Kyiv National University of Construction and Architecture

Individual work
Theme: Concrete Construction

Samko Kristina
ARCH-27

2022
Concrete is the universal material of construction. According to the World Business
Council for Sustainable Development, concrete is, after water, the most widely used
material on earth. Components for concrete are available in each part of the world.
Concrete has really main use for a modern building. It has many advantages of usage:
not burning; not overcosting; easy to make; can use for industrial buildings and for
interior tiny decorations. Concrete has a long story of development. The first mention
of it is near 3000 BC. It does not fail in its popularity over the centuries. It still has
widespread use.
Concrete is a material produced by mixing cement, aggregates, and water.
Using cement is so variable. Totally we have 6 types of cement. The most
consumable is portland cement. It's a basic from the basics. It makes for 95% by
clinker portland. Clinker is made by sintering lime. Lime is commonly furnished by
limestone, marble, marl, or seashells. Minerals are conducted through a long, rotating
kiln at temperatures of (1400-1650C). After cooling, the clinker is pulverized to a
powder. Other types of cement make include various mineral additions in necessary
amounts. It is iron, silica, and alumina which may be provided by clay or shale. The
exact ingredients depend on what is readily available, and the recipe varies widely
from one geographic region to another, often including slag or the dust from iron
furnaces, chalk, sand, ore washings, bauxite, and other minerals.
Various mineral products, called supplementary cementitious materials, may be added
to concrete mixtures as a substitute for some portion of the portland cement to achieve
a range of benefits. Supplementary cementitious materials are classified as either
pozzolans or hydraulic cement. Pozzolans are materials that react with the calcium
hydroxide in wet concrete to form cementing compounds. They include: fly ash, silica
fume, natural pozzolans. Fly ash is a powder made from waste products from power
plants (the combustion of pulverized coal). This add increases concrete strength,
decreases permeability, increases sulfate resistance, reduces temperature rise during
curing, and reduces concrete drying shrinkage. Silica fume, also known as microsilica,
is a powder that is a byproduct of producing silicon metal or ferrosilicon alloys. When
added to a concrete mix, it produces extremely high-strength concrete that also has
very low permeability. Natural pozzolans are mostly derived from shales or clays.
They are used for purposes such as reducing the internal temperature of curing
concrete or reducing the reactivity of concrete with aggregates containing sulfates.
High reactivity metakaolin is a unique white-colored natural pozzolan that enhances
the brightness of white or colored concrete. While also improving the material`s
workability, strength, and density. These characteristics make it especially well suited
as an ingredient in exposed architectural concrete applications where appearance and
color quality are critical. Also, use various types of hydraulic cement to improve the
quality of concrete. Hydraulic cement reacts directly with water to form a
cementitious compound. For example, flast furnace slag (also called slag cement), is a
byproduct of iron manufacture. It may be added to concrete mixes to improve
workability, increase strength, reduce permeability, reduce temperature rise during
curing, and improve sulfate resistance.
Over and above admixtures, are often added to concrete to alter its properties in
various ways besides adding cement and other cementitious materials, aggregates, and
water. Air-entraining admixtures increase the workability of the wet concrete, reduce
freeze-thaw damage, and, when used in larger amounts, create very lightweight
nonstructural concretes with thermal insulating properties. Water-reducing
admixtures allow a reduction in the amount of mixing water while retaining the same
workability, which results in higher-strength concrete. High-range water-reducing
admixtures, also known as superplasticizers, are organic compounds that transform a
stiff concrete mix into one that flows freely into the forms. They are used either to
facilitate the placement of concrete under difficult circumstances or to reduce the
water content of a concrete mix to increase its strength. Accelerating admixtures
cause concrete to cure more rapidly, and retarding admixtures slow its curing to allow
more time for working with wet concrete. Workability agents improve the plasticity of
wet concrete to make it easier to place in forms. They include pozzolans and air-
entraining admixtures, along with certain y ashes and organic compounds. Shrinkage-
reducing admixtures reduce drying shrinkage and the cracking that results. Corrosion
inhibitors are used to reduce rusting of reinforcing steel in structures that are exposed
to road deicing salts or other corrosion-causing chemicals. Freeze protection
admixtures allow concrete to cure satisfactorily at temperatures as low as 20 degrees.
Extended set-control admixtures may be used to delay the curing reaction in concrete
for any period of up to several days. They include two components: The stabilizer
component, added at the time of initial mixing, defers the onset of curing indefinitely;
the activator component, added when desired, reinitiates the curing process. Coloring
agents are dyes and pigments used to alter and control the color of concrete for
building components whose appearance is important.

Aggregates make up roughly three-quarters of the volume of concrete. That's why the
structural strength of concrete is heavily dependent on the quality of its aggregates.
Aggregates for concrete must be strong, clean, resistant to freeze-thaw deterioration,
chemically stable, and properly graded for size distribution. An aggregate that is dusty
or muddy will contaminate the cement paste with inert particles that weaken it.
Moreover an aggregate that contains any of a number of chemicals from sea salt to
organic compounds can cause problems ranging from corrosion of reinforcing steel to
retardation of the curing process and ultimate weakening of the concrete. Size
distribution of aggregate particles is important because a range of sizes must be
included and properly proportioned in each concrete mix to achieve close packing of
the particles. A concrete aggregate is graded for size by passing a sample of it through
a standard assortment of sieves with diminishing mesh spacings. Then weigh the
percentage of material that passes through each sieve. This test makes it possible to
compare the particle size distribution of an actual aggregate with that of an ideal
aggregate. The size of aggregate is also significant because the largest particle in a
concrete mix must be small enough to pass between the most closely spaced
reinforcing bars and to it easily into the formwork. For aggregates usually use 2 kinds
of gravel and sand. For sure all depends on the type of concrete but classic aggregates
are large gravel - 20% (of final concrete weight), small gravel - 30%, and sand - 35%.
What aggregates are used instead of sand and gravel for making various special light
types of concrete? These are lightweight aggregates. Structural lightweight aggregates
are made from minerals such as shale. The shale is crushed to the desired particle
sizes, then heated in an oven to a temperature at which the shale becomes plastic in
consistency. The small amount of water that occurs naturally in the shale turns to
steam and pops the softened particles like popcorn. Concrete made from this
expanded shale aggregate has a density of about 20 percent less than that of normal
concrete, yet it is nearly as strong. Another kind of lightweight concrete is
nonstructural. Nonstructural lightweight concretes are made for use in insulating roof
toppings. The aggregates in these concretes are usually expanded mica (vermiculite)
or expanded volcanic glass (perlite), both produced by processes much like that used
to make expanded shale. However, both of these aggregates are much less dense than
expanded shale.
What about the process of making concrete? The quality of cured concrete is
measured by several criteria, depending on its end use. For structural columns, beams,
and slabs, compressive strength and stiffness are important. For pavings and door
slabs, surface smoothness, and abrasion resistance are also important. For pavings and
exterior concrete walls, a high degree of weather resistance is required.
Watertightness is important in concrete tanks, dams, and walls. For making concrete
use special machines and devices. They are called mixing machines but they are
different types. Firstly we mix all dry components and after added water. Water
including is very important for concrete consistency. For common concrete
applications, absolute ratios of water to cement ranges from about 0.45 to 0.60 by
weight, meaning that the weight of the water in the mix does not exceed 45 to 60
percent of the weight of the portland cement. Lower including water makes concrete
denser and stronger and that shrinks less during curing. But without adding air-
entraining or water-reducing admixtures in low water-cement concrete probably will
not easily ow into the forms and it will have large voids. It is important that concrete
be formulated with the right quantity of water for each situation. During the hardening
or curing, of concrete, the cement combines chemically with water to form strong
crystals that bind the aggregates together, a process called hydration. During this
process, considerable heat, called heat of hydration, is given off, and, especially as
excess water evaporates from the concrete, the concrete shrinks slightly, a
phenomenon referred to as drying shrinkage.
To determine the consistency of concrete after its production, we use an abrams cone
test. This test is one of the most popular and easy for making exactly at the
workplace. Firstly put concrete into this cone in three layers. Use a steel tamping rod
with a rounded end to help compact the cement. Fill the cone to the top with concrete
and continue tamping. When the concrete no more sinks, use a trovel to remove the
remaining concrete. After that remove the mold by raising it gradually. The concrete
subsides. That subsidence is known as a slump. Put a cone near the slump and put the
rod on it in a horizontal way. Then need to measure the difference in level between
the height of the mold and that of the highest point of the subsided concrete. The
measurement value will mean the concrete consistency, which we can see in a special
document.
The curing process does not end abruptly unless it is artificially interrupted. Rather, it
tapers off gradually over long periods of time, though, for practical purposes, concrete
is normally considered fully cured after 28 days. If it is not allowed to dry out during
this period, the strength of the resulting concrete will be reduced. Whereas concrete
cures by hydration, the chemical bonding of the water and cement, and not by simple
drying, it is essential that it be kept moist until its required strength is achieved.
Concrete cast in formwork is protected from dehydration on most surfaces of the
formwork, but the top surfaces must be kept moist. Usually, concrete is repeatedly
sprayed or coved with moisture-resistant sheets of paper to not loss of moisture. These
measures are even more important for concrete slabs, whose large surface areas make
them especially susceptible to premature drying. Such drying is a particular danger
when slabs are poured in hot or windy weather, which can cause the surface of the
pour to dry out and crack even before the concrete begins to cure. Temporary
windbreaks may have to be erected, shade may have to be provided, and evaporation
retarders may be added to the concrete. At low temperatures, the curing reaction in
concrete proceeds much more slowly. If concrete reaches subfreezing temperatures
while curing, the curing reaction stops completely until the temperature of the
concrete rises above the freezing mark. The concrete must be protected from low
temperatures and especially from freezing until it is fully cured. If freshly poured
concrete is covered and insulated, its heat of hydration is often sufficient to maintain
an adequate temperature in the concrete even at fairly low air temperatures. Under
more severe winter conditions, the ingredients of the concrete may have to be heated
before mixing, and both a temporary enclosure and a temporary source of heat may
have to be provided during placing and curing. In very hot weather, the hydration
reaction is greatly accelerated, and concrete may begin curing before there is time to
place and finish it. This tendency can be controlled by using cool ingredients and,
under extreme conditions, by replacing some of the mixing water with an equal
quantity of crushed ice, making sure that the ice has melted fully and the concrete has
been thoroughly mixed before placing.
Because concrete is put in place as a shapeless slurry with no physical strength, it
must be shaped and supported by formwork until it has cured sufficiently to support
itself. Formwork is usually made of braced panels of wood, metal, or plastic.
Formwork for a beam or slab serves as a temporary working surface during the
construction process and as a temporary means of support for reinforcing bars.
Formwork must be strong enough to support the considerable weight and pressure of
wet concrete. Also during curing, the formwork helps to retain the necessary water for
hydration in the concrete. When curing is complete, the formwork must pull away
cleanly from the concrete surfaces without damage either to the concrete or to the
formwork. Formwork is usually used repeatedly as a construction project progresses.
Formwork components that can be reused many times have a clear advantage over
single-use forms, which represent a large waste of construction material. Formwork
surfaces that are in contact with concrete are usually coated with a form release
compound, which is an oil, wax, or plastic that prevents the adhesion of the concrete
to the form. The quality of the concrete surfaces depends on the quality of the forms
in which they are cast. Top-grade wooden boards and plastic-overlaid plywood are
usually used to achieve high-quality surfaces. In a sense, formwork constitutes an
entire temporary building that must be erected and then demolished to produce a
second, permanent building of concrete. The cost of this formwork accounts for a
major portion often one-half or more of the overall cost of concrete building frame.
This cost is one of the factors that has led to the development of precasting.
Precasting is a process in which concrete is cast into reusable forms at an industrial
plant. Rigid, fully cured structural units from the plant are then transported to the job
site, where they are hoisted into place and connected much as if they structural steel
shapes. The alternative to precasting, and the more usual way of building with
concrete, is site casting, also called cast-in-place construction. Concrete is poured
into forms that are erected on the work place.
Concrete has no useful tensile strength. Historically, its structural uses were limited
until the concept of steel reinforcing was developed. The compatibility of steel and
concrete is a fortuitous accident. If the two materials had grossly different coefficients
of thermal expansion, a reinforced concrete structure would tear itself apart during
seasonal cycles of temperature variation. If the two materials were chemically
incompatible, the steel would corrode or the concrete would be degraded. If concrete
did not adhere to steel, a very different and more expensive configuration of
reinforcing would be necessary. Concrete and steel, however, change dimension at
nearly the same rate in response to temperature changes; steel is protected from
corrosion by the alkaline chemistry of concrete; and concrete bonds strongly to steel,
providing a convenient means of adapting brittle concrete to structural elements that
must resist not only compression, but tension, shear, and bending as well. The basic
theory of reinforced concrete is extremely simple: Put the reinforcing steel where
there are tensile forces in a structural member, and let the concrete resist the
compression. This accounts fairly precisely for the location of most of the reinforcing
steel that is used in a concrete structure.
Steel reinforcing bars for concrete construction are made in a hot-rolled way. They
are round in cross-section and deformed with notches for better bonding to concrete.
For definition information about the country and factory where rebar is made needs to
read periodic notches that cover it. The identification is done by thickening some
notches in one of the sectors of the bar. The identification starts with two thickening
notches. After a couple one, we can read information about the country of made. After
the line with the country, we have one more thickening notch. After this period,
notches start to highlight the name of the factory. We can see the meaning of this
period in a special article.
One of the most important issues at the moment is the responsible and eco-friendly
use of concrete. Responsible use of concrete starts with lessening wastes and a new
awareness of concrete use. A significant percentage of fresh concrete is not used
because the truck that delivers it to the building site contains more than is needed for
the job. This concrete is often dumped on the site, where it hardens and is later
removed and taken to a land for disposal. An empty transit-mix truck must be washed
out after transporting each batch, which produces a substantial volume of water that
contains portland cement particles, admixtures, and aggregates. These wastes can be
recovered and recycled as aggregates and mixing water, but more concrete suppliers
need to implement schemes for doing this. One of the green uses of concrete is
pervious concrete. Pervious concrete, made with a coarse aggregate only, can be used
to make porous pavers that allow stormwater to liter into the ground, helping to
recharge aquifers and reduce stormwater runoff. Moreover In North America,
reinforcing bars are made almost entirely from recycled steel scrap, primarily junked
automobiles. This reduces resource depletion and energy consumption signal.
Concrete is a durable material that can be used to construct buildings that are long-
lasting and suitable for adaptation and reuse, thereby reducing the environmental
impacts of building demolition and new construction. Lighter-colored concrete paving
reacts with more solar radiation than darker asphalt paving, leading to lower paving
surface temperatures. Interior concrete slabs made with white concrete can improve
illumination, visibility, and worker safety within interior spaces without extra
expense. White concrete is made with white cement and white aggregates.
Photocatalytic agents can be added to concrete used in the construction of roads and
buildings. In the presence of sunlight, the concrete chemically breaks down carbon
monoxide, nitrogen oxide, benzene, and other air pollutants.
 Used Books:

1. «Fundamentals of Building Construction» Edward Allen and Joseph Iano.

Prepared images:

-Test for workability of concrete - slump cone (Abram's cone) :

-Steel rebars: - Reinforcing:

- Charging a transit-mix truck with measured quantities of cement, aggregates,

admixtures, and water:
 Vocabulary:

 Consumable – споживаний.
 Sintering lime – агломераційне вапно.
 Marl – мергель.
 Seashells – черепашки.
 Conducted through – проводиться через.
 Rotating kiln – обертова піч.
 Pulverized to a powder – подрібнений до порошку.
 Clay – глина.
 Shale – сланці.
 Slag – шлак.
 Iron furnaces – чавунні печі.
 Chalk – крейда.
 Supplementary cementitious materials - додаткові цементні матеріали.
 Substitute – замінник.
 Range of benefits – ряд переваг.
 Cementing compounds – цементні суміші.
 Fly ash – зола.
 Power plants – електростанції.
 The combustion of pulverized coal - спалювання пиловугільного палива.
 Decreases permeability – зменшує проникність.
 Curing – твердіння.
 Drying shrinkage – усадка при висиханні.
 Ferrosilicon alloys – феросицелієві сплави.
 Permeability – проникність.
 Derived from – походить з.
 Enhances – покращує.
 Density – щільність.
 Exposed architectural – відкриті архітектурні.
 Cementitious compound – цементна суміш.
 Permeability – проникність.
 Reduce – зменшити.
 Over and above – до того ж.
 Admixtures – домішки.
 Properties in – властивості в.
 Air-entraining admixtures - повітровтягуючі домішки.
 Freeze-thaw damage - пошкодження від замерзання-відтавання.
 Thermal insulating properties – теплоізоляційні властивості.
 Water-reducing admixtures – водознижуючі домішки.
 Reduction in – зниження.
 Retaining – зберігаючи.
 Flows – потоки.
 Stiff concrete – жорсткий бетон.
 Facilitate – сприяти.
 Circumstances – обсавини.
 Accelerating admixtures - прискорювальні домішки.
 Workability agents – пластифікатори.
 Shrinkage-reducing admixtures - домішки, що знижують усадку.
 Corrosion inhibitors - Інгібітори корозії.
 Rusting – іржавіння.
 Reinforcing steel – арматура/армована сталь.
 Corrosion-causing - спричиняє корозію.
 Cure – затвердіння.
 Satisfactorily – задовільно.
 Delay the curing reaction - затримати реакцію затвердіння.
 Extended set-control - розширений сет-контроль.
 Initial mixing - первинне змішування.
 Defers the onset of – відкладає/відстрочує початок.
 Desired – бажаний.
 Reinitiates the curing process – відновлює процес затвердіння.
 Make up roughly – складіть приблизно.
 Three-quarters – три чверті.
 Resistant – стійкий.
 Freeze-thaw deterioration – погіршення замерзання-відтавання.
 Properly – правильно.
 Size distribution – розподіл розмірів.
 Muddy – мутний.
 Contaminate – забруднити.
 Nert particles – інертні частинки.
 Hot-rolled way - гарячекатаний спосіб.
 Cross-section - поперечний переріз.
 Bonding – склеювання.
 Definition – визначення.
 Awareness – усвідомлення.
 Dumped on the site - викинуто на ділянку.
 Land for disposal - земля для утилізації.
 Transit-mix truck – перевізний грузовик-міксер.
 Batch – партія.
 Substantial volume – значний обсяг.
 Suppliers – постачальники.
 Schemes – схеми.
 Pervious concrete – водопроникний бетон.
 Porous pavers – пориста бруківка.
 Stormwater – дощова вода.
 Recharge aquifers – поповнення водоносних горизонтів.
 Runoff – стік.
 Entirely – повністю.
 Steel scrap – сталевий лом.
 Primarily junked automobiles – переважно старі авто.
 Depletion – виснаження.
 Energy consumption signal – сигнал споживання енергії.
 Lasting – тривалий.
 Suitable – підходить.
 Reuse – повторне використання.