Prepared By Getachew G/ Amlak 1

Introduction
 What is manufacturing?
 Technologically, manufacturing is the
application of physical and chemical
processes to alter the geometry, properties,
appearance of a given material to make parts
or products.

Fig 1.1 Technical definition of manufacturing

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 Economically, manufacturing is the
transformation of materials into items of greater
value by means of one or more processing
operations.
Note: The value added to the
material through processing
must be greater than the
cost of processing. Fig 1.2 Economical definition
of manufacturing
 Manufacturing processes can be broadly divided
into the following categories.
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 Casting (Forming from liquid)
 To form a part by liquid casting or molding, the
raw material is heated to its liquid state and then
poured, or pushed, into a mold of the desired form.
 This is an economical method of producing
complicated shapes.
 However, it is susceptible to internal porosity
resulting from shrinkage and the presence of gas.
 The flow of material in the mold in thin channels
is also a serious problem that should be
considered during the design stage.
 Forming from solid by deformation
 This type of forming process can be further
divided into three subgroups:
1. hot working: hot rolling, forging and
extrusion;
2. cold working: stamping, bending, spinning,
stretch forming, shearing, cold rolling,
extrusion, deep drawing etc.; and
3. forming from powder: such as powder
metallurgy and plastic molding.
 Forming from solid by material removal
 This technique encompasses all types of
cutting operations that transform the
workpiece into its final geometry by
removing pieces of material from it.
 Material removal can be:
 Conventional
 Non conventional
 Forming by joining parts
 This technique involves the use of welding,
brazing, soldering and adhesive to join several
components into one complex part.
 Welding results in a strong bond between
components.
 Soldering and brazing produce a weaker
joint than welding.
 Adhesives can be used to join different
types of materials.
 Forming by assembly
 This technique involves the mechanical
joining of parts by:
 threads
 rivets
 assembly by press
 etc.
 Forming by material increase
 This is a new technique by which material is
progressively added until the whole part is created
by means of glueing, welding, polymerization or
chemical reaction
 A slow and expensive process.
 Mostly used to build
prototypes & one-of-a kind
parts.
 This process is also called
rapid prototyping.
 Selecting Primary Manufacturing Processes
Rough Rules
 The following design factors have a bearing on
the choice of a manufacturing process:
1. Quantity 5. Section thickness
2. Complexity of form 6. Dimensional accuracy
3. Nature of material 7. Cost of raw material
4. Size of part 8. Subsequent processes
Figure: Cast steel mill housing: delivered
weight 400 tonnes

Figure: Railway crossing fabricated

Figure: Cast iron gate assembly from manganese steel cast sections
 As a general rule, the manufacturing
processes may be ranked in order of
economic consideration as follows:
 High quantity (2000 or more)
1. Forming from liquid - casting, molding
2. Forming from solid by deformation
3. Forming by joining parts
4. Forming from solid by material removal
5. Forming by assembly
 Low quantity (up to 50)
1. Forming from solid by material
removal
2. Forming by joining parts
3. Forming from solid by deformation
4. Forming by assembly
5. Forming by material increase
Selecting primary manufacturing processes
Refined rules
 Selecting the primary manufacturing
forming process should be the first
decision.
 Then, to check which process is most
suitable for manufacturing the required
part, refined rules are considered.
 These decisions should be based on the
parameters of quantity and shape complexity,
assist the process planner in making this decision.
 Shape complexity is divided into four
categories:
1. Mono- This shape consists of a constant
cross-section of the part along the main axis
with no lateral features. (Fig. 1.3).

Fig. 1.3 Example of mono shape type

2. Open- This shape consists of parts that
can be divided into a maximum of two
separate parts by a plane, fig.1.4.
 No cross-section
from the parting
plane up or down
will be larger than
the parting plane
Fig. 1.4 Example of open
in any direction. shape type
3. Complex- This shape consists of mono parts
but lateral features are allowed. (Fig. 1.5.)
4. Very Complex- This shape consists of parts
with any shape and having hidden hollow
spaces.

Fig. 1.5 Example of complex shape type

 The basic forming technique is given as
follows:
 Code A = forming from liquid (casting,
molding)
 Code B = forming from solid by deformation
 Code C = forming from solid by material
removal
 Code D = forming by joining parts
 Code E = forming by assembly
 Code F = forming by material increase
 The selection method is illustrated with
the following examples.
 A quantity of 80 parts of the open shape
complexity are ordered.
 This shape complexity and quantity points
to the third column.
 The first priority process is 'C' - forming
by material removal.
 A quantity of 3000 complex parts is
ordered.
 The recommended process for this order
is in the sixth column and is 'A' - forming
from liquid (casting, molding).
 If the plant does not have the facilities for
or experience in forming from liquid, the
second priority process, 'B' can be
selected- forming from solid by
deformation.
 In a further example, a quantity of 800 complex
parts is ordered.
 This quantity is higher than the low quantity
and lower than the high quantity in the table.
 The first alternatives are 'C' forming by
material removal, or 'A' forming from liquid
(casting, molding).
 If no facilities for forming from liquid, then
forming by material removal has to be used.
If both alternatives are available, economic
comparison should be employed for selection.
 The entries in the column are arranged in
sequence of economic priorities, the top being the
highest priority.
Table 1.1 Selecting basic forming techniques as a function of shape
complexity and quantity
Shape Complexity
Mono Open Complex Very Complex
Quantity Quantity Quantity Quantity
< 180 > 1000 < 150 > 2000 < 50 > 1500 < 100 > 1000
D B C B C A E B
E E D A D B D D
B D B D B C C E
C C E C E D A C
A A F E F E B A
 Selecting among forming from liquid
processes
 There are several methods of forming
from liquid.
 The commonly used processes are:
 sand casting
 permanent casting
 die casting
 investment casting
 Each molding method has certain inherent
advantages and limitations.
 Selecting the molding method should be
based on the following parameters:
 dimensional accuracy  part material
 cost of raw material  size of part and
 possibility of defects  section thickness
 scrap rate
Table 1.2 Selecting the molding method
Sand Permanent Die Investment

Material All Almost all Nonferrous Metals 1

Size or weight Any size Limited up to 25kg Limited up to 10kg 2 Limited up to 40kg 3

Section Thickness 3-5 mm min. 2.5 mm min. 0.6 mm min. 0.75mm min.

Accuracy 4 ± 1.5 mm ± 0.4 mm ± 0.05 mm ± 0.12 mm

Surface Finish, Ra 6.25 – 25 µm 2.5 – 6.25 µm 1 - 2.5 µm 0.25 - 2 µm

Tool Cost Low Medium High High

1 Materials that may be produced by investment casting

belong to the following families of alloys: aluminum, copper,
zinc , magnesium, tin , lead.
2 Usually under 8kg.
3 Best results are for parts around 1kg.
4 The accuracy tolerance depends on the scatter of the
shrinkage factor and on the dimension of the mold.
 Example 1
 A quantity of 2500 complex parts made
of bronze, weight 4 kg, minimum section
thickness 1.2 mm, minimum dimension
tolerance ± 0.50 mm, and minimum surface
finish of 2μm Ra is ordered.
 Recommend a process to manufacture
this part.
 Solution
 The first step is to use Table 1.1 and decide on
the recommended process.
 Refer to the sixth column of the table for
complex shapes and quantities higher than
1500 pieces; it recommends forming type 'A'-
forming from liquid (casting, molding).
 If the plant is familiar with this type of
forming, the recommendation is accepted.
 Next, refer to Table 1.2 to determine the
specific forming by liquid process.
 A sand casting process is not suitable
because it is not accurate enough.
 Permanent casting can provide the
accuracy, but not the surface finish and
section thickness.
 Die casting, on the other hand, can
accommodate all part specifications, so this
is the process to choose.
 Available die casting machines have a
capacity of 10 kg and can accommodate two
parts in a die.
 As a rough estimate, the die will cost about
$25,000 and can operate at a rate of 100
shots per hour.
 The hourly rate at the plant, including
overheads, is $60 per hour, and the raw
material costs $0.8 per kg.
 The estimated cost to manufacture the order
is therefore:
 Cost of the die ................................ $25, 000
 Labor cost = 60 x 2,500/(100 x 2)
= $750
 Raw material cost = 2,500 x 4 x 0.8 x 1.2
= $9,600 (20% waste)
 Total cost = $35,350
 or $14.14 per part
 Forming this part by a metal removal
process will take 25 minutes.
 With the same hourly rate and raw material
cost, the order will cost:
 Labor cost = 60 x 2500 x (25/60)
= $62,500
 Raw material cost -------- $9,600
 Total cost = $72,100
or $28.84 per part.
 Example 2
 A quantity of 2500 complex parts made
of bronze is ordered, weight 4 kg, minimum
section thickness 1.2 mm, minimum
dimension tolerance ± 0.10 mm, with
minimum surface finish of 0.8 μm Ra on one
dimension, and 1.5 μm Ra on the others.
 Recommend a manufacturing process for
this part.
 Solution
 Table 1.2 shows that this part cannot be
formed by die casting, or any of the forming
by liquid processes due to the requirement
of 0.8μm Ra.
 Due to its shape, it cannot be formed from
solid (second choice 'B'), which leaves to
next choice of economic priority, metal
removal.
 The cost of metal removal, as seen in the
previous example, is $28.84/part and
$72,100/order, compared to $14.14/part
by die casting.
 Therefore, the process will be die casting
with subsequent processing by metal
removal for the dimension that requires a
fine surface finish of 0.8 μ m Ra.
 It is estimated that this metal cutting operation
will take 3 minutes.
 Die casting cost = $35,350
 Extra costs due to subsequent machining:
 Machining Labor cost = 60 x 2,500 x (3/60)
= $7,500
 Total cost = $42,850
or $17.14/part instead of $28.84 where all the
parts are formed by a metal removal process.
 Selecting forming from solid by deformation
process
 There are several methods of forming from
solid (hot or cold), with advantages and
limitations.
 Each method is usually restricted to a limited
number of shapes.
 For example, extrusion can produce a profile
according to its die cross-section and can be
a very complex, closed shape.
 Along the length of the part, it will maintain a
uniform shape.
 Forming from sheet metal may create a
variety of shapes.
 However the wall thickness of the part should
conform with the thickness of the sheet metal
used for deformation.
 There are many other forming methods from
which the most common ones are:
 G 11 - rolling  G 21 - spinning
 G 12 - extrusion  G 22 - deep drawing
 G 13 - swaging  G 23 - bending
 G 14 - forging  G 24 - press work
 To select a recommended process, determine
the relative quantity to go to the following tables:
 Table 1.3 - for relative high quantity
(for RQ ≥ 2)
 Table 1.4 - for relative medium quantity
(for 1 ≤ RQ < 2)
 Table 1.5 - for relative low quantity
(for RQ < 1)
 Where:
Relative Quantity, RQ = [Total Quantity/1000]
 To select a recommended process, follow
these steps:
 Step 1: Determine the relative quantity
coefficient.
Go to the appropriate decision table
(Table 1.3, 1.4 or 1.5).
 Step 2: Determine shape complexity type:
mono, open, complex or very complex.
 Enter the row of the part shape
complexity.
 Step 3: Under the shape complexity, there are
several alternatives of shape geometry.
 Select the appropriate row.
Note:
 ≥ 6 meter long = long parts, otherwise,
short
 ≥ 6 mm thick = Thick section, otherwise,
thin
 Step 4: Move in the selected row across the
columns up to the column with the lowest priority
value.
 Start with priority value of one (1).
 Step 5: Check if the candidate process
meets dimensional accuracy and surface
finish specifications.
 If a candidate process meets the
specifications, it is the selected
process.
 If not, return to step 4.
 Example 3
 A quantity of 1600 ‘U' shape profile bars
with a wall thickness of 3.5 mm and 10 m
long, dimension accuracy 0.5 mm and
surface finish 13 μm Ra is ordered.
 Recommend a process plan for this
order.
 Solution
 The first step is to use Table 1.1. A ‘U' shape
is a mono shape complexity, and for a
quantity greater than 1000 pieces forming
type 'B' - forming from solid - is
recommended.
 The second step is to follow the five steps
of selecting a specific forming process from
solid as described above.
 Step I: Relative quantity is (1600/1000) = 1.6,
therefore it is a relative medium quantity.
Go to Table 1.4. (for 1 < RQ ≤ 2) …med Quty.
 Step 2: Shape complexity is mono.
 Step 3: This part is a long part with uniform thin
section.
 Step 4: Priority 1 is in column G I2 - extrusion.
 Step 5: Dimension accuracy and surface finish
are within the specification.
 Therefore this is the recommended process.
 G11 G12 G13 G14 G21 G22 G23 G24
Table 1.3 Selecting forming from solid processes for Cold Work
Accuracy (mm) 0.2 0.25 0.1 X 1.14 0.2 0.35 0.2
Surface Finish (µm) Ra 1.5 1.0 2.5 X 1.55 1.0 0.85 1.0
Hot Work
Accuracy (mm) 0.3 0.38 0.15 0.2 2.0 X X X
Surface Finish (µm) Ra 12.5 1.5 12.5 3.2 4.0 X X X
Mono
Long Parts With:
relative high quantity

Uniform Cross
Thick Section 1 2 31 X X X X X
Thin Section 1 2 41 X X X 3 X
Variable Cross
Thick Section 1 2 31 X X X 4 X
Thin Section 2 1 41 X X X 3 X
Short Parts With:
Uniform Cross
Thick Section 1* 2* X X X X 3 4
Thin Section 2* 3* X X X X 1 4
Variable Cross
Thick Section 3* 2* X X X X 1 4
Thin Section 4* 3* X X X X 1 2
Open

Thick Section X X X 1 32 2 5* 4
Thin Section X X X 2 32 1 5* 4
Complex

Thick Section X X X 1 X 2* 4* 3
Thin Section X X X 2 X 1* 4* 3
Very Complex

Thin Section X X X X X X 2* 1
 G11 G12 G13 G14 G21 G22 G23 G24
Table 1.4 Selecting forming from solid processes for Cold Work
Accuracy3 (mm) 0.2 0.25 0.1 X 1.14 0.2 0.35 0.2
Surface Finish (µm) Ra 1.5 1.0 2.5 X 1.55 1.0 0.85 1.0
Hot Work
Accuracy3 (mm) 0.3 0.38 0.15 0.2 2.0 X X X
Surface Finish (µm) Ra 12.5 1.5 12.5 3.2 4.0 X X X
Mono
relative medium quantity

Long Parts With:

Uniform Cross
Thick Section 2 1 31 X X X X X
Thin Section 2 1 41 X X X 3 X
Variable Cross
Thick Section 2 1 31 X X X 4 X
Thin Section 2 1 41 X X X 3 X
Short Parts With:
Uniform Cross
Thick Section 2* 1* X X X X 3 4
Thin Section 3* 2* X X X X 1 4
Variable Cross
Thick Section 3* 2* X X X X 1 4
Thin Section 4* 3* X X X X 1 2

Open
Thick Section X X X 2 32 1 5* 4
Thin Section X X X 3 22 1 5* 4
Complex
Thick Section X X X 2 X 1* 4* 3
Thin Section X X X 2 X 1* 4* 3
Very Complex
Thin Section X X X X X X 2* 1
 G11 G12 G13 G14 G21 G22 G23 G24
Cold Work
Table 1.5 Selecting forming from solid processes
Accuracy3 (mm) 0.2 0.25 0.1 X 1.14 0.2 0.35 0.2
Surface Finish (µm) Ra 1.5 1.0 2.5 X 1.55 1.0 0.85 1.0
Hot Work
Accuracy3 (mm) 0.3 0.38 0.15 0.2 2.0 X X X
Surface Finish (µm) Ra 12.5 1.5 12.5 3.2 4.0 X X X
Mono
for relative low quantity

Long Parts With:

Uniform Cross
Thick Section 3 2 11 X X X X X
Thin Section 4 3 11 X X X 2 X
Variable Cross
Thick Section 3 2 11 X X X 4 X
Thin Section 4 3 21 X X X 1 X
Short Parts With:
Uniform Cross
Thick Section 3* 2* X X X X 1 4
Thin Section 3* 2* X X X X 1 4
Variable Cross
Thick Section 3* 2* X X X X 1 4
Thin Section 4* 3* X X X X 1 2

Open
Thick Section X X X 3 22 1 5* 4
Thin Section X X X 4 32 1 2* 5
Complex
Thick Section X X X 2 X 1* 4* 3
Thin Section X X X 2 X 1* 4* 3
Very Complex
Thin Section X X X X X X 2* 1
 Foot Notes:
* - A subsequent process is required.
1 - Only for symmetrical cross-sections (bars,
rod, tubes).
2 - Usually open only to one side of the parting
line.
3 - This is an average value. Actual value depends
on size.
4 - Special applications can go down to 0.3 mm.
5 - Depends on the raw material surface finish.
 Example 4
 For this example, we use the same
specifications as in the previous example but
the order is 4000 parts and the surface finish
is 6 µm Ra
 Step I: Relative quantity is (4000/1000)= 4.0,
therefore it is a relative high quantity.
 Go to Table 1.3. (for RQ ≥ 2) ….. High Quty.
 Step 2: Shape complexity is mono.
Step 3: This part is a long part with uniform thin
section.
Step 4: Priority 1 is in column G 11 - rolling.
Step 5: Dimension accuracy and surface finish are
beyond the specification, so this process is not
recommended. Next priority is 2.
Step 4: Priority 2 is in column G 12 - extrusion.
Step 5: Dimension accuracy and surface finish are
below the specification, so this is the
recommended process.
Forming from solid by Material Removal
 The first decision should be to select the
types of material removal processes from
among the many basic processes.
 To assist in making this decision, the basic
material removal processes are classified
according to their capability, table 1.7. to
machine a group of parts to a required
shape.
 The planner has to review the part drawing
and classify the shape according to the
columns of Table 1.7, i.e.
 round symmetrical parts,
 prismatic or
 free form (sculptured) surface parts.
 On top of these shapes, special features
such as holes, threads, slots and flats can be
superimposed.
 A part might have features that belong to
more than one group.
 The final selection of the basic processes
depends on the accuracy of the part.
 Concerning selection of machining
technology the most important parameter
is the surface roughness required, followed
by the geometrical and dimensional
tolerances.
Table 1.7 Classification of basic processes by shape of part groups
 The capabilities and limits for surface
roughness for each process are given in Table
1.8.
 The ability of a process to produce a specific
surface roughness depends on many factors.
 For example, in turning, the final surface
depends on parameters such as feed rate,
cutting speed, tool condition, coolant and
machine rigidity.
 In grinding, the final surface roughness
depends on the peripheral speed of the wheel,
the speed of the part, the feed rate, the grit size
and the bonding material.
 The sequence of the proposed basic
processes in each section of a shape group
is arranged by priority and technical
constraints.
 In other words, if the basic process first
proposed does not meet the surface
roughness requirements, an additional basic
process might be added, though it should
not replace the first basic process.
 The dimensional tolerance has an effect similar
to the surface roughness.
 To consider the dimensional tolerance, there is
an empirical relation between the dimensional
tolerance and surface roughness (finish), so
that a minimum dimensional tolerance requires
a minimal surface roughness.
 The smaller of both surface roughness
measurements (given and translated in Table
1.9) will be used to enter into Table 1.8 for
selecting the basic process.
Table 1.8 Surfaces Roughness range of basic processes
Process Surface Roughness Ra (mm)
(min.) (Max.) Machine Type
Round Symmetric Shapes
Turning 0.8 25.0 Lathe
Grinding 0.1 1.6 Grinding
Honing 0.1 0.8 Honing
Polishing 0.1 0.5 Polishing
Lapping 0.05 0.5 Lapping

Prismatic Shapes
Milling 0.8 25.0 Milling
Grinding 0.1 1.6 Grinding
Honing 0.1 0.8 Honing
Polishing 0.1 0.5 Polishing
Table 1.9 Conversion of dimension tolerance to surface roughness
Tolerance ± (mm) Surface Roughness Ra (μm)
< 0.005 > 0.20
0.010 0.32
0.015 0.45
0.020 0.80
0.030 1.0
0.040 1.32
0.050 1.60
0.060 1.80
0.080 2.12
0.100 2.50
0.150 3.75
0.200 5.00
0.250 6.25
0.350 9.12
0.600 12.50
1.000 25.00
 Table 1.9 should assist the planner in the
translation of tolerances into surface
roughness and surface roughness into
dimensional tolerance.
 The geometric tolerances should be
considered as the final criteria to be checked
with regard to the capability of the process.
 However, there are limits to process
capability, which are listed in Table 1.10.
 The use of these tables is as follows:
 Select the basic processes as outlined
earlier by using Tables 1.8 and 1.9.
 Check if the last basic selected process
meets the required geometric tolerances.
 If it does, no additional process is needed.
 If it does not, another basic process from
the list in table 1.10 should be added, while
retaining the previous basic process.
 Table 1.10 Geometric tolerances capability of basic processes
Basic Process Geometric Tolerance Type (mm)

Parallelism Perpendicularity Concentricity Angularity

Turning 0.01 – 0.02 0.02 0.005 – 0.01 0.01

Milling 0.01 – 0.02 0.02 - 0.01

Drilling 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1

Boring 0.005 0.01 0.01 0.01

Grinding 0.001 0.001 0.002 0.002

Honing 0.0005 0.001 0.002 0.002

Super-finish 0.0005 0.001 0.005 0.002

 The following rules of thumb may be
employed to establish the economic division of
dimensions between the final part drawing and
the production drawing.
 In the production drawing, increase the
surface roughness of the dimensions which
do not meet process capability to the
maximum capability value of the surface
roughness.
 Increase, in the case of external dimension,
or decrease, in the case of internal
dimension, the basic dimension by a value of
10 times the tolerance equivalent to the new
surface roughness.
 (Use Table 1.9 to determine its value.)
 Increase the dimensional tolerance and
multiply the equivalent tolerance by a
factor of 2.
 If the result is bigger than the original
tolerance, use it as the tolerance for the
modified dimension.
 If it is smaller, then retain the original
tolerance.
 Example 5
 One of the external sizes of a round
symmetrical part has to be:
60 ± 0.15; 0.5 Ra µm
 What is the recommended basic process
used to manufacture this dimension?
1. Refer to the round symmetrical section in
Table 1.8.
2. Note that the first basic process is turning
3. The equivalent surface roughness of the
tolerance (from Table 1.9) is 3.75.
 As it is bigger than 0.5 Ra, the controlling
surface roughness will be 0.5 Ra
4. Turning minimum surface roughness is
0.8 Ra, therefore an additional process is
needed.
5. The next basic process is grinding.
6. Grinding minimum surface roughness is 0.1
and maximum 1.6.
 This shows that grinding could be
nominated as a subsequent process for
turning.
7. Grinding can be used to produce the
required part.
8. A preceding turning operation is also
required.
9. The surface roughness for turning will be
1.6 Ra (maximum grinding).
10. From Table 1.9 the equivalent tolerance
for 1.6 Ra is 0.05 mm.
 Dimensional size to be reserved for this
subsequent process of grinding:
0.05 X 10 = 0.5 mm (shop practice !)
11. The new basic dimension for turning should be
(60 + 0.5 = )60.5 mm.
12. The equivalent tolerance doubled is :
(0.05 x 2 = ) 0.10 mm.
13. The original tolerance was 0.15 which is
greater than 0.10, therefore it remains.
 The decisions reached with regard to the
basic process are therefore:
(a) turn the part to dimension of 60.5±0.15; 1.6 Ra
(b) grind the part to 60.0±0.15; 0.5 Ra.
 Example 6
 One of the dimensions of a flat prismatic
part has to be 85 ± 0.01; 0.5 Ra µm and
one of its surface should be parallel to
another flat surface within 0.0008 mm.
 What recommended basic process is
used to manufacture this surface?
 Solution
1. Look up the prismatic shapes section in Table
1.8.
2. The first basic process is milling.
3. The equivalent surface roughness of the
tolerance (from Table 1.9) is 0.32Ra.
 As it is smaller than 0.5 Ra the controlling
surface roughness will be 0.32 Ra.
4. Milling minimum surface roughness is 0.8 Ra.
 Therefore, an additional process is needed.
5. The next basic process is grinding.
6. Grinding minimum surface roughness is 0.1
and maximum 1.6.
 This shows that grinding could be nominated
as a subsequent process after milling for the
controlling surface roughness is with in the
range of grinding.
7. Grinding can be used to produce the required
part.
8. Check for geometric tolerance.
 Table 1.10 indicates that grinding can
maintain a parallelism of 0.001 mm.
 This value is higher than the required
0.0008 mm.
 Therefore an additional process is
needed.
9. The next basic process (Table 1.8) is
honing.
10. Honing can maintain parallelism of
0.0005 mm (Table 1.10) and can therefore
machine the part to the required
specifications.
11. The recommended basic processes are:
milling, grinding, honing.
Note: from Table 1.8 it would appear that the
grinding operation might be replaced by
honing, instead of honing being added.
 However, the minimum of milling is 0.8 Ra
and the maximum of honing is 0.8 Ra.
 Since there is not enough overlap between
these two operations, and due to economical
reasons; it is not recommended.
 The grinding operation fits neatly between
milling and honing, with a good overlap.
 We now need to prepare a production
drawing for each basic process.
12. The surface roughness for grinding will be
0.8 Ra., the maximum of honing, (Table 1.8).
13. From Table 1.9 the equivalent tolerance for
0.8 Ra. is 0.02 mm
 0.02 X 10 = 0.2 mm
14. The new basic dimension for grinding should
be :
(85 + 0.2 ) = 85.2 mm.
15. The equivalent tolerance doubled is :
(0.02 X 2 ) = 0.04 mm.
16. The surface roughness for milling will be 1.6
Ra., the maximum of grinding (Table 1.8).
17. From Table 1.9, the equivalent tolerance for
1.6 Ra. is 0.05 mm.
(0.05 X 10) = 0.5 mm.
18. The new basic dimension for milling is :
(85.2 + 0.5) = 85.7 mm.
19. The equivalent tolerance doubled is :
(0.05 x 2 ) = 0.10 mm.
 The decisions with respect to the basic
process are therefore:
(a) Mill the part to 85.7± 0.1O; 1.6 Ra.
(b) Grind the part to 85.2 ± 0.04; 0.8 Ra.
(c) Hone the part to 85.0 ± 0.01; 0.32 Ra.
End of Chapter One