32

ABSEILING
A MANUAL FOR INSTRUCTORS
The New Zealand Mountain Safety Council
The New Zealand Mountain Safety Council (MSC) is a national organisation with
a mandate from our member organisations to encourage safe participation in
land-based outdoor activities.
We facilitate the setting of standards, offer training and education opportunities,
create and distribute resources, lead public awareness campaigns and foster
positive support in the community so that more people can discover and enjoy
New Zealand’s outdoors safely.

Our mission is to:

• Enable people to enjoy their recreation safely in the outdoors.
• Foster positive community support for outdoor safety.
• Promote the development and maintenance of national outdoor safety
standards for land-based activities.

Our outcome:
• More people participating safely in land-based outdoor activity.

Our goals are that:

• An increased number of leaders, teachers, instructors and guides are
inspired, inspiring, competent and retained as leaders.
• Groups and clubs effectively promote and deliver increased safety in the
outdoors.
• Commercial operators operate safely.
• The community is more aware of outdoor safety.
• The MSC is financially strong.
More information regarding the Mountain Safety Council’s objectives,
responsibilities and current projects can be found at www.mountainsafety.org.nz

ii
Mountain Safety Manual 32

ABSEILING
A MANUAL FOR INSTRUCTORS
Fifth edition
Compilers: Karen Corcoran, Andrea Corrigan,
Bruce Postill and Nigel Seebeck

iii
Published by:
New Zealand Mountain Safety Council
19 Tory Street, PO Box 6027, Wellington 6141
Tel: 04 385 7162 | Fax: 04 385 7366
Email: info@mountainsafety.org.nz
www.mountainsafety.org.nz

Copyright © 2013 New Zealand Mountain Safety Council 1985, 1988, 1995, 2002
Fifth edition published 2013
All rights reserved. Enquiries should be made to the publisher.

ISBN: 978-0-908931-32-3

Compilers: Bruce Postill and Nigel Seebeck

Managing editors: Karen Corcoran and Andrea Corrigan
Cover and design: Danielle Millar
Illustrations: Sonia Frimmel and Scott Pearson
Cover photograph: Orton Bradley Outdoor Education Centre
Publishing services: Lift Education

The New Zealand Mountain Safety Council gratefully acknowledges the

financial contribution received the Lottery Grants Board, which has enabled this
manual to be fully revised.

Disclaimer: The information contained in this manual is based on the latest abseil information
available. The New Zealand Mountain Safety Council has sought advice from experts to ensure the
situations described in the manual reflect current best practice, however the information given is
general in nature.
This book is designed to support trained abseiling instructors and outdoor leaders. It does not
replace practical training courses.
The New Zealand Mountain Safety Council accepts no legal liability or responsibility for any
incidents occurring as a result of following or not following information in this manual. All readers
are responsible for their own safety.

iv
ILLUSTRATIONS LIST vi

PREFACE vii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS viii

INTRODUCTION 1

CHAPTER 1: ROPES AND SLINGS 9

CHAPTER 2: KNOTS, HITCHES AND BENDS 15

CHAPTER 3: CARABINERS 23

CHAPTER 4: ABSEIL DEVICES 27

CHAPTER 5: HARNESSES 33

CHAPTER 6: HELMETS, CLOTHING AND FOOTWEAR 39

CHAPTER 7: ANCHOR SYSTEMS 41

CHAPTER 8: ABSEIL SITE SET-UP 49

CHAPTER 9: ABSEIL INSTRUCTION 53

CHAPTER 10: EMERGENCY PROCEDURES 55

APPENDICES 61

APPENDIX I: LOGBOOK ENTRIES 62

APPENDIX II: STANDARDS 63

APPENDIX III: ABSEILING CARE CODE 64

INDEX 67

v
ILLUSTRATIONS LIST
Figure 1 Zones for managing risk 4
Figure 2 Pre-trip planning 6
Figure 3a Example of rope logbook layout 7
Figure 3b Example of equipment logbook layout 7
Figure 4 Modern rope construction 10
Figure 5 Rope storage bag 13
Figure 6 Overhand lay 13
Figure 7 Chain coiling 13
Figure 8a Figure of eight on a bight 16
Figure 8b Re-threaded figure of eight 17
Figure 9 Double fisherman’s bend 17
Figure 10 Tying a clove hitch 18
Figure 11 Italian hitch 19
Figure 12 Italian hitch tied off 19
Figure 13 Prusik hitch 20
Figure 14 French Prusik hitch 21
Figure 15 Klemheist Prusik 21
Figure 16 Tape knot 22
Figure 17 Carabiners 24
Figure 18 Do not load a carabiner three ways. 25
Figure 19 Do not site a descender with a levering load on the carabiner’s gate. 26
Figure 20 Figure of eight descenders 29
Figure 21 Clipping onto a figure of eight 29
Figure 22 Three ways of backing up a belay plate using Prusiks 30
Figure 23 Full body harness 35
Figure 24 Sit harness 36
Figure 25 Chest harness (manufactured) 36
Figure 26 Chest harness (improvised) 37
Figure 27 Load sharing 42
Figure 28 Attaching anchors using multiple slings or ropes 43
Figure 29 Attaching anchors using one large sling or rope 44
Figure 30 Attaching anchors using three anchors 45
Figure 31 Attaching anchors using two separate sound anchors 46
Figure 32 Abseil set-up 47
Figure 33 Instructors’ safety line set-up 51
Figure 34 Prusik system 58
Figure 35 Single locked figure of eight descender 60
Figure 36 Tying off a belay plate 60

vi
PREFACE
The New Zealand Mountain Safety Council (MSC)’s mandate is to encourage
safe participation in land-based outdoor activities. One of the ways we do this is
by ensuring that safety standards are developed for all levels of outdoor activity,
and these are communicated through the development of quality resources and
media as well as through training and education. This revised book, Abseiling:
A Manual for Instructors, is one of those resources. It is a central source for
knowledge around abseiling.
This manual is suitable for all outdoor enthusiasts, but is aimed at abseiling
instructors and those leading abseiling activities in the New Zealand outdoors.
While we know this manual will be of immense value to you as a resource,
abseiling skills and knowledge are best developed by putting theory into
practice. We strongly encourage you to continue learning and keep your skills
current by attending practical courses. If you love the outdoors and want to
learn skills and techniques to enhance your outdoors experience, then visit the
MSC website or contact your local MSC branch for details.
I present the fifth edition of Abseiling: A Manual for Instructors to you with a
sense of achievement and pride. Our team have worked diligently in its review
and production to ensure we have included the latest standards and best
practice. We have built upon previous editions of the manual, introducing new
information, tools and techniques that have been developed since the last
edition. I acknowledge and appreciate the energy and enthusiasm that has gone
into completing this work.
I wish you many years of safe and enjoyable outdoor recreation.

Darryl Carpenter
Chief Executive Officer

New Zealand Mountain Safety Council

vii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The MSC would like to thank all past and current abseil instructors for their
support in keeping this handbook up to date.
The MSC is also grateful to all those involved in this edition and earlier editions of
this manual:
Lorena Allister, Mike Atkinson, Paul Babbage, Nick Banks, Marty Beare, Pete
Brailsford, Ray Button, Ian Calhaem, Des Coe, Ben Corcoran, Karen Corcoran,
Andrea Corrigan, Theresa Crewdson, Grant Davidson, John Entwisle, Barbara
Freeney, Sonia Frimmel, Ray Goldring, Ann Hayman, Charlie Hobbs, Jamie
Holding, Mick Hopkinson, Chris Knol, Lindsay Main, John Maine, Jim Masson,
Danielle Millar, Dave Morgan, Pete Ozich, Scott Pearson, Ian Phillpot, Trevor
Plaisted, Bruce Postill, Richard Schmidt, Lorna Schmidt, Nigel Seebeck, Bev
Smith, Hugh van Noorden, Des Williams and Pete Zimmer.
The MSC thanks the following people for the use of photographs in this manual:
Cover, Page 41: © Orton Bradley Outdoor Education Centre; Pages 1, 27 ©
Jimmy Ponsford; Pages 9, 15, 33, 39, 53, 55, 61 © Nathan Watson; Page 23 ©
Sean Mulvany; Page 36 © Aspiring Enterprises; Page 49 © Nigel Seebeck.
The MSC thanks the illustrators for their work:
Sonia Frimmel: Figures 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8a, 8b, 9, 12, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 23, 27, 28,
29, 30, 31, 32(a), 32(b), 32(c)
Scott Pearson: Figures 1, 10, 11, 13, 14, 15, 22, 24, 26, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36

viii
 CHAPTER 1 | ROPES AND SLINGS
INTRODUCTION

IN THIS CHAPTER:

RISK MANAGEMENT 2

COPING WITH EMERGENCIES 5

PRE-TRIP PLANNING 5

FIRST AID KIT 7

LOGBOOKS 7
PHOTO Jimmy Ponsford

1
This handbook is for instructors involved in basic recreational abseil instruction,
and details the elements for instructing beginners in safe abseil practices.
Usually perceived as a high-risk activity, abseiling can bring a great sense of
achievement to a person as they overcome their fears, be it heights, insecurity
about equipment or having to put their trust in another person.
Hanging in space, the exposure, being in control, the excitement of risk and
sense of accomplishment can make abseiling a unique personal development
activity. Most people, regardless of age, fitness or physical size, can take part
in abseiling.
Abseiling is an intense activity. The instructor must have good people
management skills, be prepared and equipped to react to an emergency
situation, and must be ever-vigilant, monitoring and double checking equipment
and anticipating participants’ movements.
Abseiling originated as a part of mountaineering. It is the system climbers use
to descend mountains or climbs that are too steep to climb down. Abseiling
is now used by people for a wide variety of applications, including industrial
construction and inspection, window cleaning, tree work, caving, canyoning,
mountaineering, and recreational and youth development programmes. All
these different users have developed systems and codes of practice to suit their
specific application.
This book details one of the currently accepted, best practice systems for basic
recreational abseil instruction.

NOTE

At the time of revising this manual, Activity Safety Guidelines for managing
safety in abseiling are being developed. They are due to be finalised in 2013.
Once complete, these will provide best practice guidelines for everyone in the
industry. More information (and, in future, the completed guidelines) can be
found at http://www.supportadventure.co.nz/activity-safety-guidelines

RISK MANAGEMENT
Abseiling is a high risk activity, with the potential for serious harm and even
death. As an instructor, you must have the ability to identify the risks, put
strategies in place to manage the risks and have the technical skills and ability to
cope with emergencies. This book provides fundamental information on the use
and maintenance of abseil equipment for basic abseiling with beginners. It does
not replace practical training courses in abseiling instruction. Other essential
training (for example, first aid, instructional techniques and risk management)
is required before you can start instructing others in abseiling. You can obtain
training in these skills from the New Zealand Mountain Safety Council (MSC) or
other nationally recognised providers.

2
 INTRODUCTION
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF RISK MANAGEMENT AT AN
ABSEIL SITE

Identify the risks

Some examples include:

• Exposure to fall, injury or death.

• Hazard zones, falling objects.
• Psychological harm, participant abilities.
• Environmental factors, weather, unstable ground.

Strategies to manage risks

Some examples include:

• Maintain detailed log of the age, usage and condition of abseil equipment
(Figures 3a and 3b). Always check equipment prior to use.
• Give sound, clear directions. Ensure participants understand requirements
of activity, task and management.
• Maintain control and keep activity within participants’ abilities.
• Establish zones/areas with rules for each. For example:

ZONE ONE Top of cliff. No person past this rope barrier without instructor
consent. Must be on belay.

ZONE TWO Cliff face and abseiler landing/fall site for objects from above. Only
abseiler in this zone.

ZONE THREE Ground level. Safe, comfortable area to observe from.

ZONE FOUR Access to cliff top (zone five). Rules for safe access.

ZONE FIVE Defined, safe, comfortable cliff-top area for watching or waiting for
your turn.

• Check and recheck anchors. Always use sound, solid and bombproof
anchors.
• Double check:
• Harness fitted correctly
• Helmets, straps
• Carabiners, gates locked
• Knots
• Clothing, footwear
• Loose hair
• Descender

3
 Figure 1 Zones for managing risk

EMERGENCY PLAN
A comprehensive risk management plan will always include content about what
to do if something goes wrong, commonly known as your emergency response
plan. Establish a ‘what if’ plan with key members of the participant group, for
example, what to do if the instructor is injured or ill.
Ensure participants know who to contact and how in the event of an emergency.
Have emergency equipment available, that is, make sure all participants know
where to find the first aid kit, car keys, cell phone and rescue gear.
As an instructor, you will have the skills and equipment to rescue an abseiler
from any situation. This includes lowering the abseiler to the ground and
descending or ascending ropes to effect rescue.

4
 INTRODUCTION
COPING WITH EMERGENCIES
Before your trip, prepare a safety plan, listing things that could go wrong and
steps that could be taken to minimise or deal with each situation. Ask yourself:
1. What are the gains/benefits of this activity?
2. What could go wrong?
What hazards or dangers could you encounter in your abseil operation?
3. What could cause it to go wrong?
4. How could we prevent it from going wrong?
What are the factors that could affect the safe operation of your activity?
What equipment do you need to successfully complete your planned activity?
Have you considered wear, age and the condition of your equipment?
5. What will we do if an emergency does occur?
Is there enough equipment to keep everyone safe, even during an
emergency rescue where equipment and resources are often stretched?
Make sure the safety plan addresses accidents and medical emergencies, and
includes details such as escape routes, communication methods and how to
get help.
See the MSC’s Outdoor Safety: Risk Management for Outdoor Leaders manual 38 for
more information on risk management and dealing with emergencies.

PRE-TRIP PLANNING
A safe, successful and enjoyable trip is the result of careful planning and
preparation. The MSC recommends that before you go into the outdoors, you
follow the five simple rules of New Zealand’s Outdoor Safety Code.

1. PLAN YOUR TRIP

Seek local knowledge and plan the route you will take and the amount of time
you can reasonably expect it to take. Department of Conservation (DOC) Visitor
Centres and i-SITEs are a good source of local information.

2. TELL SOMEONE
Tell someone your plans and complete written Outdoors Intentions using the
tools available at www.adventuresmart.org.nz
At the very least, tell a friend or family member where you are going. Tell them
a date and time they should raise the alarm if you haven’t returned.

5
3. BE AWARE OF THE WEATHER
New Zealand’s weather can be highly unpredictable. Check the forecast and
expect weather changes. Check track and hut conditions. Beware of rivers – if
in doubt, STAY OUT.

4. KNOW YOUR LIMITS

Challenge yourself within your physical limits and experience. Learn essential
skills and expand your limits through an MSC course.

5. TAKE SUFFICIENT SUPPLIES

Make sure you have enough food, clothing, equipment and emergency rations
for the worst-case scenario. Take appropriate means of communication,
such as a mountain radio or Personal Locator Beacon (PLB), and know how
to use them.

ABSEIL DAY PREP

Does anyone have - loose rocks
- safe zones
any students with - sharp rocks
medical issues - weather I’ll check the
that we should - slippery equipment.
know about? - wet
- temp
- unsuitable anchor
points

I’ll do a
safety plan.

I’ll check the party first

aid kit. Everyone takes
their personal kit.

Figure 2 Pre-trip planning

6
 INTRODUCTION
FIRST AID KIT
A basic first aid kit is an essential piece of equipment for spending time in the
outdoors. The types and quantities of first aid equipment will vary, depending on
the type and duration of the trip. Refer to the MSC’s New Zealand Outdoor First Aid
Manual 33 for more information.

LOGBOOKS
    

 
   

    
  

 
 
   

The  
following are examples of rope and equipment logbooks. A logbook entry
  

must be filled in for any piece of equipment used, as this allows users to track
  
    

important details such as how much use the equipment has had, if a rope has


  

 
been shortened or if the equipment has been damaged.
     





 
Rope
Rope Log BookEntry
Logbook Entry


Branded colour code: ........................ Type: ..............
Rope Log Book Entry
Date of purchase: ......../......./....... Diameter/Length: ........................

Start date:
Branded colour code: ......../......./.......
........................ Type: ..............
Date of purchase:
Retirement date: ......../......./....... or after: Diameter/Length:
........... abseils, ........................
whichever occurs first.

Start date: ......../......./.......

Work history
Retirement date: ......../......./....... or after: ........... abseils, whichever occurs first.
Date Instructor Wear/Damage/Cleaning Total abseils Running
Work history total abseils

Date Instructor Wear/Damage/Cleaning Total abseils Running

total abseils

Figure 3a Example of rope logbook layout

Equipment Log Book Entry
Equipment item Purchase date Record of damage/repairs/inspection/cleaning
Equipment
Log
Equipment Logbook BookEntry
......../......./....... Entry
Equipment item Retirement date
Purchase date Record of damage/repairs/inspection/cleaning
......../......./.......
......../......./.......
Actual retirement date
Retirement date
......../......./.......
......../......./.......
Actual retirement date
......../......./.......
 
 

 
 
Figure 3b Example of equipment logbook layout



7
8
PHOTO Nathan Watson

CHAPTER 1 | ROPES AND SLINGS

CHAPTER 1:
ROPES AND SLINGS

IN THIS CHAPTER:

ROPES 10

SLINGS 14

9
ROPES
FUNCTIONS
Ropes at an abseil site have different functions and requirements:
• Abseil rope that participants descend on.
• Belay rope that is connected to the participant as a safety backup rope.
• Rope and slings that are used to link anchors.
• Prusiks that are used for a self-protected abseil or to ascend a rope in an
emergency situation.

ABSEIL ROPE
Static rope is low stretch and has a robust mantle (sheath) designed for
abseiling. The size should be a minimum of 10mm and a maximum of 12mm
diameter. Rope sizes less than 10mm are more likely to fail as a result of
contact with sharp ledges or stone fall and may be harder for the abseiler to
control. Greater than 12mm rope exceeds the design criteria for most abseil
devices. The length should suit the site. Lengths of up to 200 metres are
available from climbing shops. A standard rope length is usually 50 metres.

Kern

Mantle

Figure 4 Modern rope construction

BELAY ROPE
The ideal belay (safety) rope is a 10 to 12mm diameter dynamic climbing rope.
This rope is designed for rock climbing and mountaineering. It has the strength
and elasticity to stop a climber who may fall the entire length of the rope. It is
supple, easy to handle and works smoothly in the Italian hitch belay.

10
 CHAPTER 1 | ROPES AND SLINGS
ANCHOR ROPES AND SLINGS
Static ropes with a minimum diameter of 10mm are best for linking anchors.
These are low stretch so the anchor tie-off point will move less than with a
dynamic rope. Using 10mm (minimum) anchor ropes or 25mm tubular slings
keeps all the elements in the abseil system at a comparable strength.
Another option is to use a cordalette to link the anchor points. This is a static
rope with a smaller diameter (7–9mm). It is usually used in anchor system
construction where multiple strands are used together to give an equal or
higher rating than a single diameter rope.

PRUSIKS
These are small diameter (5mm–7mm) accessory cords tied into loops and
wrapped around a rope. They are moveable loops that rely on friction and allow
a loop to be locked off along a main line or safety system. Prusiks are used
for ascending a fixed rope, for personal safety at the top of a climb or while
abseiling with self-protection.

STANDARDS FOR ROPES

Dynamic ropes should comply with one of the following standards:
• The European standard EN 892
• UIAA safety label
These standards are so successful that certified climbing ropes have only been
known to break when loaded over a sharp edge of rock.
Static ropes, when under body weight, should have very low stretch. In general,
abseiling ropes should have a strength rating of 22 kN. There are four standards
that are relevant in New Zealand, which are not completely compatible with
each other:
• UIAA safety label
• The European static rope standard, EN 1891
• The Australian standard for rescue ropes, AS 4142.3
• The American Cordage Institute standard CE 1801
Each of these standards have different specifications, but ropes for abseiling
and other professional uses should comply with at least one of them.
Prusik cord needs to comply with or exceed the European standard EN 562.
Contact your local outdoor shop to see what types and brands of rope
are available.

11
CARE OF ROPES
• Maintain a detailed written logbook of the purchase date and number of
times each rope is used (see Figure 3a for an example). Alcohol or water
based markers can be used to mark ropes.
• Inspect each rope visually and by passing your hands along its length,
feeling for any internal or external irregularity. Do this before each period
of use.
• Protect ropes from rock edges with rope protectors, such as carpet.
• Do not stand on the rope. This forces grit/dust into the core of rope that can
cut into the fibres as the rope flexes during use.
• Wash ropes regularly, using cold water with a little soap suitable for
synthetics, using a modern washing machine (not with a central rotating
agitator). Chain coil the rope first to prevent tangles and knots (Figure 7).
Dry the rope in a shady, cool, well ventilated site. Do not use a clothes drier.
• Synthetic ropes have a low melting point and care needs to be taken that a
working, moving rope is not in contact with a stationary rope. People who
abseil fast, generating heat in the abseil device, damage the sheath and
sometimes the core of the rope.
• UV light degrades synthetic ropes. Store ropes in a dark, well ventilated
site. Never store ropes in contact with petroleum products or concrete, or
near battery acid. Finishing products used in concrete and the fumes from
battery acid can damage nylon.

LIFE OF A ROPE
Synthetic rope properties remain relatively stable for a period of about three
years, after which time they slowly degrade. Manufacturers’ recommendations
need to be followed. Most manufacturers give a 10-year maximum lifespan from
the date of manufacture. Please note: 10 years would be if a product had little to
no use and was stored in optimum conditions.
As a guideline:
• 4–5 years with occasional use
• 2–3 years if it were used every weekend
• 3–6 months if it were used daily.
It is important to follow the manufacturers’ guidelines for when to retire any of
your equipment. This will also be subject to use, wear, UV exposure, falls, and
contact with foreign substances or contaminants. Watch out for deformities,
fuzzing or firming.
In very harsh environments the rope may only last a few outings. However you
can expect more than 250 abseils from a well maintained rope.

12
 CHAPTER 1 | ROPES AND SLINGS
ROPE STORAGE
Rope storage bag
Pros: Fast, neat, feeds out freely.
Cons: Requires dedicated rope bag for
each rope. It is easy to abseil off the
end of the rope if the end is not tied in.

Overhand lay
Figure 5 Rope storage bag
Pros: Quick and neat, rope usually
unfolds easily.
Cons: May need to be re-lapped or spaghettied if non tangles are crucial.

2.
4.

1.
Figure 6 Overhand lay 3.

5.

Figure 6 Overhand lay

Chain coiling
Pro: Good for washing or to hang wet rope while it dries.

1. Fold rope in half

and in half again.

3.

2.

4.

Figure 7 Chain coiling

13
SLINGS
Flat nylon webbing is popular with climbers for anchor slings. It is ideal for
putting around rock bollards; the webbing’s flat surface gives good friction and
is unlikely to roll off as rope might. It fits easily into cracks. It is supple, light
and easy to handle. Webbing can be purchased from outdoor shops as sewn
slings or in lengths to make slings using the tape knot (see figure 16 on page 22).
The most common type of sling used is 25mm tubular webbing. It is now
possible to buy much thinner webbing that has the same or similar strength
(such as Spectra® or Dyneema®), but it is important to be aware of their
limitations, such as having less tolerance to abrasion.

STANDARDS FOR SLINGS

Only purchase webbing or pre-sewn slings specifically manufactured for
climbing use that comply with or exceed European standards EN 565 or EN566,
or carry a UIAA safety label.

CARE OF SLINGS
The care of slings is much the same as for rope, but you need to take extreme
care with sharp edges and abrasion. Be diligent with inspections – a small cut
will result in a significant loss of strength because of the webbing’s thinness.

LIFE OF SLINGS
Webbing is not as robust as rope. It has no outer sheath, is softer and has a
large surface area. It is more exposed to the elements, abrasion and UV light.
In most outdoor situations the life span of webbing would be less than half
of a comparable strength rope, so it is critical to follow the manufacturers’
instructions.

14
 CHAPTER 1 | ROPES AND SLINGS
CHAPTER 2:
KNOTS, HITCHES
AND BENDS
IN THIS CHAPTER:

KEY THINGS TO REMEMBER WHEN TYING ANY KNOT 16

FIGURE OF EIGHT KNOT 16

FISHERMAN’S BEND 17

CLOVE HITCH 18

ITALIAN HITCH 18

PRUSIK HITCHES 20

TAPE KNOT 22
PHOTO Nathan Watson

15
KEY THINGS TO REMEMBER
WHEN TYING ANY KNOT
• Dress it: Make it look tidy.
• Leave plenty of tail: A hand span (100–150mm).
• Use the appropriate knot, hitch or bend for the job.
Setting and dressing the knot is important to retain its design strength. It needs
to flow evenly, without twists and overlapping. All sections of the knot should be
evenly loaded and hand tight when tied. Always leave enough length in the tail to
allow for tightening – a hand span (100–150mm) is a good guide.
It is difficult to retain knots in nylon climbing tape with its smooth surface and
supple properties. There are many recorded occasions where tape knots have
worked loose and slipped undone with disastrous results. Always check tape
knots prior to use and tie them as tight as possible.

NOTE

For information on rope strengths, breaking strains and the effect of

knots, refer to the MSC’s Alpine Rescue Techniques Manual 36.

FIGURE OF EIGHT KNOT

The figure of eight is one of the strongest knots. It is also easy to tell when it is
tied incorrectly. This knot is used to attach anchor ropes and the belay/safety
rope to the abseiler. It can be tied either by doubling the rope and forming a
loop to clip into a carabiner (figure of eight on a bight); or tied singly into the
rope, passed around a fixed anchor (such as a tree) with the tail of the rope
coming back to thread through and retrace the original knot (re-threaded figure
of eight). The tail end of the rope remaining after the knot is firmly tied and
dressed should be 100 to 150mm (a hand span) long. When forming a loop to
clip into a carabiner, keep the loop small and appropriate for the task.

2.
1.

Figure 8a Figure of eight on a bight

16
 CHAPTER 2 | KNOTS, HITCHES AND BENDS
1.
3.

2. 4.

Figure 8b Re-threaded figure of eight

FISHERMAN’S BEND
A fisherman’s bend (also known as a knot) is used to join two rope ends of equal
diameter. The bend is most commonly used to join short lengths of rope to form
Prusiks or cordalettes.
To tie a double fisherman’s bend, tie one end of the rope in a double loop around
the other end. Repeat this with the other end of the rope. Tighten the loops then
pull together with both hands on the outer rope loop. The loops should pull
together as illustrated with the bend locking together, both tied on the same
side of the rope. If not, one set of loops will have to be untied and retied around
the rope in the opposite direction.
The tail end of the rope remaining after the bend is firmly tied should be at least
100mm. If using 6mm rope, the tail end remaining could be reduced to 70mm.

Figure 9 Double fisherman’s bend

17
CLOVE HITCH
Two of the main benefits of the clove hitch are:
• It is easy to tie and untie, even after being weighted.
• It is easy to adjust so that you can either lengthen or shorten your tie-in
point to the anchor without untying or unclipping from carabiners on the
anchor.
It is important to set the hitch immediately after tying and before weighting it by
firmly pulling on the ends of the rope. This will limit the potential for it to slip.
This hitch may not work well when the rope is stiff or frozen. It should not be
used in situations where the rope is often weighted and unweighted, when it
may be subjected to very large weights or when it is near the end of the rope.

Figure 10 Tying a clove hitch

ITALIAN HITCH
The Italian hitch is used as a belay (brake) method on the safety rope, protecting
the abseiler during descent. It is also used on the abseil rope anchor so that the
instructor may, in an emergency, lower the abseiler or release tension on the
abseil rope/s.
This hitch, when used with a 10–12mm rope, needs to be used with a large
pear-shaped carabiner. D-shaped carabiners will often restrict the hitch’s
working Italian hitch movement.
To tie, form a loop around the rope and clip a lockgate pear-shaped carabiner
over both ropes of the formed loop. The knot will work from either end of the
rope as it will simply reverse across the carabiner.

18
 CHAPTER 2 | KNOTS, HITCHES AND BENDS
Figure 11 Italian hitch

Figure 12 shows an Italian hitch tied off with two half hitches. This is the most
common way to tie off the the abseil rope, or the belay rope when required.
Note: If the rope is new, stiff or is to be left unattended at the top, it is
recommended that the loop of the tied-off Italian hitch be clipped back to the
anchor (as shown). It is vital that the tail is long enough so if the system were
to slip, the knot would tighten and lock onto the rope before tightening on
the clipped-back carabiner as once this has happened you no longer have a
realisable system.
If this is not the situation, then two or three half hitches and a minimum 30cm
(length of your forearm) tail is sufficient.

Figure 12 Italian hitch tied off

19
PRUSIK HITCHES
A Prusik hitch (also known as a Prusik knot) is used by abseil instructors for
self-protected abseils and emergency rescue techniques. There are many
different variations on the Prusik hitch and each has strengths and
weaknesses. It is important that the instructor is aware of these before
choosing to use a Prusik hitch for a specific task. In this manual we will only
cover a couple of these.
The knot is made in a cord of smaller diameter to the rope that you are tying it
to (at least 2mm smaller than the diameter of the rope but not going lower than
5mm). A general Prusik diameter is usually between 6 and 7mm for a 10–12mm
rope. When unweighted, the hitch can be slid to any part of the rope and then
fixed in position by weighting the hitch. The bigger the difference between the
rope and the cord, the more it will grip.
Variability in ropes may mean that four turns are required, not three. The weight
of the person will also influence this.

Figure 13 Prusik hitch

FRENCH PRUSIK
The French Prusik hitch is notable for its ability to lock in both directions and
its ability to be bump-released under load. This makes it particularly useful in a
self-protected abseil situation, where you may need to weight your Prusik and
then continue down the rope.

20
 CHAPTER 2 | KNOTS, HITCHES AND BENDS
Figure 14 French Prusik hitch

KLEMHEIST PRUSIK
The Klemheist is used in a similar way to the classic Prusik. It will only grip in
one direction, so it must be tied with this in mind. When wrapping it around the
rope, it is important to start at the top and work down the rope. Finish by putting
the long end through the short loop at the top.

Figure 15 Klemheist Prusik

21
TAPE KNOT
The tape knot is used to join 25mm nylon climber’s webbing (tape). If the
webbing is a smaller diameter than this, it is recommended that you buy the
slings pre-sewn. Commence tying with a simple overhand knot tied loosely
around the other end of the tape.
The unknotted end of the tape then follows back, mirror fashion, taking
care to keep the webbing surfaces flat on each other. The tail end of the
webbing remaining after the knot is firmly tied should be at least 100–150mm
(roughly a handspan long).
Knots in nylon webbing have a tendency to work loose and you will need to
check them prior to each use.

Figure 16 Tape knot

22
 CHAPTER 1 | ROPES AND SLINGS
CHAPTER 3:
CARABINERS

IN THIS CHAPTER:

STANDARDS 24

MATERIALS 24

LOCKGATES 24

USE 25

CARE 25

LIFE OF CARABINERS 26
PHOTO Sean Mulvany

23
STANDARDS
For abseiling, only use carabiners that meet the European standard EN 12275
or carry a UIAA safety label.

NOTE

The most versatile type of

carabiner for use in abseiling
instruction is a large lockgate

pear-shaped carabiner. Only
these should be used for
(a) Pear-shaped (b) D-shaped
Italian
hitches when using
carabiner carabiner
large diameter ropes. This will

ensure smooth running.
Figure 17 Carabiners

MATERIALS
Both alloy and steel carabiners are suitable for abseiling. Being lighter,
alloy carabiners are easier to handle. Steel carabiners are heavy but more
robust; they are usually reserved for hard-wearing duties (for example, belay
carabiner). Most abseil instructors use a mix of both alloy and steel.

STEEL • Heavy
CARABINERS • Robust
• Good for hard-wearing duties such as belay

ALLOY • Light
CARABINERS • Easier to handle

LOCKGATES
Automatic lockgate carabiners automatically lock when the gate closes. These
are available with double and triple action systems. Some people find them
complex and awkward to open. Screwgates remain the most common locking
carabiner in use with abseil training.

24
 CHAPTER 3 | CARABINERS
Many older design screwgates have a habit of jamming the screw sleeve against
the carabiner body. This occurs after the carabiner flexes, having been loaded
with a body weight and then released. The standard practice has been to screw
the gate home and then turn back up to a quarter of a turn to prevent jamming.
Recent improvements in design mean this is no longer a problem with most
new screwgate carabiners, but check before you purchase.
Another important detail to look for is, after the screw sleeve is in the locked
position, the sleeve will have to rotate at least two full turns before the
carabiner can be opened.

USE
Carabiners are designed to be loaded from a maximum of two directions,
small end up or small end down, lengthways. Avoid loading across the gate or
subjecting a carabiner to a three-way loading (that is, three different load points
within the carabiner).

Figure 18 Do not load a carabiner three ways.

CARE
RECORD Record/log purchase dates and use of carabiners (see figure 3b for an
example of an equipment logbook)

WASH Wash carabiners in clean warm water with a little dishwashing

detergent, especially if used near salt water (to prevent corrosion)

INSPECT Inspect regularly for wear, grooves, surface cracks, corrosion and
distortion

LUBRICATE Lubricate moving parts with a little silicon spray

25
 • Permanent marking of carabiners needs to be limited to colour painting the
locking sleeves. Never engrave or metal stamp carabiners.
• Dropping a carabiner from a height can result in dangerous unseen
fractures in the metal. Inspect regularly for signs of wear.
• If you have the slightest doubt, never hesitate to discard a carabiner.

Care needs to be taken that a

descender is not sited with a levering
load on the locking mechanism.
It is possible to break the end part
of the locking sleeve, which could
result in the carabiner opening and
unclipping the descender.

Figure 19 Do not site a descender with a levering load on the carabiner’s gate.

LIFE OF CARABINERS
The useful lifetime of carabiners depends on the types of environment they are
used in and the amount of use they get. With occasional use and no wear and
tear, they should last up to 10 years, but they need to be checked frequently.
Manufacturers’ instructions should always be followed.
A carabiner should be retired if it has any of the following:
• Deformation. Is it out of its original shape due to cross-loading or having
had excessive force applied?
• Unusual or inhibited gate operation. Firstly ensure the pin isn’t bent, then
if you’ve cleaned and lubricated it and it still doesn’t open or close as it’s
supposed to, it’s time to retire it.
• Deep and obvious grooves (other than small scrapes).
It should also be retired if it:
• Has been subjected to excessive force through misuse (like dropping).
• Has been exposed to extreme heat (like fire) or aggressive chemicals (like
battery acid or petrochemicals).
If there are any of the above signs or occurrences, it should be retired
immediately. If in doubt, throw it out.

26
 CHAPTER 1 | ROPES AND SLINGS
CHAPTER 4:
ABSEIL DEVICES

IN THIS CHAPTER:

STANDARDS 28

FIGURE OF EIGHT DESCENDER 28

BELAY-ABSEIL PLATE/TUBE 30

CARE OF ABSEIL DEVICES 31

PHOTO Jimmy Ponsford

27
Abseil devices are robust metal objects that give the user control over the speed
of their descent. They do this by creating friction between the device and the
rope. They are often multi-use: able to be used for both belaying a climber and
descending the rope. There are many different types of abseiling devices with
specialised designs for use in different industries. In this chapter we will touch
on the most common devices used for group abseiling instructional situations.

NOTE

These particular types of descenders are best suited to short (single pitch)
abseils due to the heat created on the descent.

STANDARDS
Only use descenders that are designed for mountaineering or climbing and that
meet the European standard EN 15151 or carry a UIAA safety label.

FIGURE OF EIGHT DESCENDER

This is perhaps the best known abseil device; it is used by training institutes,
climbers, military, schools and mountaineers on Mount Everest. It is simple to
use, versatile, compact, inexpensive and lightweight.
The figure of eight is recommended for abseil training with beginners. You may
use the figure of eight with single or double ropes. With a single rope it can have
single or double turns of the rope around the descender for additional friction.
After fitting the rope to the figure of eight it is important the section of rope
around the waist of the descender is on top, facing the abseiler as in Figure
20(a,b). Failure to do this could result in this section of rope being on the bottom
of the descender, catching on a rock edge, and being forced up to the top of the
figure of eight, locking it off with a lark’s foot.
Figure 20(b) shows a descender with an additional turn of rope. This would
provide extra friction, slowing the abseil descent. This could be useful with a
very smooth (new) rope and/or a heavy person.

28
 CHAPTER 4 | ABSEIL DEVICES
(a) (b) (c)

Figure 20 Figure of eight descenders

The descender shown in Figure 20(c) shows the rope incorrectly looped around
the bottom of the figure of eight. However, this descender has ears to prevent
the rope being forced up and over the top and locking off with a lark’s foot.

Figure 21 Clipping onto a figure of eight

The method of attaching the rope to the descender in Figure 21 is

recommended as a standard attachment method for an instructor to use before
abseiling themselves. This method has the advantage of leaving the abseiler’s
hands free to pull up the weight of the abseil rope and thread a loop up into
the figure of eight. It also considerably reduces the risk of the descender being
dropped. When abseiling participants, it is standard practice for the instructor
to pre-rig the figure of eight before the participant approaches.

29
BELAY-ABSEIL PLATE/TUBE

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 22 Three ways of backing up a belay plate using Prusiks

Some examples of belay-abseil plates and tubes include BD ATC and DMM
Bug devices.
In an abseiling instruction situation, this device is most likely to be used by the
instructor rather than the students. It is easy to tie off when Prusiking (for use
as a backup) and is favoured by mountaineers and rock climbers over the figure
of eight due to its extra friction and lighter weight. These devices are designed
for short-pitch abseiling only.
As the instructor, you would usually use a Prusik as an abseil safety, so that if
you were to let go of the rope while abseiling the Prusik would grip the rope and
you would stop moving.
Figure 22(a) is a classic Prusik or Klemheist Prusik positioned above you. You
would mainly use this method if you were intending to Prusik back up the rope
at some stage in your abseil (as in part of a rescue). One issue that you may
encounter with this system is that it doesn’t easily bump-release under load,
so once weighted it can be very difficult to unweight without using a foot Prusik.
Also if you were to let go, all of your weight would be taken onto a single Prusik.
Figure 22(b) shows a French Prusik attached to the leg loop of the harness.
This system is more often used for general abseiling where you wouldn’t expect
to need to Prusik back up the rope. Because the Prusik is holding the rope
in the locked-off position, most of the weight is taken up by the abseil device.
This means that there is very little weight actually going onto the Prusik so

30
 CHAPTER 4 | ABSEIL DEVICES
the attachment point (leg loop) does not need to be rated. Having the Prusik
attached below the abseil device in this way also has the added advantage of
being able to be bump-released under load. However, it is recommended that
you avoid this method if using a harness made of low-friction webbing with
adjustable leg loops.

NOTE

It is essential that any Prusik used in this method is short enough that it
doesn’t push against the abseil device and slip or get jammed. If this is an
issue or if you would prefer not to use your leg loop, another option is the
method shown in Figure 22(c).

Figure 22(c) shows a French Prusik attached to the belay loop. The abseil
device is extended from the belay loop out in front of you using a sling or a
cowstail. This method stops the Prusik being knocked by the abseil device and
slipping or jamming.

CARE OF ABSEIL DEVICES

Abseil devices are made of alloy and/or steel.
• If you drop these devices from any height, especially onto a hard surface,
discard them, as unseen internal fractures occur in alloy and steel.
• Abseil devices wear quickly, especially if using dirty ropes. The grit in the
rope works like a file or sandpaper, grinding away the metal.
• Follow the manufacturers’ instructions on when to retire abseil devices due
to wear. The amount of acceptable wear is usually somewhere between 10
and 20 percent.
• Watch out for sharp edges developing or grooves appearing.
• Wash abseil devices in warm clean water with dishwashing detergent,
especially if exposed to salt air or seawater.
• Inspect and treat as for carabiners.

31
32
 CHAPTER 1 | ROPES AND SLINGS
CHAPTER 5:
HARNESSES

IN THIS CHAPTER:

STANDARDS 34

CARE OF HARNESSES 34

TYPES OF HARNESS 34
PHOTO Nathan Watson

33
STANDARDS
Climbing harnesses are produced to two standards worldwide: the UIAA
standard and the European standard (EN 12277). The standards are similar, as
the UIAA standard is based on the European standard.
By law, any product sold in Europe must be certified to the European standards
by an organisation other than the manufacturer. This is not true in other
countries, though major manufacturers hoping to sell their products in Europe
now aim to meet the European standards.
Most climbing harnesses manufactured in New Zealand aim to meet or exceed
EN 12277.
For the purpose of instructional abseiling, the easiest harness to use is one
that has a single obvious connection point and, ideally, sewn-on harness
use information.

CARE OF HARNESSES
Harnesses are manufactured from flat nylon and polyester webbing. Buckles
are usually metal. You must care for them in the same way as for ropes and
carabiners. Wash and inspect regularly, giving special attention to exposed
stitching. Subject to wear, you can expect up to five years of life from a harness.

TYPES OF HARNESS
Climbing harnesses are manufactured in three body styles.
• One piece full body harness. This is mostly used in industrial applications.
• Sit harness – made of a combination of leg loops, buttock straps and waist
belt. The waist belt is always fitted firmly above the hips. This is the most
common harness used in abseiling and is the connection point for the
abseil device.
• Chest harness – composed of a broad chest strap with shoulder straps. It is
always used in combination with, and connected to, a sit harness.

34
 CHAPTER 5 | HARNESSES
FULL BODY (OR SIT/CHEST COMBINATION HARNESS)
The abseil device is usually connected to the mid-waist area. This keeps the
abseil device below eye level and hands in optimal control position. The abseiler
balances in a sitting position to descend.
The belay rope can be connected to the mid-chest area ensuring the abseiler
will be held upright in the event of an accident or if they overbalance.

Figure 23 Full body harness

SIT HARNESS
The abseil device and belay safety rope connect to the belay loop, which comes
in different configurations depending on the type of harness being used. The
two most common types of attachment are the horizontal attachment point and
the vertical attachment loop.
The horizontal attachment point will allow the figure of eight to sit in a
horizontal plane whereas the vertical loop will twist the figure of eight into a
vertical plane. This requires greater thought when initially attaching the figure
of eight device. It will usually self level once the abseiler weights the rope.
The sit harness functions well so long as the abseiler remains in an upright
position. If the abseiler turns upside down it may be possible for the abseiler to
fall from an ill-fitting harness. For a correct fit:
• The waist belt must be above the hips and it should cross just below the
belly button – this will be impossible if the leg loops are too tight.
• The waist belt should be tight enough to allow you to slide a flat hand
between the wearer and the waist belt, but if you then make a fist you
should not be able to easily pull it back out.
• The leg loops should fit snugly. They should initially be loosened off to allow
correct adjustment of the waist belt and are last to be tightened.
• All buckles need to be locked and doubled back, if appropriate.

35
 Figure 24 Sit harness

CHEST HARNESS
Modern manufactured chest harnesses are easy to fit and adjust. They are
linked to the sit harness via a carabiner and provide added security for top-
heavy participants or participants with narrower hips. If you are concerned
about your participant inverting, you can attach the belay rope directly to the
purpose-built high attachment point on the chest harness. This acts like a
full body harness. When weighted, it transfers the load to the sit harness and
holds the person in the upright position. If there is no designated attachment
point on the chest harness, or if you are using an improvised chest harness,
it is important that the belay rope is attached directly to the sit harness with a
secondary attachment to the chest harness (if required). This way, if the weight
comes onto the belay rope it is still taken primarily by the sit harness.
PHOTO Aspiring Enterprises

Figure 25 Chest harness (manufactured)

36
 CHAPTER 5 | HARNESSES
An improvised chest harness using a sling or rope is a great tool to have in your
bag of tricks, but it should only be used in an emergency.

Figure 26 Chest harness (improvised)

37
38
 CHAPTER 1 | ROPES AND SLINGS
CHAPTER 6:
HELMETS, CLOTHING
AND FOOTWEAR
IN THIS CHAPTER:

HELMETS 40

CLOTHING 40

FOOTWEAR 40
PHOTO Nathan Watson

39
HELMETS
Helmets are essential safety-wear for people at any abseil site where there is
the possibility of falling or being struck by falling objects.
At many sites only the abseiler is exposed to falling objects. A helmet provides
additional protection if the abseiler loses balance/footing and swings into the
rock face, striking their head. The instructor should always wear a helmet and
be prepared to respond to an abseil emergency.
The best type of helmet for abseiling is a climbing/mountaineering helmet that
complies with European standard EN12492.

CARE AND LIFE OF HELMETS

Follow manufacturers’ instructions, as care and life expectancy of equipment
will vary greatly between manufacturers.

CLOTHING
Clothing needs to be suitable for the environment. Avoid abseiling in clothing
with loose or attached items, like scarves, ear flaps on hats or toggles of
hoodies, that may interfere with the abseil device or restrict your vision of safety
equipment. Ensure long hair is tied well out of the way and tucked down the
back of the person’s shirt.

FOOTWEAR
Lace-up shoes or boots with a non-slip sole are the most appropriate footwear
for abseiling.

40
 PHOTO Orton Bradley Outdoor Education Centre

IN THIS CHAPTER:
CHAPTER 7:

LOAD SHARING 42

41
ANCHOR SYSTEMS

CHAPTER 1 | ROPES AND SLINGS

Anchors are usually regarded as the most critical link in the abseil system. They
are composed of features to which abseilers fix or tie. Apart from load testing
there is no way to know the strength of rock, soils and trees. It will always be
your judgement call.
Large, healthy trees are generally regarded as sound anchors. Trees are
regularly tested by wind loadings that can act as an effective safety benchmark.
Fence strainer posts, correctly footed with breastplates and with rammed soil,
can provide robust abseil anchors. Large steel anchors set in rock or concrete
on engineering advice are a feature of many established abseil sites.
Mountaineers and rock climbers use lightweight portable anchors that they fit
into rock, snow and ice. Use of this equipment requires a high level of skill and
judgement. Frequently two, three or more of these devices are required to make
one sound anchor.
Never permit participants to run or jump sideways across the cliff while
abseiling; this can shock load anchors and damage equipment.
Remember: Gravity never sleeps – ALWAYS have bombproof anchors.

LOAD SHARING
Where it is practicable, loadings should be shared equally between anchors.
The key factors when setting up anchors are ensuring that the focal point is:
• High (a high focal point will make for an easy transition over the lip for the
participant and will lesson the likelihood of them inverting).
• Positioned so that when the anchor is loaded each strand is weighted
equally and is at an appropriate angle to avoid large vector forces.
The angles formed by the linked ropes will determine how much force is applied
to the anchor. The greater the angle, the higher the load placed on anchors and
attachment equipment. An angle greater than ninety degrees is undesirable for
abseil anchors. A practical recommended angle is 45 degrees (Figures 28, 29
and 30).
300kg anchor 300kg anchor
54kg 54kg load load
anchor load anchor load 160°

45°
50kg anchor 50kg anchor 100kg abseiler
load load

100kg abseiler 71kg anchor 71kg anchor

load load

90°

100kg abseiler
100kg abseiler

Figure 27 Load sharing

42
 CHAPTER 7 | ANCHOR SYSTEMS
Attachment point

Attachment point

Here, four short ropes or slings

are used to form two separate
attachment points.
Each attachment point is
individually linked to each
anchor. This provides a very safe
system.
Separate attachment points
make for easy rope management.

Figure 28 Attaching anchors using multiple slings or ropes

43
 Pass one length of rope around
both trees and tie with a double
fisherman’s knot.
Bring the back centre of the rope
forward to the front centre and tie
both in one figure of eight knot.
Tie the figure of eight in such a way
as to have two loops. This provides
for ease of rope management when
connecting abseil and belay ropes.

Figure 29 Attaching anchors using one large sling or rope

44
 CHAPTER 7 | ANCHOR SYSTEMS
Here three rock bollards are used,
each with a tape sling and lockgate
carabiner.
Link the slings with a length of
static rope connected together with
a figure of eight knot.
Tie the figure of eight knot in such a
way as to have two loops, one much
larger than the other.
This provides for ease of rope
management when connecting
abseil and belay ropes.

Figure 30 Attaching anchors using three anchors

45
 In this situation it is not practical
to connect anchors as in Figures
28 and 29.
Two separate sound anchors are
used. Anchor slings must be
sufficiently robust, as strong or
greater in strength than the rope.

Figure 31 Attaching anchors using two separate sound anchors

46
 (b) Running Italian hitch (c) Figure of eight descender
rigged for abseil

Figure 32 Abseil set-up

(a) Tied-off Italian hitch, clipped back

47
CHAPTER 7 | ANCHOR SYSTEMS
48
 CHAPTER 1 | ROPES AND SLINGS
CHAPTER 8:
ABSEIL SITE SET-UP

IN THIS CHAPTER:

ROPE ESTABLISHMENT 50

BELAY METHOD 51

ABSEILING CALLS 51
PHOTO NIigel Seebeck

49
Prior to arriving at the site the instructor should have:
• Prepared a safety management plan.
• Undertaken appropriate site access protocols.
• Given the participants a sound understanding of the activity content.

ROPE ESTABLISHMENT
1. Boundaries should be clearly defined, identified for the group and roped off
if required.
2. The instructor throws the end of the rope to the edge of the cliff where they
will be belaying from. They then pull it back to approximately 30cm before
the lip, and tie this off to the anchor using a figure of eight on a bight in a
screwgate carabiner.
3. The instructor retrieves the rope by pulling it back up and ties a figure
of eight on a bight into the end. They clip this into their belay loop with a
screwgate carabiner. Clipping in rather than tying in allows for an easy, fast
escape from the system if required.
4. The instructor attaches a classic Prusik onto this safety line and clips
this to their belay loop using a screwgate carabiner. This allows for safe
access to the lip and gives the instructor the ability to move around without
risking a large fall. They can do this by sliding the Prusik with them up or
down the rope as they move around. The safety rope does not need to be
an exact length as it is possible to make minor adjustments while in place,
using the Prusik, which is backed up by the rope.
5. The instructor is now fixed belayed and can set up the abseil rope/s.
6. Abseil rope/s should be set so that they are just above the landing ground
at the bottom of the cliff. In this way the abseiler will reach the ground
the same time the rope ends. The advantage of this is that the abseiler is
not walking on the rope and is not required to remove rope from the
abseil device.
7. The abseil rope/s should be anchored with a tied-off Italian hitch (Figure
12) and the spare rope stored in a rope bag or in such a way that the rope
would flow out without getting caught during a rescue event.

50
 CHAPTER 8 | ABSEIL SITE SET-UP
BELAY METHOD
The recommended belay technique to use is the Italian hitch. This system gives
the maximum flexibility in belaying and rescue scenarios.
Belay ropes are always fed into a heap so that they feed out without knots and
twists to the belayer/belay device.

Figure 33 Instructors’ safety line set-up

ABSEILING CALLS
ROPE BELOW From belayer when throwing abseil rope end down cliff.

SAFE From abseiler once safe on the ground.

ROPE FREE From abseiler once disconnected from all ropes.

51
52
 PHOTO Nathan Watson

CHAPTER 9:
ABSEIL
INSTRUCTION

53
CHAPTER 1 | ROPES AND SLINGS
It is preferable to have a dry run on a grassy slope or in a classroom setting with
the participant/s prior to arrival on site. They will then have used the abseil device
and have an understanding of the requirements and concept of the abseil activity.
Once the instructor has completed all the prerequisites, established participant
zones and completed ropes set-up, the site is ready for abseil instruction:
1. The instructor moves into the participant safe zone and checks the
participant’s helmet, harness, clothing and hair (to ensure it won’t get
tangled in the abseil device). Communicating in a confident, caring
manner, the instructor encourages and supports.
2. The instructor connects the belay rope to the participant, adjusts the belay
rope and informs the participant they are on belay.
3. The participant moves to the abseil ropes descender attachment point.
Advise the participant to stand with the abseil rope on the control hand
side. Instructor then attaches the in situ figure of eight device while
maintaining the participant on belay (they may consider tying off the belay
line at this point if required). The rope is adjusted to be firm between the
participant and the anchor. The instructor always keeps the participant
informed about what is happening.
4. Following a double check of harness, lockgates, clothing, etc. the
instructor lets the participant know everything is okay. The participant
informs the instructor he/she is abseiling.
Now follows the most difficult part of abseiling for the participant: leaning out,
being fully dependent on the rope and totally trusting the instructor. Applying a
little confidence tension on the belay rope, the instructor (in an easy manner)
reminds the abseiler about the things they covered in the dry run:
• To hold the abseil rope/s back beside the hip with their control hand
and place their free hand on the harness connection point. Note: Some
instructors favour having both hands in the control hand position.
• To keep their feet a little wider apart than shoulder width, their knees
straight and their heels on the rock.
• To lean out slowly without moving their feet until they are at about a sixty
degree angle with the rock. Descent should be slow; no running or jumping
from side to side.
Encourage the participant to enjoy themselves or distract them if needed by
saying things like ‘looking good’ and ‘great view from there’.
When the participant reaches the ground they stand and
call ‘safe’. The participant disconnects from the ropes REMEMBER
and calls ‘rope free’.
The instructor is a
The instructor ensures the participant moves from the role model and must
fall zone at the base of the cliff. At most abseil sites it have full equipment
is possible to have a dedicated unclipper at the bottom, and suitable clothing,
usually a parent or teacher. If this is the case, it is and communicate
important that they are wearing a helmet as well. effectively and
appropriately.

54
 CHAPTER 1 | ROPES AND SLINGS
CHAPTER 10:
EMERGENCY
PROCEDURES
IN THIS CHAPTER:

RESCUE TECHNIQUES 56

PRUSIK SKILLS 58
PHOTO Nathan Watson

55
Most instructors will probably have experienced an event that was not part
of the intended abseil instruction. These incidents range from minor to
life-threatening.
A sound, well-structured safety management plan is the starting point for
dealing with an abseil emergency. The plan covers information such as who to
contact, how and where to contact them, first aid and rescue equipment, and
participant medication.
The instructor will have practised and be familiar with methods of lowering,
descending or ascending ropes, to effect a rescue.
A potentially life-threatening condition called compartment syndrome or crush
syndrome can occur when a person is suspended motionless in a harness.
The harness acts as a tourniquet, allowing toxins to build up in the blood. This
can occur in less than ten minutes. When the harness pressure is removed the
sudden release of toxins can result in cardiac arrest.
An injured or ill person connected only to a sit harness can be suspended
horizontally or upside-down. In this position the person would be likely to lose
consciousness in about five minutes.
In the event of an emergency it is important that the instructor remains calm
and thinks issues through in a rational manner.

RESCUE TECHNIQUES
The two main types of rescue that the instructor is likely to encounter are the
dual-line lower and single-line lower.

DUAL-LINE LOWER
Use this when the participant is unable to complete the abseil for whatever
reason (maybe they have frozen and won’t release the device or are physically
unable to assist). In this case, both ropes – the belay rope and the main line –
need to be lowered simultaneously and smoothly.
1. Reassure the participant and explain what is about to happen. Keep this
communication going throughout.
2. Keep hold of the belay rope in the locked-off position without tying it off.
This rope is your priority. It is what will take up the tension, so never let it
go.
3. Carefully release the main line by undoing the half hitches from the
tied-off Italian hitch until it is in the lower position. It is good to warn the
participant that they may feel a slight jerk from the rope as you do this.
4. If possible, move into a position where you can see the participant the
whole way down while maintaining personal safety.

56
 CHAPTER 10 | EMERGENCY PROCEDURES
5. Slowly lower the participant to the ground using both ropes at the same
time.
If the MAIN line is not long enough, you can drop this rope as it comes to the
end and continue lowering using only the belay line. It is important not to drop
the main line on the person being lowered and to ensure that you do not drop
the belay line.

SINGLE-LINE LOWER
Use this, for example, when the participant has got their T-shirt or hair jammed
in their abseil device. In this scenario, there are a couple of options. The most
straightforward is to ask the participant to stand up on a ledge or outcrop while
you take up the slack on the belay line and get them to release the object.
Failing that, releasing the main line is the next most straightforward option.
1. Tie off the belay line. This is the line that will take up the tension.
2. Release the main line until it is loose.
3. Ask the participant to remove the jammed item from the device.
4. Tighten up the main line and re-tie off the Italian hitch.
5. Untie the half hitches from the belay line so that they are back on belay.
It is good to warn the participant that they may feel a slight jerk from the
rope as you do this.
6. Ask the participant to hold the main line as if they were abseiling. Lower
the participant until their weight comes back onto the main line.
7. Continue with the abseil as per usual.
If this is not possible for whatever reason, you could:
• Tie off the belay line and abseil to the participant using self protection on
the remainder of the belay rope (the loose end), free the jammed object and
continue abseiling to the ground. Ensure the rope is long enough before
attempting this. Then you can return to the top belay station and continue
with the abseil or lower the participant to the ground.
• Abseil to the participant in the manner described above and then return to
the top using Prusik slings. This is good if your rope is too short or if the
participant is near the top part of the abseil. To avoid abseiling off the end of
the rope, remember to tie a large knot in the end of the rope if it does not
reach the ground.
• Descend and ascend using Prusik slings only. Use this method if there is no
loose rope available. Prusiking down a rope is a difficult technique and, as
with all rescue techniques, it is recommended that the user is comfortable
with the techniques before needing to use them in a real situation.
The method you choose will depend on the circumstances. On most occasions,
good communication skills will avert or resolve on-rope abseil issues. It is
better to practise prevention than cure!

57
PRUSIK SKILLS
Figure 34 illustrates a basic Prusik system using two 6mm Prusik slings,
with total lengths of 3–4 meters and 2.5 metres. The lengths will vary a little
depending on factors such as a person’s physical size, length of reach.

See figure 35
and 36

Figure 34 Prusik system

NOTE

If using Spectra for Prusik slings the ropes should be joined with a
triple fisherman’s knot.

58
 CHAPTER 10 | EMERGENCY PROCEDURES
If you have abseiled down and reached the participant, you now need to
appropriately tie off your abseil device using one of the methods described on
the following page, before assisting the participant. You can then either untie
and continue to abseil to the ground or Prusik back up the rope.

ASCENDING THE ROPE

If you have used the Prusik attached above you for safety, you are halfway there
already. If not, then:
1. Take the small loop (waist Prusik) and attach it to the rope using a classic
or Klemheist Prusik knot above you.
2. Connect this to the sit harness connection point using a screwgate
carabiner.
3. Attach the long loop (the foot Prusik) to the rope using a Classic Prusik or
Klemheist Prusik. Allow it to hang without clipping it in. This is attached
between the waist Prusik and the abseil device (you can remember the
order they are attached in by remembering that your feet are below
your waist).
4. Before moving off, ensure that all carabiners are done up and that you
have removed your French leg Prusik (if you have one).
5. Start to ascend the rope by pushing up the leg Prusik, standing up on this
and sliding your waist Prusik up the rope. Sit back and unweight your foot
Prusik then repeat.
6. You must stop and re-tie your descender approximately every 2 metres by
untying it, taking in the slack and re-tying it off. This is very important as it
is your backup in case of Prusik failure.
The process is reversed for descent although it is a little more difficult as you
have to judge the distance to fix the Prusik knot below you. Ideally you would
change to abseil for any descent of more than a couple of metres.
Prusik slings are not as strong as the rope and are the weak link in this system.
It is recommended that the rope be connected through a tied-off abseil device
attached to the sit harness (Figure 35 and 36). This would provide sound backup
in the event of Prusik sling failure.

59
TYING OFF A FIGURE OF EIGHT DESCENDER
To tie off a figure of eight descender using a single lock, the line is passed
between the upper edge (body) of the device and is held in position by the rope
itself. A single pass by itself is not recommended as it has a tendency to slip.
Next bring a bight of rope down through the carabiner to create a loop. Using
this loop, tie off using 2–3 half hitches or a mule knot finished with an overhand
knot. Remember to leave plenty of tail.

Figure 35 Single locked figure of eight descender

TYING OFF A BELAY PLATE

To tie off a belay plate, first bring the rope down into the locked-off position and
feed a bight through the carabiner so that you have a good sized loop of rope.
Bring this up to the loaded rope above the device and tie 2–3 half hitches. Finish
by leaving a long tail.

Figure 36 Tying off a belay plate

60
 CHAPTER 1 | ROPES AND SLINGS
APPENDICES

IN THIS SECTION:

APPENDIX I: LOGBOOK ENTRIES 62

APPENDIX II: STANDARDS 63

APPENDIX III: ABSEILING CARE CODE 64

PHOTO Nathan Watson

61
 APPENDIX I:
LOGBOOK ENTRIES
    
   

 

 
   

   

  
  
 
 
  

  

     

    





 
 




Rope
Rope Log
Log Book
Book
Rope Logbook Entry
Entry
Entry
Branded
Branded colour
colour code:
code: ........................
........................ Type: ..............
Type: ..............
Date
Date of
of purchase:
purchase: ......../......./.......
......../......./....... Diameter/Length: ........................
Diameter/Length: ........................

Start
Start date:
date: ......../......./.......
......../......./.......
Retirement
Retirement date:
date: ......../......./.......
......../......./....... or after:
or after: ........... abseils,
........... abseils, whichever
whichever occurs
occurs first.
first.

Work
Work history
history
Date
Date Instructor
Instructor Wear/Damage/Cleaning
Wear/Damage/Cleaning Total abseils
Total abseils Running
Running
total abseils
total abseils

Equipment Log Book

Equipment Logbook Entry
Entry
Equipment
Equipment item
item Purchase
Purchase date
date Record of
Record of damage/repairs/inspection/cleaning
damage/repairs/inspection/cleaning
......../......./.......
......../......./.......
Retirement
Retirement date date
......../......./.......
......../......./.......
Actual
Actual retirement
retirement datedate
......../......./.......
......../......./.......

 
 

62
APPENDIX II:
STANDARDS

The following is a list of European standards from the CEN (Comité Européen
de Normalisation/European Committee for Standardization) related to
abseiling equipment.

STANDARD EQUIPMENT

EN 341 Personal protective equipment against falls from a height: Descenders

EN 361 Personal protective equipment against falls from a height: Full

body harnesses

EN 362 Personal protective equipment against falls from a height: Connectors

EN 564 Mountaineering equipment: Accessory cords

EN 565 Mountaineering equipment: Webbing

EN 566 Mountaineering equipment: Slings

EN 567 Mountaineering equipment: Rope clamps (ascenders)

EN 813 Personal protective equipment against falls from a height: Sit harnesses

EN 892 Personal protective equipment against falls from a height: Dynamic ropes

EN 1891 Personal protective equipment against falls from a height: Low

stretch ropes

EN 12275 Connectors (carabiners)

EN 12277 Mountaineering and climbing harnesses

EN 12492 Helmets for mountaineering

EN 15151 Mountaineering equipment: Braking devices (descenders)

For more information, see www.cen.eu

63
APPENDIX III:
ABSEILING CARE CODE

Follow these simple guidelines to enjoy your activity with minimal impact on the
environment and other people:
• Fixed equipment must not be left in place at any site unless you have
permission to do so.
• Actively manage your group at the site to minimise trampling and damage
to the surrounding vegetation.
• Avoid using trees or other vegetation for belay points, if there is no
alternative, protect them from rope damage to the best of your ability by
using rope protectors or webbing.
• Do not disturb vegetation as you will encourage erosion and promote the
spread of pest plant species.
• Do not brush moss or lichen from the cliff unless absolutely necessary for
safety reasons.
• Avoid disturbing historical and archaeological sites and geographic
features.
• Always use established tracks to approach and move between descents.
Where this is not possible or multiple tracks exist, take a moment to
decide which track is the most appropriate and/or control the group to
have minimal impact (even if it means taking a longer way around).
• Try to avoid steep access and assent tracks which are more prone to
erosion, especially by larger groups.
• Where ever possible choose sites that have a rocky base and top that can
tolerate groups without causing vegetation damage and erosion of the area
around the abseil.
• Do not block tracks with equipment or belayers.
• Be aware of and courteous with other groups, individual climbers and
other recreational users of the area. Do not assume you have a right to
occupy certain climbs simply because you were there first. Negotiate!
• Respect the rights of others for quiet enjoyment of the outdoors. Try to
minimise your noise at the abseiling site.

64
• Always use clean gear and equipment. Wash all soil from camping
and personal equipment, vehicles and river gear before leaving home
or moving between locations to avoid transporting seeds or soil-borne
pathogens.
• Camp carefully.
• Take all your rubbish with you when you leave.
• Only light fires where permitted.
Sourced in June 2013 from the Department of Conservation website, http://
www.doc.govt.nz/parks-and-recreation/plan-and-prepare/care-codes/
activity-minimal-impact-codes/abseiling-care-code/
For the most up-to-date information, please contact DOC.

WEBSITES
New Zealand Mountain Safety Council www.mountainsafety.org.nz
AdventureSmart www.adventuresmart.org.nz
European Committee for Standardisation www.cen.eu
Leave No Trace New Zealand – Outdoor ethics www.leavenotrace.org.nz
MetService – New Zealand weather forecasts www.metservice.org.nz
New Zealand Department of Conservation www.doc.govt.nz
Support Adventure www.supportadventure.org.nz
Tourism New Zealand – Abseiling www.newzealand.com/int/
abseilingrappelling/

65
CONTRIBUTORS
ABOUT BRUCE POSTILL
Bruce Postill has been abseiling for 50 years, both in New Zealand and Australia,
with 45 of those as an instructor. His experiences include eight years with the
SAR team in the Mount Cook/Fox area, working in the film industry as a stunt
double, co-authoring an abseil instruction book, and authoring a rock climbing
guidebook.
Bruce is currently employed by the Department of Conservation with one of
his responsibilites being abseil instruction, and is a volunteer abseil instructor
(along with bushcraft and outdoor first aid) with the MSC.

ABOUT NIGEL SEEBECK

Nigel Seebeck has been involved in the outdoors for the last few decades, with
a keen interest in alpine, abseil, rock climbing and anything rope related. He
holds MSC rope rescue instructor qualifications, and contributes nationally to
MSC programmes as well as to the Wellington branch. He is a previous editor
of the MSC’s Abseiling Manual and a technical contributor for MSC and other
rescue organisations. The programmes he is involved with benefit from his
wealth of experience in alpine and rock, both in New Zealand and overseas.

ABOUT KAREN CORCORAN

Karen Corcoran is a tramper, rock climber, mountaineer and backcountry
skier. She has combined her passion for the outdoors with a successful career
as a professional outdoor instructor and adventure guide in these disciplines.
As well as volunteering as a LandSAR Alpine and Cliff Rescue team member,
she is an instructor for the Canterbury branch of the MSC. She currently
brings this knowledge and experience to the MSC full-time as the Programme
Manager for Outdoor Land Safety.

ABOUT ANDREA CORRIGAN

Andrea Corrigan is an experienced marketing and communications professional
with a passion for sports, recreation and the outdoors.
Andrea is a regular contributor to a number of magazines including Adventure,
Ki Waho, NZ Ski & Snow and the Fishing Paper & New Zealand Hunting News. Her
work has appeared in many other newspapers, websites and publications.
She has also designed and implemented a number of successful outdoor
safety promotional campaigns across New Zealand.
In her current role at the MSC, she manages a number of publishing projects
and websites, as well as all aspects of social media, media engagement
and communications.

66
 INDEX

A carabiners 16, 18–19, 24–26, 45, 50, 59–60

care of 25–26
life of 26
lockgate 18, 24, 45
abseil devices 28–31
screwgate 24–25, 50, 59
belay-abseil plates/tubes 30–31, 60
care and life of 31
care code 64–65
figure of eight 28–29
clothing 40
anchors 42–47 clove hitch 18
load sharing 42 communication (on-site) 51, 54
ropes 11 compartment syndrome 56
slings 11, 14, 43–46 cordalettes 11
crush syndrome 56

B
E
beginners, training of 28
belay ropes 10, 51 emergency planning 4–5
belay techniques 51 emergency procedures 56–59
belay-abseil plates/tubes 30–31, 60

F
C
figure of eight descenders 28–29, 47, 60
calls 51, 54 figure of eight knots 16–17
first aid 7

67
fisherman’s bend 17 O
footwear 40
French Prusik hitches 20–21, 30–31
Outdoor Safety Code 5–6

H
P
harnesses 31, 34–37
care of 34 planning
chest harness 36–37 emergency 4
full body 35 pre-trip 5–6
sit harness 35–36 safety 5
standards 34
helmets 40 Prusiks 11, 30–31, 50
hitches 20–21
use of 57–59

I
R
information sources 5
instruction 54
instructors’ roles and methods 2–4, 30, 40, rescue techniques 56–57
50–51, 54 risk management 2–4
in rescues 56–58 zones 3–4
Italian hitch 18–19, 47, 50–51 ropes 10–13
abseil ropes 10
anchor ropes 11

K
belay ropes 10
care of 12–13
life of 12
protectors 12
Klemheist Prusik hitches 21, 30 set-up on site 50
knots 16–22 standards 11
storage 12–13
strengths 10, 11, 16

L
washing 12–13

lockgate carabiners 18, 24, 45

logbooks 7, 62

68
S
safety plans 5
screwgate carabiners 24–25, 50, 59
site set-up 50–51
slings 14, 22, 31, 37, 57–59
in anchors 11, 14, 43–46

standards 63
carabiners 24
descenders 28
harnesses 34
ropes 11
slings 14
supplies 6

T
tape knots 16, 22
training 54

W
weather 6
webbing 14, 31
joining 22
websites 65

69
NOTES