES ACT 1948: The act makes it obligatory on the employer to provide washing
facilities (S. 42), Facilities for storing and dry clothing (S. 43), Sitting facilities for occasional
rest for workers who are obliged to work standing (S. 44), First-aid boxes or cupboards-one
for every 150 workers and ambulance facilities if there are more than 500 workers (S. 45),
Canteens if employing more than 250 workers (S. 46), Shelters, rest rooms and lunch rooms,
if employing over 150 workers (S. 47), Creches, if employing more than 30 women (S.48),
Welfare Officer, if employing 500 or more workers (S. 49). State governments can frame
rules to prescribe standards and to grant exemption.
(2) MINES ACT 1952: Provisions for drinking water, conservancy, first aid (including a first
aid room, wherein more than 150 persons are employed), and crèche where women is
employed, The ambulance room shall be maintained under the charge of qualified medical
practitioner assisted by a qualified staff where 500 or more persons are employed. Shelters
shall be constructed for taking food and rest if 150 or more persons and a canteen is to be
provided in every mine having 250 or more persons. Maintenance of first aid boxes and first
aid rooms in mines employing more than 150 workers, Provision in coal mines of sanitary
latrines and lockers separately for men and women workers and appointment of labour welfare
officer in mines employing more than 500 or more persons to look after the matters relating
to the welfare of the workers.
(3) PLANTATIONS LABOUR ACT 1951: Canteens in plantations employing 150 or more workers
(S. 11), Creches if employing 50 or more women workers (S. 12), Recreational facilities for
the workers and their children (S. 13), Educational facilities for the children of workers,
where there are 25 workers children between the age of 6 and 12 (S. 14), Housing facilities
for every worker and his family residing in the plantation. The standard and specification of
the accommodation, procedure for allotment and rent chargeable from workers, are to be
prescribed in the rules by the state government (S. 15 and S. 16), The state government may
make rules requiring every plantation employer to provide the workers with such number
and type of umbrellas, blankets, raincoats or other like amenities for the protection of workers
from rain or cold (S. 17), Appointment of a welfare officer in plantations employing 300 or
more workers (S. 18).The exact standards of these facilities have been prescribed under the
rules framed by the state governments.
(4) DOCK WORKERS (SAFETY, HEALTH AND WELFARE) SCHEME, 1961: Housing, education
and recreation facilities are provided by the port trusts and paid for out of the Port Trust
Employees Welfare Fund. The act makes a provision for the appointment of a welfare officer
in the establishment itself who will look after the implementation of the various statutory
provisions. The state inspectorate is the other agency outside the establishment which looks
after the implementation of the various statutory provisions.
(5) THE MOTOR TRANSPORT WORKERS ACT, 1961: Transport undertakings are required to
provide Canteens of prescribed standards, if employing 100 or more workers (S. 8), Clean,
ventilated, well lighted and comfortable rest rooms at every place to halt at night (S. 9),
Uniforms, raincoats to drivers, conductors and line checking staff for protection against rain
and cold. A prescribed amount of washing allowances to staffs (S. 10), Medical facilities
are to be provided at the operating centers and at halting stations as may be prescribed by
the state governments (S. 11), First aid facilities equipped with the prescribed contents are
to be provided in every transport vehicle (S. 12)
(6) THE CONTRACT LABOUR (REGULATION AND ABOLITION) ACT, 1970 : The contractor
who employes the contract labours shall provide a canteen in every establishment employing
100 or more workers (S. 16), Rest rooms or other suitable alternative accommodation where
the contract labour is required to halt at night in connection with the work of an establishment
(S. 17), Provision for drinking water, sufficient number of latrines and urinals of prescribed
type and washing facilities(S. 18), Provision for first aid box equipped with the prescribed
contents (S. 19), The acts impose liability on the principal employer to provide the above
amenities to the contract labour employed in his establishment, if the contractor fails to do
so.
(7) THE MERCHANT SHIPPING ACT, 1958: Provisions in the act relating to health and welfare
cover Crew accommodation, Supply of sufficient drinking water, beddings, towels, mess
utensils, medicines, medical stores, and provision of surgical and medical advice,
Maintenance of proper weights and measures on board and grant of relief to distressed
seamen aboard a ship. Every foreign going ship carrying more than the prescribed number
of persons, including the crew, is required to have on board as part of her complement a
qualified medical officer, Appointment of a seamen’s, welfare officer at such ports in or
outside India as the government may consider necessary, Establishment of hostels, clubs,
canteens, and libraries, Provision of medical treatment and hospitals and educational
facilities. The governments have been authorized to frame rules, inter alia, for the levy of
fees payable by owners of ships at prescribed rates for the purpose of providing amenities
to seamen and for taking other measures for their welfare.
ABSENTEEISM IN INDUSTRY:
According to Singh B.D. (2004) Absenteeism is one of the major problem in Indian
industries. The Labour Department, Government of India defines absenteeism as “the total
man shifts lost because of absentees from the total number of man-shifts scheduled without
including absence on account of authorized leave, lay off, retrenchment, strikes etc. It results
in increasing the labour cost, Indiscipline, affect employee earnings, decrease in employee
morale and leads towards labour unrest thereby affects the efficiency and productivity.
Absenteeism refers to unauthorized absence of employee due to any reason when he knows
about availability of work but fails to report for duty without prior intimation to the employer.
Absenteeism is one of the major human problems of Indian industries. Although some amount
of absence will always be inevitable, but, most of it should be avoided. Labour Bureau of
Shimla and Annual Surveys of Industries defined absenteeism as the failure of the worker to
report for work when he is “scheduled to work” which amounts to unauthorized leave except
on authorized vacation, privilege leave, strike, lockout, layoff etc.
CAUSES FOR ABSENTEEISM:
In India, the following causes contribute to the absenteeism among employees. Firstly,
Personal Factors like Age, Experience, Dependency, and Income. Secondly, Job related causes
like long working hours, bad working conditions, boredom, lack of cooperation between the
management and workers, accidents, occupational disease, fatigue, transportation problems,
low wages, lack of medical facility, lack of services, influence absenteeism. Thirdly,
Environmental Factors like social and religious festivals, climate and weather, village nexus
and non-occupational sickness etc.
MANAGING ABSENTEEISM:
Incentives can be introduced to discourage absenteeism. Attendance bonus is has been
awarded in certain establishments and also promotions are linked to minimum attendance.

Good leave record of the employee is an important criterion for entrusting higher positions.
These incentives, no doubt, will be effective inducements for regular attendance and
efficiency of workforce. Researchers suggested certain measures to manage absenteeism.
According to Vaid (1970) Workers presume a factory as a substitute for joint family but as
the industrial economy cannot compensate the care and belongingness like a joint family,
workers feel frustrated hence, there is a need to humanize the workplace. The following
conclusions can be drawn from these recommendations.
(1) EDUCATION AND COUNSELLING: According to Bhatia (1984) The organization should
make an earnest attempt to implement absenteeism policies strictly. It should counsel chronic
absentees to realize the problem and to solve it.
(2) WORKING CONDITIONS: Safe working conditions, control on accidents, recreational
facility, leisure time activities and supportive environment go a long way to attract and
retain the worker on the job.
(3) INCENTIVE SCHEMES: Incentive schemes to reduce the economic hardship of workers
may be useful like Attendance bonus, leave encashment, loan facility, cooperative stores,
job to family members, attendance as criteria for promotion These incentives, no doubt, will
be effective inducements for regular attendance and work which in turn will ensure, efficient
service.
(4) MOTIVATION AND MORALE: Since workers do not always work for money alone, they
can be retained by providing challenging jobs, Training, job rotation, involving in decision
making have been found to induce greater motivation and morale among workers.
METHODOLOGY:
The research methodology adopted to carry out the study is descriptive in nature. The
study aims to describe various statutory and non statutory welfare measures, to study the
level of employees satisfaction with regard to employee welfare and analyse the extent to
which welfare measures are effective in preventing the absenteeism of the employees in
the industry and to suggest measures to improve the welfare facility in the industry. The
variables like work experience and Salary levels were analyzed with performance, Employee
retention, Tight schedule, Administrative System, Employee and Employer relationship by
using statistical tools like percentage and Chi-square. The study is conducted at Lamina
Suspensions Products Ltd, Baikampady, New Mangalore an industry manufactures heavy
vehicle springs. Primary data was collected by using structured questionnaire by using
purposive sampling method and secondary data by referring books, journals, bulletins and
internet sources. The population for the study consisted of 50 respondents who are permanent
employees of the company. Among them, (42 per cent) are above 46 years of age, (84 per
cent) are Married, (50 per cent) possess S.S.L.C. qualification, (74 per cent) earn a monthly
salary between Rs 5001 to 10,000 and (44 per cent) are having work experience of above 16
years. This paper describes history, principles and legal implications on welfare measures
and management of absenteeism through welfare of employees thereby opens the way for
further research.
DATA ANALYSIS:
Table 1: Statutory and Non Statutory Welfare Measures
Sl. No Welfare Facility Response Percentage
01 Washing Allowance Yes 46
02 Hygienic Toilets Agree 48
03 Pure Drinking Water Excellent 52
04 Nature of Safety Lockers Good 34
05 Personal Protective Equipment & Safety Training Provided 52
06 Retirement Benefit Yes 84
07 Rest Room Satisfied 50
08 Maternity Benefit Yes 100
09 Company Saving Schemes To Some Extent 50
Out of total 50 respondents majority (44 per cent) agreed that job is hazardous in nature,
(46 per cent) provide washing allowance, (48 per cent) toilets are maintained hygienically,
(52 per cent) pure drinking water facility is excellent, (34 per cent) nature of safety lockers
provided to the employees is good, (52 per cent) PPE & Safety Training is provided, (84 per
cent) retirement benefit is provided, (50 per cent) rest room is satisfactory, (100 per cent)
maternity benefit is provided, (50 per cent) company promotes saving schemes to some
extent (Table 1).
Table 2 : Satisfaction on Welfare Measures
Sl. No Facility No of Respondents Percentage
01 Uniform and Laundry 26 52
02 First Aid Room and Ambulance for Emergency 33 66
03 ESI, PF & Gratuity 41 82
04 Counselling Services 21 42
05 Training Programmes 21 42
06 Recreational Programme 28 56
07 Leave Travel Concession 36 72
08 Formal Grievance Redressal System 42 84

Majority respondents were satisfied with the following welfare facilities of the company
(52 per cent) uniform and laundry, (66 per cent) First aid room and Ambulance for Emergency,
(82 per cent) ESI, PF & Gratuity, (42 per cent) Counselling services, (42 per cent) Training
Programmes, (56 per cent) Recreational Programems, (72 per cent) Leave travel Conceation
and (84 per cent) Formal Grievance Redressal system it can be concluded that the company
is providing the above facilities upto the employees expectations. (Table 2). Majority
Respondents reveal that the following welfare measures of the company were not properly
maintained like (31 per cent) First aid room and ambulance facility due to lack of trained
doctor, (50 per cent) Employee Counselling services due to No trained Counsellor within
company, (62 per cent)Grievance are not properly redressed because of slow procedure and
(100 per cent) No Employee committees are functioning properly hence they were dissatisfied.
The management can take proper initiatives upon these aspects for the overall development
of the organization.
Table 3: Services to be improved
Sl. No Measure Reason for Dissatisfaction Majority Total
Respondents
01 First aid room and No Trained Doctor 05 (31) 17
ambulance facility Lack of First Aid Training 04 (23)
for emergency Lack of Supply of Medicine 04 (23)
No Proper Infrastructure 04 (23)
02 Employee No Trained Counsellor 03 (50) 06
Counselling Lack of Confidentiality 03 (50)
03 Leave Travel Cannot take leave due to Heavy Work 06 (42) 14
Concession Consumes time for the 04 (29)
reimbursement of the Money
Facility is availed 04 (29) 08
04 Grievance Slow Procedure 05 (62)
Redressal The Grievance cell favours the 02 (25)
Mechanism Management 26
The grievance is not at all 01 (13)
redressed
05 Employee No committees are Functioning 26 (100)
Committee properly
Respondents reported the impact of welfare measures individually and to the organisation
as Majority (78 per cent) it will encourage them to attend the work regularly, (78 per cent) it
leads to performance and (72 per cent) it work as an employee retention strategy to reduce
absenteeism (Table 4)
Table 4 : Effects of Welfare Measures
Sl. No Variables Yes No Percentage
01 Encourage to attend the work regularly 39 (78) 11 (22) 100
02 Leads to Performance 39 (78) 11 (22) 100
03 Employee Retention Strategy to Reduce
Absenteeism 36 (72) 14 (28) 100
Table 5 : Managing Absenteeism
Sl. No Measures Measure No. of Percentage
Respondents
01 Transportation facility Decrease 27 54
02 Housing Facility Decrease 20 40
03 Less Wage Increase 28 56
04 Tight Schedule Increase 29 58
05 Training & Development Decrease 24 48
06 Adequate Leave Decrease 41 82
07 Management Actions Decrease 27 54
08 Good Administrative System Decrease 29 58
09 Better Employee-Employer Relationship Decrease 26 52
Majority respondents (54.00 per cent)Transportation, (40.00 per cent)Housing, (48.00
per cent) Training and Development, (82.00 per cent)Adequate Leave, (54.00 per
cent)Management actions, (58.00 per cent) good administrative service, (52.00 per
cent)Better Employee-Employer Relationship as welfare measures that could Decrease
employee absenteeism. (56.00 per cent) Less wage and (58.00 per cent)Tight Schedule will
increase the absenteeism hence management can take initiatives on this regard (Table 5)
Hypothesis Testing: The hypotheses have been statistically tested and proved by using the
chi-square results.
Table 6 : Work Experience of the respondents is significant upon the opinion that welfare
measures leads to better performance
Work Experience Welfare Measures leads to Better Performance Total
Yes No
Below 5 Years 01(0.05) 00(0.18) 01
6-10 Years 13(0.80) 00(2.85) 13
11-15 Years 10(0.07) 04(0.27) 14
Above 16 Years 15(0.27) 07(0.96) 22
Total 39 11 50
*Table Value at 3 degrees of freedom at Significant level of 0.05 is 7.815
The Chi-square value is (x2=7.815). At 3 degrees of freedom the table value at significant
0.05 level is (9.488) as the calculated value is less than the table value the hypothesis is
accepted. The Chi-square value between work experience and welfare measures to the
employees leads to better performance is found to be statistically significant Majority
respondents who have above 16 years of work experience said that welfare measures will
lead to better performance. Hence it is concluded that the opinion on welfare measures will
lead to better performance is dependent on work experience of respondents. (Table 6)
Table 7: Work Experience of the respondents is significant upon the opinion that Welfare
Service is Employee Retention Strategy
Work Experience Welfare Service is Employee Retention Strategy Total
Yes No
Below 5 Years 01(0.10) 00(0.27) 01
6-10 Years 11(0.28) 02(0.73) 13
11-15 Years 10(0.00) 04(0.00) 14
Above 16 Years 14(0.21) 08(0.54) 22
Total 36 14 50
accepted. The Chi-square value between work experience and welfare Service as an Employee
Retention strategy is found to be statistically significant. Majority respondents who have
above 16 years of work experience said that welfare services is an employee retention
strategy in industries. Hence it is concluded that the opinion on welfare services as an
employee retention strategy is related to the work experience of the respondents. (Table 7)
Table 8 : Salary of the respondents is significant upon the opinion that Tight Schedule
will increase the Absenteeism
Salary Tight schedule will increase the absenteeism Total
Agree Disagree To some Extent Not at All
Below Rs. 5,000 02(0.27) 02 (01) 01(00) 00(0.1) 05
Rs. 6,000-10,000 22(0.01) 06(0.26) 09(0.34) 00(0.72) 37
Rs. 10,001-15,000 05(.02) 02(0.1) 00(1.6) 01(0.22) 08
Rs. 15,001-20,000 00(00) 00(00) 00(00) 00(00) 00
Above Rs 20,000 00(00) 00(00) 00(00) 00(00) 00
Total 29 10 10 01 50

accepted. The Chi-square value between salary and Tight schedule will increase absenteeism
is found to be statistically significant. Majority respondents who have the salary between
Rs. 6,000-10,000 agree that tight schedule will increase the absenteeism. Hence it is
concluded absenteeism due to tight schedule is related to the salary of employees. (Table 8)
Table 9: Work Experience of the respondents is a significant upon the opinion that
Good Administrative System can reduce absenteeism
Work Experience Good Administrative System can reduce the Absenteeism Total
Agree Disagree To Some Extent Not at All
Below 5 Years 01(0.41) 00(0.08) 00(0.3) 00(00) 01
6-10 Years 10(1.49) 01(0.19) 02(.92) 00(00) 13
11-15 Years 09(0.09) 01(0.27) 04(.00) 00(00) 14
Above 16 Years 09(1.10) 04(0.69) 09(0.87) 00(00) 22
Total 29 06 15 00 50
accepted. The Chi-square value between work experience and good administrative system
can reduce the absenteeism is found to be statistically significant. Majority respondents
who have above 16 years of work experience agree that good administrative service can
reduce the absenteeism in industries. Hence it is concluded that the opinion on good
administrative service can reduce absenteeism is related to the work experience of the
respondents. (Table 9)
Table 10 : Work Experience of the respondents is a significant upon the opinion that
Good relationship between employee and management help in reducing Absenteeism
Work Experience Good Relationship between Employee and Total
Management help in reducing Absenteeism
Agree Disagree To Some Extent Not at All
Below 5 Years 01 00 00 00 01
6-10 Years 08 01 04 00 13
11-15 Years 09 00 05 00 14
Above 16 Years 08 02 12 00 22
Total 26 03 21 00 50
accepted. The Chi-square value between work experience and good relationship between
employee and management help in reducing the absenteeism is found to be statistically
significant. Majority respondents who have above 16 years of work experience agree that
good relationship between employee and management help in reducing the absenteeism in
industries. Hence it is concluded that the opinion on good relationship between employees
and management help to reduce the absenteeism is related to the work experience of the
respondents. (Table 10)
CONCLUSION:
Labour welfare is a vast concept which is dynamic by nature, as it always go along with
the changes. It is interpreted in various different ways in our country and globally at large. It
is highly influenced by Social institutions, intensity of industrialization and economic growth
of the country. The welfare measures which, secures employees from various contingencies
arising out of employment may conflict with management’s estimation about production
costs. The delivery of welfare is affected by economic costs, governmental policies and
mandates, trade unions and public opinion. Industrial Absenteeism is a major issue which
affects the economic growth of the country. Certain welfare aspects like Wage factor, sickness
due to bad housing conditions, social and religious issues will have direct impact upon
absenteeism of employees. Labour Welfare is not only the responsibility of employers but a
Collective effort of trade unions, voluntary organizations and government. Good welfare
policies can increase the performance, retention rate in the organisation by reducing costs.
This study highlighted the impact of welfare measures to reduce absenteeism and suggested
measures to improve the welfare mechanisms.
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Convention No 129.

EDUCATING FOR HEALTH: A REVIEW
Mrs. Priya S. Shetty *
ABSTRACT:
The World Health Organisation’s (WHO, 1948) definition of health states that health is a
state of complete physical, mental and social well-being, and not merely an absence of
disease or infirmity. The total human development is complete only when health factor is
considered. Health is the result of living in accordance with natural laws pertaining to the
body, mind and environment. One of the most powerful findings that emerged from research
into the social determinants of health is the stepwise gradient in health across almost all
measures of social status and economic resources within a society. Although health status of
the population is an important indicator of growth, health inequality is a global issue. Health
inequalities, and the broader social and income inequalities with which they are associated,
are embedded in different societal forms. In considering the determinants of health, it is
important to realise that poor physical circumstances are not the only factors harmful to
health. Of all measures of socioeconomic status, educational attainment is a key indicator
that most consistently exhibits a significant association with various measures of health. The
paper used secondary data available in the concerned area with the objectives to explore
the link between education and health in general; and women health in particular.
Key words: Determinant, Education, Health, Socioeconomic status.
INTRODUCTION:
Health is considered to be one of the vital sectors that can play a crucial role in determining
the level of social development of a region. Health shocks are among the largest and least
predictable forms of uncertainty that a poor family can face. When we look at the history of
development of the developed countries of the world, we observe that all of them had invested
and are continuously investing to improve the social framework of the country where
education and health get the top priority. Continuous reform measures in these two key
areas of any nation have always proved to be the most effective drivers of economic growth.
Health inequalities, and the broader social and income inequalities with which they are
associated, are embedded in different societal forms. Of all measures of socioeconomic
status, educational attainment is a key indicator that most consistently exhibits a significant
association with various measures of health. Thus, education is an important determinant
of health status in both the developed and developing world. In other words educated people
make better health choices, have better access to care and cost their communities less.
Mrs. Priya S Shetty, Assistant Professor, PG Department of Economics, St Aloysius College
(Autonomous), Mangaluru-575003. Email:priyasom5@yahoo.co.in

Educating people helps lift them from poverty, which also increases their access to health
care, and in the end it costs less to the economy.
OBJECTIVES AND METHODOLOGY:
The paper uses secondary data available in the concerned area with the objectives to
explore the link between education and health in general; and women health in particular.
The secondary data is collected both from published and unpublished sources. It includes
reports of the Health Departments and Surveys of the Government, information through
print media like newspapers, articles related to the issue in magazines and journals, electronic
media, though they are not exhaustible.
Education and Health: Several literatures have brought out the relation between education
and health. Ross and Wu (1995) point out that education is associated with good health.
They argue that education exerts its positive effects on health through four broad channels:
by influencing work and economic conditions; by enhancing social and psychological
resources; by enabling life-style and health behaviours; and directly, with no known mediators.
Studies of low and middle income countries suggests that health outcomes and education
has a strong positive relation ( Subbarao and Raney , 1995). In their survey of non market
outcomes of education, Wolfe and Zuvekas (1997) identify five health and health related
effects of education:
z A positive relation between one’s education and one’s own health status.
z A positive association between schooling and the health status of one’s family members.
z A positive link between one’s own schooling and the schooling received by one’s children.
z A positive contribution of schooling to the efficiency of consumer choices especially on
the use of health care.
z A relation between schooling and one’s own fertility choices and the fertility choices of
one’s children.
The effects of poverty and lack of education are synergistic in economic terms; each
makes the other worse. Ross and Wu (1995) point out, even at the same income levels,
poorly educated people experience greater hardship than the well educated. The evidence
therefore suggests that lack of education can be seriously detrimental to health. It is also
opined that the relationship is fundamental which means that education teaches people
cognitive expertise that helps them learn throughout their lives and which in turn helps the
people to implement healthier practices (Ross, C. 1995).
Comparative literature shows that education affects health. Bils and Klenow (2000) find
an effect of life expectancy on investments in education at the national level. The lack of
education can be seriously detrimental to health. Namely, people with lower levels of
education die younger and live more years with disability than people with higher levels of
education. Each additional year of schooling reduces mortality rates by 8% (Deaton, 2003).
Mirowsky & Ross (2003) point to the role of education in the production of learned
effectiveness, by which the authors refer to human capital enhancement. This explanation
is consistent with the notion that education enhances human capital and thus one’s ability
to take advantage of new innovations and to change behaviour in response to public health
campaigns.
A number of recent papers exploited variations generated by compulsory education laws
to investigate the extent to which education has a causal impact on health. For example,
using exposure to compulsory education laws in the United States from 1915 to 1939, Lleras-
Muney (2005) reported a negative impact of education on mortality. Educational attainment
is perhaps the single socioeconomic status indicator that most consistently exhibits a
significant association with various measures of health and all-cause and cause-specific
mortality in a wide variety of settings: Those with higher levels of schooling have better
health and longer lives (Cutler et al. 2006, 2008; Smith 2007).
Sridhar, Devi. (2008) studied the linkage between health and education in young children.
The study revealed that health has effects on cognitive development and school participation
both in the short and long run. In the short term, bad health leads to poor school participation
and greater dropout. In the long run good health improves standard of living. Angelca Ivancic
et al. (2008) study focus on how educational exclusion affects health and how inclusion into
school enhances health. Educational systems of the EU countries are treated as the main
determinants of the public health, of promoting health in general and reducing social
inequalities. It is evident from their study that socioeconomic status influences health as
well, education being its main indicator, because it affects the other indicators: occupation
and income. Machenbach, Sturbu, Roskam et al. (2008) also found out on the basis of the
comparative study carried in 22 European countries that inequalities in health in the EU
countries could be reduced by improving educational opportunities, health-related behaviour
and access to health care.
Although elementary education is one of the preconditions of development, educational
attainments at higher levels are equally important for enabling people to lead a better quality
of life (Mukherjee & Banerjee, 2009). Several studies have shown that education is the
strongest determinant of socioeconomic differences in diet (Kentaro et al., 2009). Economists
David Cutler and Adriana Lleras-Muney (2010) are among those analysing the education-
related health disparities. The authors examine responses to the National Health Interview
Survey in the United States and find a statistically significant effect of education on various
measures of health. Chou, Grossman and Joyce (2010) used the compulsory education reform

implemented in Taiwan in 1968, which increased the mandatory years of education from six
to nine. Using exposure to the reform as an instrument for education, they found that parents’
education caused favourable infant health outcomes during the years 1978-1999.
Colantonio, E et al. (2010) study aims to capture, using some indicators, the interactions
among education, health and economic development in some Sub-Saharan African countries.
The very complex story of economic growth and development teaches us that skilled human
resources are needful to increase their promotion and attainment. In fact, more educated
people are more likely to enjoy good health, and so healthy people enjoy the learning process
more than sick people. This strong bidirectional relationship generates a virtuous circle
leading to greater development. Several variables are related to health, but among them
education is one which plays a remarkable role. The study reveals that health affects income
both directly and indirectly. The direct influence is due to a good psychomotor ability that
enables individuals to work better and longer. Healthy workers are more productive either
from a physical point of view or from a cognitive one.
Education and Women Health: Welfare of any household enhance as education of women
in the household improves. This is because educated women are able to deal with their
position within the household better and advance their status. This consecutively improves
the generation’s health. Findings from the World Fertility Surveys and the Demographic and
Health Surveys, for example, fixed concentration on the significant negative association
between maternal education and child mortality and childhood ill health throughout much
of the developing world. Infant and child mortality, undernourished population, as well as
maternal mortality are specific areas where much still needs to be achieved. Poor nutrition
generally starts before birth and continues into adolescence and adult life and can span into
generations. The intergenerational cycle of under nutrition ensures that an undernourished
mother gives birth to underweight baby who goes to become a malnourished and anaemic
child (Report of the Working Group on Nutrition for the Twelfth Plan of India, 2012-2017).
Women’s education can lead to an increase in household welfare. Educated women are
better able to negotiate their position within the household and improve their status. Sen
and Sengupta (1983) demonstrate in their study that children of literate mother had higher
nutritional intakes than children illiterate mothers. Desai (1994) asserts that parents’
reluctance to educate daughters has its roots in the situation of poor health of Indian women.
McClamroch, Kristi (1996) using cross-national data does a statistical study on the
relationships between total fertility rate and women’s level of education and women’s labour
participation. The study finds out that education, though not directly related to total fertility
rate, is highly correlated with the percentage of married couples using contraception.
Therefore, it has an important indirect relationship with total fertility rate.

In addition to significant association between educational attainment and adult health
and mortality, studies have shown maternal education to be a significant predictor of child
health. Findings from the World Fertility Surveys and the Demographic and Health Surveys,
for example, focused attention on the significant negative association between maternal
education and child mortality and childhood ill health throughout much of the developing
world (Hobcraft 1993). What specific role maternal education plays in this association is a
continued topic of inquiry (e.g., Behrman & Wolfe 1987, Desai & Alva 1998, Kravdal 2004,
Thomas et al. 1991).
Farzaneh Roudi-Fahimi et al. (2003) opine that education helps women take advantage
of opportunities that could benefit them and their families, preparing women for the labour
force and helping them understand their legal and reproductive rights. Their study reveals
that education is the single most important determinant of both age at marriage and age at
first birth in MENA (Middle East and North Africa) countries since women in the region tend
to give birth soon after marriage. Among married Egyptian women ages 25 to 29, for instance,
those with no education had married at age 18, on average, and had their first child by age
20; those with a secondary or higher education married at an average age of 23 and had
their first child by age 25. Educated women generally want smaller families and make better
use of reproductive health and family planning information and services in achieving their
desired family size.
One major advantage of educational ability is understood to be better health status and
it is knowledgeable that better educated women have lesser level of health problems than
others (Mirowsky, J .2003). Miguel and Kremer (2004) found that de-worming of children in
Kenya increased school attendance. Literacy level of women will definitely have an influence
on her health and also the health of the future generations. The report of World Health
Organisation notes the importance of women’s multiple contributions to society in both
their productive and reproductive roles, and both as consumers and – just as importantly –
as pro-viders of health care. The health of mothers is a major determinant of that of their
children, and thus indirectly affects the formation of human capital (WHO, 2005). It has
been viewed that women’s admittance to education and health in developing countries is
increasingly being accepted by international and national bodies as a primary right and
boosting this access is a fundamental objective for nearly all developing realm. Children are
more likely to attend school if their parents are literate. Opening economic opportunities to
women has far- reaching effects, but those benefits can be reaped only if women receive at
least a basic education.
Female education not only directly benefits women themselves but is also important for
the survival, growth and development of their children. In all countries with relevant data,
child mortality rates are highest in households where the education of the mother is lowest

(WHO, 2009). Price and Simon (2009) find that during the three-month period after the
publication of an article in the New England Journal of Medicine about the risk of a vaginal
birth following a previous C-section birth, the incidence of such births dropped more
significantly among the more educated mothers. This result suggests that more educated
people absorb new information more quickly, which may then change their behaviour. Aizer
and Stroud (2010) report that more educated mothers reduced their smoking after the release
of the 1964 Surgeon General Report on smoking and health while the less-educated did not.
Family health is also better due to the better health status of woman because a healthy
mother is guarantee to a healthy society (Abida and others, 2011). Trevor V. Mattos et al.
(2012) opine that gendered education and health outcomes are of great importance for
developing regions of the world where low standards of human health and low levels of
education persist. Elard Koch et al. (2012) study aimed to assess the main factor associated
to maternal mortality reduction in large time series of 50 years from 1957 to 2007 available
in Chile in framework of the United Nations’ Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). The
study concluded that increasing education level appears to favourably impact the downward
trend in the maternal mortality rate (MMR), modulating other key factors such as access
and utilization of maternal health facilities, changes in women’s reproductive behaviour and
improvements of the sanitary system. Reduction in MMR is one of the eight MDGs.
CONCLUSION:
In considering the determinants of health, it is imperative to realise that poor physical
conditions are not the only factors harmful to health. Lack of education can lead to reduced
ability to find, understand and use health information. Thus, education is an important
determinant of health status in both the developed and developing world. The high health
returns to investing in the education of women are indisputable. Well educated individuals
experience better health than the poorly educated, as indicated by high levels of self-reported
health and physical functioning and low levels of morbidity, mortality, and disability. In
contrast, low educational attainment is associated with high rates of infectious disease,
many chronic non-infectious diseases, self-reported poor health, shorter survival when sick,
and shorter life expectancy. Identifying a causal relationship between education and health
is of crucial importance in the design of public policy. Identification of the causal impact of
education on health, however, is complicated because unobservable attributes of individuals
may be correlated with their schooling as well as their health behaviours and health outcomes.
A further complication arises because of potential reverse causality; i.e. poor health may
cause lower educational attainment, producing a positive correlation between education

and health. There are few studies related to this area from developing countries like India.
More research is needed to better understand the importance of education on health at
cross section level to make policies more effective for the overall social and economic
development of any nation.
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