TEACHING & ASSESSMENT OF MACRO SKILLS

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INTRODUCTION TO THE SUBJECT: What Is The Connection Between Receptive

And Productive Skills?
 Teaching
 Reading It’s important for teaching activities to be designed
 Writing so that learners receive input and modeled language
 Speaking (through listening and reading activities) before they
 Listening are expected to produce those modeled structures
(in their own speaking and writing). Listening and
Macro Skills: An Overview reading activities prepare students to be able to
speak and write their own texts.
The four language skills are related to each other in
two ways: How Do You Teach Receptive Skills?
 The direction of communication (in our out) Both listening and reading are receptive skills. For a
 The method of communication (spoken or teacher to be sure that learners have understood a
written) spoken or written text, they need to demonstrate
their understanding through a response. The
Input is sometimes called “reception” and output is
response may be:
sometimes called “production.” Spoken is also
known as “oral.”  a verbal response, e.g. answering questions
orally when the teacher asks students one-
by-one around the class,
 a physical response, e.g. an action in a Total
Physical Response activity

Receptive Skills Involve Bottom-Up And Top-

Down Processing.

Top-Down Model
A top-down view is seen as a process in which the
readers’ prior knowledge of the text structure and
text content guides them toward meaning

Listening and speaking are oral skills. Reading and

writing are literacy skills. Each week teachers should
include some activities which focus on developing
the students’ oral skills (e.g. pair and group
interactions and games) and some activities which
focus on literacy skills (e.g. reading and analyzing
texts and then students writing their own).

Oral Skills Literacy

Skills
Receptive
Listening Reading
Skills
Productive
Speaking Writing
Skills
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Bottom-Up Model
A bottom-up view of reading occurs as decoding
letters leads to words and words into sentences, and
through the process the reader obtains and
understand the meaning of the text.
WHAT IS READING?
"Reading" is the process of looking at a series of
written symbols and getting meaning from them.
When we read, we use our eyes to receive written
symbols (letters, punctuation marks, and spaces) and
we use our brain to convert them into words,
sentences, and paragraphs that communicate
something to us.
Reading is a receptive skill - through it, we receive
information. But the complex process of reading also
requires the skill of speaking, so that we can
pronounce the words that we read. In this sense,
reading is also a productive skill in that we are both
receiving information and transmitting it (even if
only to ourselves).
Why Teach Reading?
There are many reason why getting students to read
English text is an important part of the teacher’s job.
 First, many of them want to be able to read
text in English either for their careers, for study
purposes or simply for pleasure.
 Second, good reading texts can introduce
interesting topics, stimulate discussion, excite
imaginative responses and be the springboard
for wellrounded, fascinating lessons.
HOW DO WE READ?
Reading is decoding + using knowledge of sentence
structure + comprehension; We usually read silently.
Reading As a Complex Process
Current research generally views reading as an
interactive, socio-cognitive process (Bernhardt
1991), involving a text, a reader, and a social context
within which the activity of reading takes place.
Within the Complex Process of Reading, Six General
Component Skills and Knowledge Areas Have Been
Identified (Grabe 1991, p. 379):
 Automatic recognition skills
 Vocabulary and structural knowledge
 Formal discourse structure knowledge
 Content/world background knowledge
 Synthesis and evaluation skill/strategies
 Metacognitive knowledge and skills
monitoring
Why Cannot Read?
1. ADD/ADHD: Learning disabilities which are
characterized by difficulty paying attention, and
in some cases acting impulsively and displaying
2. Decoding: The ability to sound out words by
sound-letter correspondence and blend sounds
so that written text can be recognized and
interpreted.
3. Learning Disability: A person with a learning
disability may have impaired language
processing, phonological processing, visual
spatial processing, and more.
4. Literacy: Early literacy development begins
with children looking at books and listening to
their parents read.
5. Phonemic Awareness: An important pre-
reading skill. More specifically, it is an
underlying component of phonological
awareness.
6. Phonological Awareness: If a child struggles
with phonological awareness, they will often go
on to have difficulties reading and writing.
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The Language of Literacy – Some Commonly  COMPREHENSION STRATEGIES: Comprehension

Used Terms strategies are conscious plans or sets of steps
that good readers use to make sense of text.
The words and phrases used by educators to There are six strategies that have been found to
describe certain aspects of reading and reading have a solid scientific basis for improving text
instruction can be complex. If parents, teachers, comprehension. (See text comprehension.)
administrators, and policy-makers are to work  COMPREHENSION STRATEGY INSTRUCTION:
diligently toward improvements in teaching reading, Comprehensive strategy instruction is the
it’s helpful to know and use the same language. Here explicit teaching of techniques that are
is a list of commonly used terms related to reading, particularly effective for comprehension
literacy, and reading instruction. strategy instruction. The steps of explicit
instruction include direct explanation, teacher
 AFFIXES: Affixes are word parts that are "fixed
modeling ("think aloud"), guided practice, and
to" either the beginnings of words (prefixes) or
application. Some strategies include direct
the ending of words (suffixes). The word
explanation(the teacher explains to students
disrespectful has two affixes, a prefix (dis-) and a
why the strategy helps comprehension and
suffix (-ful).
when to apply the strategy),modeling(the
 ANALOGY-BASED PHONICS: Affixes are word
teacher models, or demonstrates, how to apply
parts that are "fixed to" either the beginnings of
the strategy, usually by "thinking aloud" while
words (prefixes) or the ending of words
reading the text that the students are
(suffixes). The word disrespectful has two
using),guided practice(the teacher guides and
affixes, a prefix (dis-) and a suffix (-ful).
assists students as they learn how and when to
 ANALYTIC PHONICS: In this approach, children
apply the strategy) and application(the teacher
learn to analyze letter-sound relationships in
helps students practice the strategy until they
previously learned words. They do not
can apply it independently).
pronounce sounds in isolation
 CONTEXT CLUES: Context clues are sources of
 ANSWERING QUESTIONS: In this approach,
information outside of words that readers may
children learn to analyze letter-sound
use to predict the identities and meanings of
relationships in previously learned words. They
unknown words. Context clues may be drawn
do not pronounce sounds in isolation
from the immediate sentence containing the
 AUTOMATICITY: Automaticity is a general term
word, from text already read, from pictures
that refers to any skilled and complex behavior
accompanying the text, or from definitions,
that can be performed rather easily with little
restatements, examples, or descriptions in the
attention, effort, or conscious awareness. These
text.
skills become automatic after extended periods
 COOPERATIVE LEARNING: Cooperative learning
of training. Examples of automatic skills include
involves students working together as partners
driving a car through traffic while listening to
or in small groups on clearly defined tasks. It has
the radio, sight reading music for the piano, and
been used successfully to teach comprehension
reading orally with comprehension. With
strategies in content-area subjects
practice and good instruction, students become
 DIRECT VOCABULARY LEARNING: Direct
automatic at word recognition, that is, retrieving
vocabulary learning is when students learn
words from memory, and are able to focus
vocabulary through explicit instruction in both
attention on constructing meaning from the
the meanings of individual words and word-
text, rather than decoding.
learning strategies. Direct vocabulary instruction
 BASE WORDS: Base words are words from
aids reading comprehension.
which many other words are formed. For
 EMBEDDED PHONICS: In this approach, children
example, many words can be formed from the
learn vocabulary through explicit instruction on
base word migrate: migration, migrant,
the letter-sound relationships during the reading
immigration, immigrant, migrating, migratory.
of connected text, usually when the teacher
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notices that a child is struggling to read a
particular word. Letter-sound relationships are
taught as part of sight word reading. If the
sequence of letter-sounds is not prescribed and
sequenced, but is determined by whatever
words are encountered in text, then the
program is not systematic or explicit.
 FLUENCY: Fluency is the ability to read a text
accurately, quickly, and with proper expression
and comprehension. Because fluent readers do
not have to concentrate on decoding words,
they can focus their attention on what the text
means.
 GENERATING QUESTIONS: Generating questions
involves teaching students to ask their own
questions. This strategy improves students'
active processing of text and comprehension.
For example, a student might be taught to ask
main idea questions that relate to important
information in a text.
 GRAPHIC & SEMANTIC ORGANIZERS:
Generating questions involves teaching students
to ask their own questions. This strategy
improves students' active processing of text and
comprehension. For example, a student might
be taught to ask main idea questions that relate
to important information in a text.
 INDIRECT VOCABULARY LEARNING: Indirect
vocabulary learning refers to students learning
the meaning of words indirectly when they hear
or see the words used in many different
contexts -for example, through conversations
with adults, through being read to, and through
reading extensively on their own.
 METACOGNITION: Metacognition is the process
of "thinking about thinking." For example, good
readers use metacognition before reading when
they clarify their purpose for reading and
preview the text.
 MONITORING COMPREHENSION: Readers who
monitor their comprehension know when they
understand what they read and when they do
not. Students are able to use appropriate "fix-
up" strategies to resolve problems in
comprehension.
 ONSET & RIME: Onsets and rimes are parts of
monosyllabic words in spoken language. These
units are smaller than syllables but may be
larger than phonemes. An onset is the initial
consonant sound of a syllable (the onset of bag
is b-; of swim is sw-). The rime is the part of a
syllable that contains the vowel and all that
follows it (the rime of bag is -ag; of swim is -im).
 ONSET-RIME PHONICS INSTRUCTION: In this
approach, children learn to break monosyllabic
words into their onsets (consonants preceding
the vowel) and rimes (vowel and following
consonants). They read each part separately and
then blend the parts to say the whole word.
 PHONEME: Phonemes are the smallest units of
sound that change the meanings of spoken
words. For example, if you change the first
phoneme in bat from /b/ to /p/, the word bat
changes to pat. English has about 41-44
phonemes. A few words, such as a or oh, have
only one phoneme. Most words have more than
one phoneme. The word if has two phonemes
/i/ and /f/.
 PHONEME ADDITION: In this activity, children
make a new word by adding a phoneme to an
existing word. (Teacher: What word do you have
if you add /s/ to the beginning of park?
Children: spark.)
 PHONEME BLENDING: In this activity, children
learn to listen to a sequence of separately
spoken phonemes and then combine the
phonemes to form a word. (Teacher: What word
is /b/ /i/ /g/? Children: /b/ /i/ /g/ is big.)
 PHONEME CATEGORIZATION: In this activity,
children recognize the word in a set of three or
four words that has the "odd" sound. (Teacher:
Which word doesn't belong? bun, bus, rug.
Children: Rug does not belong. It doesn't begin
with a /b/.)
 PHONEME DELETION: In this activity, children
learn to recognize the word that remains when
a phoneme is removed from another word.
(Teacher: What is smile without the /s/?
Children: Smile without the /s/ is mile.)
 PHONEME IDENTITY: In this activity, children
learn to recognize the same sounds in different
words. (Teacher: What sound is the same in fix,
fall, and fun? Children: The first sound, /f/, is the
same.)
 PHONEME ISOLATION: In this activity, children
learn to recognize and identify individual sounds
in a word. (Teacher: What is the first sound in
van? Children: The first sound in van is /v/.)
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 PHONEME ISOLATION: In this activity, children
learn to recognize and identify individual sounds
in a word. (Teacher: What is the first sound in
van? Children: The first sound in van is /v/.)
 PHONEME SEGMENTATION: In this activity,
children break a word into its separate sounds,
saying each sound as they tap out or count it.
(Teacher: How many sounds are in grab?
Children: /g/ /r/ /a/ /b/. Four sounds.)
 PHONEME SUBSTITUTION: In this activity,
children substitute one phoneme for another to
make a new word. (Teacher: The word is bug.
Change /g/ to /n/. What's the new word?
Children: bun.)
 PHONEMIC AWARENESS: Phonemic awareness
is the ability to notice, think about, and work
with the individual sounds in spoken words. An
example of how beginning readers show us they
have phonemic awareness is combining or
blending the separate sounds of a word to say
the word ("/c/ /a/ /t/ -cat.")
 PHONICS: Phonics is a form of instruction to
cultivate the understanding and use of the
alphabetic principle, that there is a predictable
relationship between phonemes (the sounds in
spoken language) and graphemes, the letters
that represent those sounds in written language,
and that this information can be used to read or
decode words.
 PHONICS THROUGH SPELLING: In this approach,
children learn to segment words into phonemes
and to make words by writing letters for
phonemes.
 RECIPROCAL TEACHING: Reciprocal teaching is a
multiple-strategy instructional approach for
teaching comprehension skills to students.
Teachers teach students four strategies: asking
questions about the text they are reading;
summarizing parts of the text; clarifying words
and sentences they don't understand; and
predicting what might occur next in the text.
 REPEATED & MONITORED ORAL READING: In
this instructional activity, students read and
reread a text a certain number of times or until
a certain level of fluency is reached. This
technique has been shown to improve reading
fluency and overall reading achievement. Four
re-readings are usually sufficient for most
students. Students may also practice reading
orally through the use of audio tapes, tutors,
peer guidance, or other means.
 STORY STRUCTURE: In story structure, a reader
sees the way the content and events of a story
are organized into a plot. Students learn to
identify the categories of content (setting,
characters, initiating events, internal reactions,
goals, attempts, and outcomes) and how this
content is organized into a plot. Often students
recognize the way the story is organized by
developing a story map. This strategy improves
students' comprehension and memory of story
content and meaning.
 SUMMARIZING: Summarizing is a process in
which a reader synthesizes the important ideas
in a text. Teaching students to summarize helps
them generate main ideas, connect central
ideas, eliminate redundant and unnecessary
information, and remember what they read.
 SYLLABLE: A syllable is a word part that contains
a vowel or, in spoken language, a vowel sound
(e-vent, news-pa-per).
 SYNTHETIC PHONICS: n this instructional
approach, children learn how to convert letters
or letter combinations into a sequence of
sounds, and then how to blend the sounds
together to form recognizable words.
 SYSTEMATIC & EXPLICIT PHONICS
INSTRUCTION: The most effective way to teach
phonics. A program is systematic if the plan of
instruction includes a carefully selected set of
letter sound relationships that are organized
into a logical sequence. Explicit means the
programs provide teachers with precise
directions for the teaching of these
relationships.
 TEXT COMPREHENSION: Text comprehension is
the reason for reading: understanding what is
read, with readers reading actively (engaging in
the complex process of making sense from text)
and with purpose (for learning, understanding,
or enjoyment).
 VOCABULARY: Vocabulary refers to the words a
reader knows. Listening vocabulary refers to the
words a person knows when hearing them in
oral speech. Speaking vocabulary refers to the
words we use when we speak. Reading
vocabulary refers to the words a person knows
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when seeing them in print. Writing vocabulary
refers to the words we use in writing.
 WORD PARTS: Word parts include affixes
(prefixes and suffixes), base words, and word
roots.
 WORD ROOTS: Word roots are words from
other languages that are the origin of many
English words. About 60% of all English words
have Latin or Greek origins.
WHAT IS READING?
Reading is the process of looking at a series of
written symbols and getting meaning from them.
Types of Reading and Reading Methodology
 SKIMMING: This reading method is used to get
to know and understand if this information is
useful to you (you are viewing a book in a store
or a magazine on the shelf before buying it)
 SCANNING: This reading method is aimed only
at finding the necessary information in the text.
This type of reading is also called 'diagonal
reading'.
 EXTENSIVE READING: The purpose of this type
of reading is to get acquainted with new
information.
 INTENSIVE READING: With this type of reading,
grammatical constructions, unfamiliar words,
and phrases are intensively examined.
READING TECHNIQUES
Approaches to reading that you can employ to
become a better and more accomplished reader. The
techniques will help you read faster, understand
what you read better, and remember what you read
better.
1. SQ3R Technique
 Survey - to get a quick idea of the content
and structure of the reading. By doing this,
you are preparing your mind
 Question - Prepare questions for yourself
to go over as you read the material.
 Read - Read with your questions in mind.
In this step, you can combine other
reading techniques that may work for you.
 Recite - now it is time to go back and
answer those questions you created.
 Review - Make mental notes or say aloud
what you have learned.
2. Detailed Reading
Is the most labor-intensive and timeconsuming
reading technique. Readers carefully read,
consume, and analyze each word for meaning.
Piecing together the meanings of words in a
sentence to provide a deeper understanding can
take time and patience, but in some cases, this
is the best technique to use.
3. Structure-Preposition-Evaluation (SPE
Technique)
 Was proposed by Mortimer Adler in his
1940 book titled, How to Read a Book.
 Mortimer suggests that the best way to
read a book is to find the structure,
author-made propositions, and to
create your own evaluations.
FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE READING ABILITY
 Background knowledge - it plays an essential
role in reading comprehension. Background
knowledge includes both a reader's real-world
experiences and literary knowledge.
 Vocabulary - whether students have or have
not mastered vocabulary skills affect their
reading comprehension.
 Fluency - reading with fluency allows students
to retain information with accuracy,
expression, and increased speed.
 Active Reading - students can actively guide
their own reading by targeting comprehension
problems as they occur.
 Critical thinking - students can actively respond
to a text more efficiently when they possess
critical thinking skills.
READING MODELS
Reading models are a tool used to instruct reading.
Reading is a fundamental value in education for life
skills including pleasure, career, and education.
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 Top-down - In this model, the focus is
wholelanguage learning through the
exploration of literature. This method is
adopted by instructors who feel that
students learn by doing
 Bottom-up - This model focuses on direct
instruction and the teaching of phonics to
further reading growth.
 Interactive - This is the most widely used
approach in modern teaching of reading.
This model incorporates a combination of
both topdown and bottom-up.
FOUR CUEING SYSTEM
 Phonological System: phonology, phoneme,
grapheme
 Syntactic System: syntax or grammar,
morphology, morpheme, free morpheme,
bound morpheme
 Semantic System: semantics, formal semantics
 Pragmatic System: pragmatics, function,
dialect, standard English
FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE READING
SKILLS
Factors That Affect Reading Comprehension:
 Background Knowledge: Background
knowledge plays an essential role in reading
comprehension. In an effort to comprehend a
text, students rely on their background
knowledge to link what they already know to
the text they are reading
 Vocabulary: Whether or not students have
mastered vocabulary skills affects their reading
comprehension. Students must be able to
comprehend a familiar word and its
relationship with other words within a text.
 Fluency: Reading with fluency allows students
to retain information with accuracy, expression
and increased speed. The ability to read
fluently develops through reading practice.
 Active Reading: Beginning readers often rely
on skilled readers to guide them through a
text. However, as readers develop, they will be
able to monitor their own reading
comprehension
 Critical Thinking: Students can actively respond
to a text more efficiently when they possess
critical thinking skills. As students read, they
can determine the main idea and supporting
details, the sequence of events and the overall
structure of the text.
CONCERNS IN TEACHING READING
Did You Know? One of the earliest things that
students learn in school is how to read. However,
the act of teaching children to read is not so easy. It
cannot be taught in only a couple of lessons, and
there is no one way to teach reading to all
students. 
Common Reading Problems (Elementary Age)
1. Does not always recognize start or end
sounds: Many children know their letter
sounds, but cannot recognize these sounds
when sounding out words.
2. Guesses, mispronounces or skips words
while reading: Many readers are skipping
words, preferring instead to read the words
they recognize first and fill in the unknown
words later.
3. Forgets words even right after being helped:
Many children are failing to recognize the
same word on the same or next page, within a
minute or two of receiving help with the word
earlier
4. Cannot spell: Poor spelling is most often
indicative of poor phonics caused by weak
phonological awareness
5. Resists reading: Many children with reading
difficulties start to resist reading out loud to
their parents. Furthermore, they become
easily distracted in reading times in school
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6. Reading is behind compared to other
subjects: For many students, reading at grade
level is not a good outcome.
Common Reading Problems (Middle School &
Older)
1. Slow reader: Most students learn to decode by
middle school, but they read slowly, which
impacts homework efficiency and test taking
2. Comprehension skills not keeping up: Many
reading problems only surface in middle school,
when more complicated content challenges
reading skills.
3. Cannot read for long periods: Reading stamina
is an important reading skill. many children with
reading problems can only read for a few
minutes at a time
4. Does not enjoy reading: Many students do not
enjoy reading for any reason - text books,
assigned texts, novels, newspapers, and
magazines.
3 Common Reading Problems
 Issues with Decoding: It’s common for
beginner readers to struggle when they meet
new or unfamiliar terms, but typically
decoding becomes easier with phonics
instruction and repeated practice with reading
out loud
 Poor Comprehension: When a beginner
reader encounters vocabulary they do not
know or do not recognize due to inaccurate
decoding, they are likely to skip ahead
 Speed: The more students read, the more
they encounter unfamiliar terms. Quite often
the context in which these new words are
found gives children all of the clues they need
to guess at the meaning.
PRINCIPLES OF VOCABULARY
INSTRUCTIONS
1. Focus on rich meanings, not just dictionary
definitions
Too often vocabulary instruction is no more than
kids copying definitions from the dictionary. But
researchers have identified a number of instructional
approaches that outdo any learning that may accrue
from copying definitions.
One of those key principles is that students work
with more extensive or complex definitions or
explanations of word meanings. Encourage the
encyclopedia explanation over the dictionary
meanings.
2. Emphasize the connections among words.
It is quite reasonable when teaching words to get
kids thinking about words about that concept that
they may already have mastered. Linking a new
word to a concept, is very different than trying to
learn and link a whole collection of words.
3. Promote usage of the words
It is not enough that kids study word meanings, but
they have to learn to use these words in their
reading, writing, speaking, and listening. Instruction
should create opportunities for kids to use words in
all of these ways.
4. Review is important
It can be hard to retain vocabulary if you don’t get a
lot of opportunity to use it. We may teach
vocabulary because certain words were prominent in
the texts, we were reading this week, but then kids
might not see them for a long time.
5. Involve students in identifying some of the words
to be studied.
One thing that we can do to help develop a “word
consciousness” among our students is to involve
them in identifying unknown words from their own
reading — and to include these in your classroom
curriculum.
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Did You Know? Reading comprehension is the most
important academic fundamental, with
immeasurable benefits. Some reading
comprehension benefits are well-documented:
improved reasoning skills, better, more insightful
writing, faster reading, and better performance in
many subjects.
What Are The Benefits Of Teaching
Comprehension?
Without comprehension, children gain no meaning
from what they read. Comprehension strategies are
used to increase children's understanding of the text
to help them become active readers by engaging
with the text.
Major Objectives in Reading
 Read to activate and reinforce other skills:
(grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation, and
writing). In the same way that oral dialogues,
short compositions, and listening activities do,
reading can put into practice grammatical
structures, new lexical items, and elements of
pronunciation. Reading can also offer good
writing models.
 Reading to become a better reader: Reading is
a skill in itself, and the advantage of working
with adult language learners is that they are
usually literate in their native language. This
means that they are able to transfer advanced
reading skills to the second language classroom.
 Read to develop critical thinking skills: This is
important to address because when teaching
English for general purposes, it can be easy to
dismiss reading as an activity more suited for an
academic environment. In all situations, critical
thinking skills aid communication
 Read for enjoyment: Students should ideally
discover not only the usefulness but also the
pleasure of being able to read in a second
language.
The main objective and purpose of reading is to
connect the ideas on the page to what you already
know. If you don't know anything about a subject,
then pouring words of text into your mind is like
pouring water into your hand. You don't retain
much.
-Irene M. Pepperberg
TEXT ORGANIZATION
Text organization refers to how a text is organized to
help readers follow and understand the information
presented. There are a number of standard forms
that help text organization when writing.
5 Basic Text Organizational Structures:
 Sequence: Sequence uses time, numerical, or
spatial order as the organizing structure. Some
narrative genres that use a chronological
sequence structure are personal narrative
genres (memoir, autobiographical incident,
autobiography), imaginative story genres
(fairytales, folktales, fantasy, science fiction),
and realistic fiction genres.
 Description: is used to describe the
characteristic features and events of a specific
subject (”My Cat”) or a general category
(”Cats”). Descriptive reports may be arranged
according to categories of related attributes,
moving from general categories of features to
specific attributes.
 Cause and effect: structure is used to show
causal relationships between events. Essays
demonstrate cause and effect by giving reasons
to support relationships, using the word
“because.” Signal words for cause and effect
structures also include if/then statements, “as
a result,” and “therefore.”
 Comparison and contrast: structure is used to
explain how two or more objects, events, or
positions in an argument are similar or
different. Graphic organizers such as Venn
diagrams, compare/contrast organizers, and
tables can be used to compare features across
different categories. Words used to signal
comparison and contrast organizational
structures include “same,” “alike,” “in
contrast,” “similarities,” “differences,” and “on
the other hand.”
 Problem and solution: requires writers to state
a problem and come up with a solution.
Although problem/solution structures are
typically found in informational writing,
realistic fiction also often uses a
problem/solution structure.
TEACHING & ASSESSMENT OF MACRO SKILLS
Reviewer - Prelim

Why Is Text Structure Important?

When readers identify and recognize the text

structure of a text, this can significantly improve
their comprehension and retention of information.
Understanding the text structure can help students:
Organize information and details they are learning in
their minds while reading.