Measurement of Pressure- Direct Reading

ABSOLUTE PRESSURE
 The absolute pressure of a fluid is the difference between the pressure of
the fluid and the absolute zero of pressure; absolute zero is the pressure in
a vacuum.
 Pressure which is measured by taking absolute vacuum as reference is
called absolute pressure.

 If an indicator were used to measure the fluid pressure, then the absolute
pressure of that fluid would be equal to:
Indicated pressure + Atmospheric pressure

 On an average day the atmosphere exerts a pressure of approximately 14

psi upon everything on the earth’s surface. When it is said that the
atmospheric pressure is 14 psi it means that it is 14 psi above the pressure
in a perfect vacuum.

 Now, if you are applying a force of 10lbs of pressure to some object, is it

really 10lbs? You have to take account of atmospheric pressure.
Absolute pressure = Indicated pressure (10lbs) + Atmospheric pressure
(14lbs)
GAUGE PRESSURE
 Most pressure gauges or indicators measure the difference between the
absolute pressure of a fluid and the atmospheric pressure; such
measurement is called gauge pressure. It is absolute pressure minus
atmospheric. It is either positive or negative, depending on its level above
or below atmospheric pressure reference.

 Looking at it another way, suppose the reading is –4 lbs and the

atmospheric pressure is 14 lbs, then the absolute pressure would be 14 lbs
+ (-4 lbs) or 10 lbs.
Gauge pressure = Absolute pressure (10 lbs) - Atmospheric pressure (14
lbs)
Gauge pressure = - 4 lbs
Vacuum Pressure
 Pressure below from the atmosphere is called vacuum pressure. Negative
gauge pressure is called vacuum pressure.

 However, it would be time consuming if a pilot or flight engineer had to

sit down and work out all these bits and pieces. It is easier to calibrate the
instrument so that when the needle or pointer indicates zero, an allowance
 has already been made for atmospheric pressure, and the indication given
is the fluid pressure.

Pressure measuring

THE SINGLE COLUMN MANOMETER

 A manometer is any device that measures the pressure of gas by
balancing it against the pressure due to a column of liquid of known
density. It is used to measure very low pressure. It is also known as
Piezometer looks like a glass tube connected to a vessel or pipe at which
static pressure is to be measured
 The relationship between pressure and the pressure of the liquid column,
known as the head, is given by:
P= ρgh
P = net pressure supporting head
h = height of column (head)
ρ = density of column liquid
g = acceleration due to gravity

 Assuming that the liquid density ρ, and the acceleration due to gravity, g
to be constant, then the net pressure P, (or P1 – P2) varies as h.
 Fig. 1

Fig.2

‘U’ TUBE MANOMETER

 The manometer is named so because it consists of a glass tube having the
shape of alphabet 'U’. One end is open to the atmosphere and other end
connected to a point at which pressure is to be measured.

Let ρ1 = density of liquid for which pressure has to be determined

ρ2 = density of manometer liquid (assume mercury)

ω1 = weight density of liquid for which pressure has to be determined

ω2 = weight density of manometer liquid

S1 = Specific gravity of liquid for which pressure has to be determined

S2 = Specific gravity of manometer liquid

Let h be the pressure in terms of height of fluid in the pipe.
h1is the distance from the datum line XX’ to the centre of pipe
h2 is the height of manometer liquid from the datum line XX’ in the right limb
Pressure in the left limb at XX’ = P + ρ1gh1 = P + ω1h1
Pressure in the right limb at XX’ = ρ2gh2 = ω2h2

According to Pascal’s law, at datum line pressure will be equal

P + ω1h1 = ω2h2

Special pressure measurement

 Manifold pressure
 The manifold pressure gauge is an engine instrument typically used in
piston aircraft engines to measure the pressure inside the induction
system of an engine.

 Engine pressure ratio

 Turbine engines have their own pressure indication that relates the power
being developed by the engine. It is called the engine pressure ratio
(EPR) indicator (EPR gauge). This gauge compares the total exhaust
pressure to the pressure of the ram air at the inlet of the engine. Since the
EPR gauge compares two pressures, it is a differential pressure gauge.

 Engine Oil Pressure

 The most important instrument used by the pilot to perceive the health of
an engine is the engine oil pressure gauge. Oil pressure is usually
indicated in psi. The normal operating range is typically represented by a
 green arc on the circular gauge. Aircraft using analog instruments often
use direct reading Bourdon tube oil pressure gauges.

 Fuel Pressure
 Fuel pressure gauges also provide critical information to the pilot.
Typically, fuel is pumped out of various fuel tanks on the aircraft for use
by the engines.While direct-sensing fuel pressure gauges using Bourdon
tubes, diaphragms, and bellows sensing arrangements exist.

 Hydraulic Pressure
 Hydraulic systems are commonly used to raise and lower landing gear,
operate flight controls, apply brakes, and more. Hydraulic pressure
gauges are often located in the cockpit and at or near the hydraulic system
servicing point on the airframe. Remotely located indicators used by
maintenance personnel are almost always direct reading Bourdon tube
type gauges. Cockpit gauges usually have system pressure transmitted
from sensors or computers electrically for indication.

 Vacuum Pressure
 Gyro pressure gauge, vacuum gauge, or suction gauge are all terms for
the same gauge used to monitor the vacuum developed in the system that
actuates the air driven gyroscopic flight instruments.Vacuum is a
differential pressure indication, meaning the pressure to be measured is
compared to atmospheric pressure through the use of a sealed diaphragm
or capsule.

Pressure sensing elements

 Bourdon Tube
 Bourdon tube pressure gauges are used for the measurement of relative
pressures from 0.6 ... 7,000 bar.
 They are classified as mechanical pressure measuring instruments, and
thus operate without any electrical power.
 The element is essentially a length of metal tube, specially extruded to
give it an elliptical cross-section, and shaped into the form of a letter C.
 The ratio between the major and minor axes depends on the sensitivity
required, a larger ratio providing greater sensitivity.
 The material from which the tube is made may be either phosphor-
bronze, beryllium-bronze or beryllium-copper.
 One end of the tube, the 'free-end', is sealed, while the other end is left
open and fixed into a boss so that it may be connected to a source of
pressure and form a closed system.
 Diaphragms
 A diaphragm pressure transducer is used for low pressure measurement.
 They are commercially available in two types – metallic and non-
metallic.
 Metallic diaphragms are known to have good spring characteristics
and non-metallic types have no elastic characteristics.
 Diaphragms in the form of corrugated circular metal discs, owing to
their sensitivity, are usually employed for the measurement of low
pressures.
 They are always arranged so that they are exposed at one side to the
pressure to be measured, their deflections being transmitted to pointer
mechanisms.
 The materials used for their manufacture are generally the same as those
used for Bourdon tubes.
 The purpose of the corrugations is to permit larger deflections, for
given thicknesses, than would be obtained with a flat disc.
 Capsules
 Since the elastic limit has to be maintained, the deflection of the
diaphragm must be kept in a restricted manner. This can be done by
cascading many diaphragm capsules.
 A main capsules are made up of two diaphragms placed together and
joined at their edges to form a chamber which may be completely sealed
or open to a source of pressure.
 Like single diaphragms they are also employed for the measurement of
low pressure, but they are more sensitive to small pressure changes.
 Diaphragm Pressure Transducer
 Corrugated designs help in providing a linear deflection and also
increase the member strength. The total amount of deflection for a given
pressure differential is known by the following factors:
 Number and depth of corrugation
 Number of capsules
 Capsule diameter
 Shell thickness
 Material characteristics
 Common range for pressure measurement varies between 50 Pa to 0.1
MPa.

 Bellows
 A bellows type of element can be considered as an extension of the
corrugated diaphragm principle, and in operation it bears some
resemblance to a helical compression spring.
 It may be used for high, low or differential pressure measurement.
 In some applications a spring may be employed (internally or
externally) to increase what is termed the 'spring-rate' and to assist a
bellows to return to its natural length when pressure is removed.
 As the inlet pressure to the instrument varies, the bellows will expand or
contract.
 The moving end of the bellows is connected to a mechanical linkage
assembly.
  As the bellows and linkage assembly moves, either an electrical signal is
generated or a direct pressure indication is provided.

Direct reading pressure gauge

 May be measured directly by balancing it against the strain it produces in
an elastic material. An applied pressure to an elastic pressure-sensing
element will produce a force to actuate an indicating element. Sensing
elements commonly used are diaphragms, capsules, bellows and Bourdon
tubes.

Manometer
 A manometer is a scientific instrument used to measure gas pressures.
Open manometers measure gas pressure relative to atmospheric pressure.
A mercury or oil manometer measures gas pressure as the height of a
fluid column of mercury or oil that the gas sample supports.
  How this works is, a column of mercury (or oil) is open at one end to the
atmosphere and exposed to the pressure to be measured at the other end.
Before use, the column is calibrated so that markings to indicate height
correspond to known pressures. If atmospheric pressure is greater than
the pressure on the other side of the fluid, air pressure pushes the column
toward the other vapor. If the opposing vapor pressure is greater than
atmospheric pressure, the column is pushed toward the side open to air.

Barometer
 A barometer is an instrument which measures atmospheric pressure.
Where accuracy is of prime importance a mercurial barometer is used, but
where compactness and portability is a requirement, a less accurate
aneroid (meaning without) barometer is used.

 A ‘U’ tube manometer with a vacuum, ie zero pressure, above the liquid
in one limb would give a height difference between the manometer liquid
levels of ‘H’. The pressure difference between the two limbs is the
atmospheric pressure and thus the atmospheric pressure is Hqg, where q
is the density of the liquid and g the acceleration due to gravity.
 With mercury as the liquid H tends to be about 760 millimetres at sea
level.

Aneroid barometer
 An aneroid barometer is simply a barometer without liquid that is used to
measure the atmospheric pressure. It consists of a sealed capsule from
which the air has been partially removed. As the air pressure outside of
the capsule is greater than inside there is a tendency for the capsule to
collapse. The capsule does collapse until the force exerted by the
atmospheric pressure is counter balanced by the tension of a spring.
  If atmospheric pressure changes (decreases) the reduction of pressure
surrounding the capsule will allow the capsule to expand until a balance
between spring tension and atmospheric pressure is once more reached.
This capsule movement will be conveyed to a pointer movement over a
scale which off in units of pressure.

Piston type gauges (dead weight testers (DWT))

 In this type of gauge the force acting on a piston of known area is
determined by the weight that the piston will support. The pressure acting
on the underside of the piston is P psi and the area of the piston, A in2 the
force produced is therefore
P x A lbs

 An instrument using this principle is known as the Dead Weight Pressure

Gauge. It is capable of extremely accurate pressure measurements and
dependant on design, with ranges of up to 40,000 psi.

Pressure gauge calibrations in DWT

 The accuracy of pressure gauges is checked by applying known
pressures and noting their indicator readings. The pressure is created by
screwing a plunger into oil reservoir (or chamber). The value of the
pressure is accurately established by applying a known weight to a piston
in contact with the oil. This is in effect balancing one against the other.