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WHY REDUCED TAKEOFF THRUST

Preprint · November 2020

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.19013.88808

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WHY REDUCED TAKEOFF THRUST

Nasser Alishahi
Nov. 2020

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Table of content

Description Page No.

Preamble 5
Takeoff capability 7
Field Limit Weight (FLW) 7
Factors affecting FLW 7
Runway length 7
Runway slope 8
Wind 8
Air pressure 9
Air temperature 9
Flaps setting 9
Climb limit weight 9
First segment 9
Second segment 9
Third segment 10
Forth segment 10
Factor affecting climb limit weight (CLW) 10
Flap setting 10
Air pressure 10
Air temperature 10
Obstacle limit weight (OLW) 10
Factor affecting OLW 11
Takeoff flap 11
Air pressure 11
Air temperature 11
Wind 11
Maximum takeoff weight) 11
Turbo fan engine 12
Turbofan engine is also called “free rotational engine” 12
Turbofan engine is called flat rated 12
Pressure limit 12
Temperature limit 13
Flat rated limit 14
Maximum operational air temperature 14
Theoretical Jet engine section numbering 14
Turbo fan jet thrust indicator 15
N1 indicator 16
EPR indicator 16
Calculation of maximum takeoff weight 16

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 Runway analysis table 18
What is the concept of reduced thrust 18
FLW 18
CLW 20
Requirement for implementation of Reduced/Flex N1 or EPR 21
Conclusion 23
References 25

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Preamble
It is obvious that a force need to be exerted on an object to result movement or displacement.
Aircraft engine(s) is the source of generating the force or thrust to displace the aircraft.
Since aircraft during takeoff need to accelerate from zero speed (stand still) to somewhere in
the neighbor of two hundreds kilometer per hour in less than a minute within about four
kilometer runway length, engine need to be operated at maximum with almost full efficiency to
complete takeoff mission in this regard.
It is certain that operating an engine at maximum causes to wear the engine sooner and need
to be overhaul possibly sooner than scheduled or carelessly operated, need to be replaced.
This means more maintenance cost and has great effect on airlines profit. If engine change due
to wearing is must, then airline definitely must consider some multi million dollars extra
expense
In order to prevent the extra airline cost to replacing the engine, a procedure is introduced for
engine operations and it called “Reduced thrust operation for takeoff” (if possible and
applicable)
Reduce thrust is a well-known procedure for the crew for the condition when actual takeoff
weight is less than calculated performance limit weight or takeoff performance capability.

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Takeoff performance capability
It is good to remember the concept of takeoff performance capability and terminology stays
behind it

Takeoff performance capability always comprises of three limitations as:

 Field limit weight (FLW)

FLW defined as maximum performance limit weight on RWY and it is the maximum aircraft
weight at which the aircraft can have at the beginning of the runway (stand still), accelerate with
all engine at maximum takeoff thrust to a speed called “decision speed or V1”, loose one engine,
then:
Either continues acceleration with remaining live engine(s), to speed known as rotational speed
“VR”, rotate at that speed and continue acceleration to liftoff speed “VLOF” where the aircraft
initiate to be airborne, continue acceleration to climb safety speed known “V2” at the end of
runway while gaining 35 ft altitude.
Or if takeoff is rejected at decision speed. The aircraft enable to come to complete stop at the
end of runway by applying maximum brake without the usage of thrust reverser

Note: If engine failure does not occur, the aircraft is able to reach 35ft above runway where 15% of
runway length is still remaining

Factors affecting FLW

Parameters affecting FLW capabilities are:
 Runway length: Long enough runway length allows the aircraft to gain more speed on
runway which causes more lift generation by wing and vice versa

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  Runway slope: Down slope helps the aircraft to accelerate faster while Up slope
decreases aircraft acceleration
In other word, to compare slope effect on calculated FLW
Let’s consider FLW value is defined on zero slope RWY, if all parameters stays the same
but runway slope changes to down slope, since aircraft can reach to V1 and … faster,
then shorter runway length would be sufficiently enough for obtaining same FLW.
Opposite is true if runway was upslope.

In general, down slope increases FLW capability while up slope decreases it

Note: Maximum permissible slope for a runway is 2.0% either up slope or down slope, that is for every
one hundred meter runway length, runway elevation difference cannot exceed 2.0 meters
either upward or downward
Example: The difference of elevation between two ends of 4,000 meter runway length
with 2.0% slope will be:

4,000M * (2.0/100) = 80M

80 M
4,000 M

 Wind: headwind increases performance capability while tail wind does opposite
If headwind exists on runway, then while aircraft is stand still at beginning of runway
aircraft wings generates lift due to headwind blowing to the aircraft and in case of
takeoff rejection, headwind helps the stopping which is increasing aircraft deceleration.
In general, air blowing to aircraft is the summation of aircraft ground speed and
headwind
In case of tail wind on runway, the air blowing to aircraft’s wings to generate lift is the
difference between aircraft ground speed and tailwind magnitude. That is aircraft need
to run longer on the runway to generate enough lift with respect to no-wind or head
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 wind condition. In case of takeoff rejection, tail wing still pushes the aircraft forward
and decrease deceleration rate which requires longer runway length for aircraft to come
to complete stop at the end of runway,
In general it could be stated “takeoff run increases with the existence of tailwind” and
FLW decreases with existence of tail wind.

Note: Maximum permissible tail wind existence for takeoff operation is 10 Kts.

 Air pressure: As the air pressure increase air would be denser and FLW will increase and
while lower air pressure acts opposite
 Air temperature: As the air temperature decrease the air would be denser and FLW
increases. Higher air temperature would be opposite
 Flap setting: Higher takeoff flap setting increases FLW while lower takeoff flap
setting would be opposite

 Climb limit weight (CLW)

CLW defined as maximum performance limit weight of the aircraft at beginning of the runway
accelerate as described for FLW, climb and meet the least of second segment limitation
Climb segment is generally divided into four segments as:

First segment: Start as soon as soon as the aircraft is airborned at VLOF, able to climb and
ends when landing gears retraction is completed
Second segment: This segment is the most important segment of other ones, it starts at first
segment completion and ends when the aircraft reaches at least four hundred
feet (400 ft) above runway surface or stated by the state.

Second segment limitation climb gradient for aircraft equipped with two, three or four engines
described as:
2.4% gradient (gaining 2.4 ft altitude over 100 ft traveling horizontally) for aircrafts equipped
with two engines, or
2.7% gradient (gaining 2.7 ft altitude over 100 ft traveling horizontally) for aircrafts equipped
with three engines, or
3.0% gradient (gaining 3.0 ft altitude over 100 ft traveling horizontally) for aircrafts equipped
with four engines

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 Third segment: It is also commonly known as “Acceleration segment”. Third segment start
when second segment completed and ends when wing high lift devices are
totally retracted, in this segment, the aircraft may fly horizontally, accelerate
to speed where allowed to retract high lift devices or climb shallower and
while speeding up for high lift devices retraction speed, also climbing as well.

Fourth segment: it is also known as “final segment”, it start when third segment is completed
and ends when aircraft speed reaches climb speed

Note: Takeoff section start at the beginning of RWY when aircraft initiate to roll and accelerate and
ends when aircraft is reached 1,500 above RWY surface or clean configuration, whichever is
occurs last.
Note: Takeoff time limitation is five minutes

Factor affecting CLW

Parameters affecting CLW are:
 Flap setting: Lower takeoff flap setting increases CLW while higher flap setting
decreases CLW
 Air pressure: As the air pressure increase, CLW increases and vice versa
 Air temperature: As the air temperature decrease CLW increases and vice versa

 Obstacle Limit Weight (OLW) (if exist)

In case of obstacle existence within aerodrome region and it is within climb path, then OBW
need to be calculated.

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Note: For calculation of OLW, some aircraft industry set obstacle distance from beginning of runway
(Known as break release), and some set the end of runway for calculation (known as reference
zero)

Factor affecting OLW

 Takeoff flap: Lower takeoff flap setting improve OLW while higher flap setting decreases
OLW
 Air pressure: As the air pressure increase, OLW increases and vice versa
 Air temperature: As the air temperature decrease OLW increases and vice versa
 Wind: Headwind increase altitude gained versus distance traveled which means
increases OLW, while tailwind has negative effect on OLW

 Maximum takeoff weight (Max. TOW). MAX. TOW performance capability (Takeoff weight) is
always the lowest of FLW, CLW and OLW (if exist)
Let’s examine following condition for “Why the lowest of FLW, CLW and OLW (if exist)” need to be
considered as Max. TOW
A) FLW value is higher than CLW or OLW values. If FLW value is selected as actual takeoff
weight, then aircraft will accelerate on runway, reached V2 speed 35 feet above runway
accordingly, but since aircraft weight is heavier than CLW, then aircraft is unable to meet
second segment climb gradient limitation and climb lower than minimum specified climb
gradient.
In case of OLW (if exist), the aircraft is unable to clear the obstacle and fly over the obstacle
with described safety margin height

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 B) CLW value is higher than FLW or OLW values. If CLW is selected as actual takeoff weight,
then aircraft need to cover more runway length for acceleration distance to reach decision
speed “V1” while remaining runway length would not be sufficiently enough in case of
takeoff rejection
In case of OLW (if exist) is less than CLW, then aircraft cannot fly over obstacle with
described safety height
C) OLW (if exist) value is greater than FLW or CLW values. If OLW is selected as actual takeoff
weight, like above describing, available runway length is not sufficiently enough as well as
aircraft cannot meet minimum required second segment climb gradient

Turbofan engine
Most airliners aircrafts are equipped with turbofan type jet engine. Turbofan engines are more fuel
efficient with respect of generating thrust
Turbofan engine is actually a turbojet with additional stages of fan in front with larger size or longer
diameter. Flow passing through stages of fan does not pass through compressor, combustion chamber,
and turbine, therefore waste no energy and make large percentage of thrust generated by the engine.

Turbofan engine is also called “free rotational engine”

Low pressure compressor rotor/disk “commonly known as N1 compressor) and low pressure turbine
rotor/disk are connected via a shaft. Low pressure compressor turns as respective turbine does. Since
N1 shaft is not connected to any devices in turbofan engine, it is also known as “free rotational”.
It can be observed that whenever wind is blowing even when the aircraft is parked, N1 compressor
starts turning due to free rotational concept

Turbofan engines are flat rated

Thrust generation on turbofan engine limited with two major factor, they are:
 Pressure limit: Since the engine inlet has a certain diameter then certain amount of air particle
with respect to air pressure and air temperature able to pass through the engine inlet at

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 maximum compressor RPM, therefore for any air pressure thrust generation is exclusively
almost the same (variation of temperature in this regard is so small which could be almost
negligible). This limitation is called pressure limit

Generate thrust (pressure limit)

Thrust

Air temperature
Pressure limit concept

 Temperature limit: With disregard of pressure limit, when turbofan engine is operating, heat is
generated in combustion chamber by burning fuel, burned air/fuel mixture travel downward
toward turbine section, which is generally known as “Hot section”. As demand thrust increases,
hot section would hotter.
Since hot section temperature set to a fixed value by manufacturer and must not exceed, then
operation in warmer air maximum thrust generation by engine(s) decreases. This limitation is
called Exhaust Gas Temperature limit or simply EGT limit.
Following graph indicates, “As air temperature increases, maximum thrust generation
decreases”

EGT limit

Thrust

Air temperature
EGT limit concept

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 By integrating two above graphs, maximum thrust generation could be concluded as:

EGT limit

Pressure limit
Thrust
Pressure limit
EGT limit

Air temperature

Above graph describes:

 Flat rated limit: At up to outside air temperature where joining pressure and EGT limit is called
“Flat rated temperature” and it is normally occurs at ISA + 15, that is:
At sea level pressure altitude, where OAT at ISA condition is 15C, flat rated temperature = 30 C
At 1,000 ft pressure altitude, where OAT at ISA condition is 13C, flat rated temperature = 28 C
At 2,000 ft pressure altitude, where OAT at ISA condition is 11, flat rated temperature = 26 C
At 3,000 ft pressure altitude, where OAT at ISA condition is 9C flat rated temperature = 24 C
And so on
 Maximum operational air temperature. This air temperature set by manufacturer and engine
operation is not allowed beyond this set air temperature. If the air temperature exceed the set
air temperature, operation must be start and delayed till air temperature cools down to at least
to manufacturer set air temperature
Manufacturer air temperature is normally set at ISA + 40 or ISA + 45, that is:
At sea level pressure altitude, maximum air set temperature = 55 C or 60 C
At 1,000 ft pressure altitude, maximum air set temperature = 53 C or 58 C
At 2,000 ft pressure altitude, maximum air set temperature = 51 C or 56 C
At 3,000 ft pressure altitude, maximum air set temperature = 49 C or 54 C
And so on

Engine operational envelope

THRUST

ISA + 15 ISA + 40 or ISA + 45

Air temperature
Engine operation envelope

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Above graph demonstrate that up to ISA + 15 no matter what air temperature is, for a certain pressure
altitude the engine generate fixed amount of thrust (flat region), and beyond ISA + 15 up to ISA + 40 or
ISA + 45, as temperature increase, generate thrust decreases (EGT limit region).

Theoretical Jet engine section numbering

To help accurate study about all jet engine part and integrate the study as a whole, jet engine section
numbered as
 Section 1: Airflow behavior in front of jet engine (free stream)
 Section 2: Airflow behavior In front of low pressure compressor
 Section 2.5: Airflow behavior in front of high pressure compressor (if high compressor
section exist)
 Section 3: Airflow behavior in front of combustion chamber
 Section 4: Airflow behavior in front of turbine section
 Section 4.5: Airflow behavior in front of high compressor turbine section
 Section 5: Airflow behavior after leaving turbine section
 Section 6: Airflow behavior after “after burner” if installed
 Section 7: Airflow behavior leaving jet engine nozzle to free stream

Turbofan engine thrust indicator

There are two types of indication for thrust setting for jet engine, they are:
 N1 indicator: It is the RPM of low compressor turbine in percentage. The N1 gauge is usually
calibrated in percent RPM based on an engine manufacturer defined rotation speed that
correspond to 100%

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 EPR indicator: It is the abbreviation of Engine Pressure Ration, and that is the ratio of total
pressure of airflow leaving the exhaust nozzle (PT7) over the total pressure of airflow in front of
low pressure compressor (PT2),and the ratio is defined as EPR = PT7/PT2

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All engine thrust setting tables usually tabulated with airport pressure altitude (PA) versus airport
temperature (OAT).

Calculation of maximum takeoff weight

Giant aircraft manufacturers like Boeing and Airbus aircraft manufacturer published manuals called
Flight Crew Operations Manual (FCOM) or Airplane Flight Manual (AFM) to help the airliners operations
related staff specially flight operations engineering department and flight crew for determination
operations data.
The FCOMS usually divided into aircraft system description manual and performance calculation manual.
Almost all data in performance volume of FCOM are provided in table format.
AFM is mostly describes the performance capability calculation in detail and more accurate in mostly
graphic format
Other aircraft manufacturer also makes the same manuals and called them either FCOM or Pilot
Operation Handbook (POH)
In order to ease off with quick determination of aircraft takeoff performance capability specially for
flight crew, operations engineering of aircraft manufacturer or an organization approved by aircraft
manufacturer generated set of table called “Runway analysis” generated by Boeing manufacturer or
“Regulated TakeOff Weight (RTOW)” generated by Airbus manufacturer.
Since runway length and slope have a great effect on takeoff performance capability, a takeoff
performance capability table exclusively is made for every and each runway end.

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  Runway analysis table extracted from Boeing aircraft manufacturer takeoff performance charts

 Regulated TakeOff Weight (RTOW) designed by Airbus aircraft manufacturer

These tables help the aviators to determine takeoff performance capability faster and easier than usage
of FCOM or AFM charts and tables for determination of takeoff performance capabilities

What is the concept of reduced thrust

Let us recall FLW and CLW once again with takeoff thrust setting influence which were:
FLW is the maximum weight the aircraft may have at the beginning of runway so that when engine
thrust set to maximum takeoff thrust with respect to local air pressure and temperature as well as
runway characteristics such as runway slope, nature of the wind blowing whether is head wind or tail
wind and finally the takeoff flap setting the aircraft able to accelerate to decision speed V1, loose one
engine at V1 and if takeoff is continued the aircraft will gain 35 feet altitude at the end of runway, or if
takeoff is rejected at V1 the aircraft able to come to complete stop at the end of runway without the
usage of thrust reverser

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If engine failure does not occur during rollout, while engine thrust is set at maximum takeoff thrust the
aircraft is able to climb to 35 feet altitude while 15% of runway length is still remaining

Takeoff with actual takeoff weight is the same as FLW

Now let us demonstrate for a condition that actual aircraft takeoff weight is less than maximum takeoff
weight and if maximum takeoff thrust is set, then decision speed can be obtain sooner as well as the
aircraft will reach at 35 ft above runway surface with respect to takeoff weight V2 speed while still part
of runway is still remaining, because the aircraft weight is lighter than FLW, than the aircraft accelerate
faster and reach to V1 within shorter runway as well as reaching V2 speed and also less runway length
to come to complete stop in case of takeoff rejection

Takeoff with actual takeoff weight less than FLW

Now, while the aircraft takeoff weight is less than FLW, if takeoff thrust is set with a fraction less than
maximum takeoff thrust, then definitely aircraft accelerate a bit slower and cover more runway length
to reach to decision speed, and definitely gain 35 feet altitude at the end of runway with respected V2
while sufficient runway is remained for the case of takeoff rejection

Actual takeoff weight is less than maximum takeoff weight but takeoff thrust is a fraction less than
maximum takeoff thrust

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CLW is the maximum weight at which the aircraft can have at the beginning of runway, roll on with
maximum takeoff thrust accelerate as described above for FLW and be able to meet the second
segment climb gradient as described for two, three or four engines aircraft with V2 speed

nd
Required gradient for 2
segment CLW with Max.
takeoff thrust

Aircraft weight is the same as CLW at beginning of runway with takeoff thrust set at maximum takeoff
thrust

Let us concentrate on climb segment (second segment) and consider actual takeoff weight is less than
CLW, if takeoff thrust is set for takeoff, obviously aircraft is able to climb with more than what is set for
second segment gradient

nd
2 segment climb gradient with
Max. takeoff thrust when takeoff
weight is less than CLW

Aircraft weight is the less than CLW at beginning of runway with takeoff thrust set at maximum takeoff
thrust
Again, if takeoff thrust is set a fraction less than maximum takeoff thrust, then obviously aircraft will
climb shallower to just meet climb gradient set by regulation

nd
2 segment climb gradient with
not with Max. takeoff thrust
when takeoff weight is the same
as CLW

As described earlier since it is needed to select the lower of FLW and CLW, as maximum takeoff weight,
then instead of studying a bit less takeoff thrust reduction than maximum, it is mandated to determine

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maximum takeoff weight (which is the lower of FLW and CLW) and if actual takeoff weight is less than
maximum takeoff weight, apply a bit less thrust than maximum takeoff thrust, then takeoff segments
can be obtained with a bit less thrust than maximum takeoff thrust

Note: Above expression of “a fraction less than maximum takeoff thrust” for Boeing aircraft operation
is called REDUCED EPR/N1 and for Airbus aircraft operation is called FLEX EPR/N1”

In order to get better idea about of how much “A BIT LESS THRUST NEED TO BE SET …” means, the
concept of “temperature variation effect on aircraft performance” need to be recalled as:
As the air temperature increases, air density decrease, causing aircraft takeoff performance limit weight
to decrease, by referring to Runway analysis or RTOW table and entering on proper wind column read
air temperature which refers to actual takeoff weight is almost the same as takeoff performance limit
weight. Defined temperature is called “ASSUMED TEMPERATURE”. This temperature indicated that if air
temperature increase to assumed temperature, takeoff performance capability decreases enough so
that it would be the same as actual takeoff weight.
By entering takeoff thrust setting table (either EPR or N1 table) with defined assumed temperature and
airport pressure altitude a new thrust setting can be defined which is called “Reduced thrust” setting.
Boeing industry call it “Reduced thrust” which would be Reduced EPR or N1 and Airbus industry call it
“Flex” which is Flex EPR or N1

Requirement for implementation of Reduced/Flex N1 or EPR for takeoff

In order to be able to exercise reduced/flex N1 or EPR, following condition need to be exist:
1. Actual takeoff weight must be less than maximum takeoff weight
2. Assumed temperature need to be defined

As described earlier, following chart described thrust setting envelope, which has flat section, and it
is about ISA + 15C, and EGT limit which is about ISA + 40C or ISA+45C

Condition 1: If defined assumed temperature is within flat section range that is up to ISA + 15, then
takeoff thrust will be independent of air temperature, therefore implementation of
reduced or flex in not allowed.
Condition 2: If defined assume temperature is beyond ISA + 15 up to maximum operational
temperature (ISA + 40 or 45), implementation of reduced or flex must be exercised.

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3. Reduced/flex is not allowed to exercise on contaminated runway

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 Conclusion
It should be remember that engine change cost a lot and if takeoff with reduced thrust is
exercised (if condition permit), engine life operation extends, that is engine can operate longer,
this will help the airliner to save money.

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Refines:
www.google.com
www.wikipedia.org

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