INSTRUCTIONS

1. Diagram in front of theory (on blank paper)

2. Calculation in front of observation table (on blank paper).

3. Use pencil for diagram and graph paper.

4. Draw the diagram from your file printed material.

5. Paste your original performed practical paper for Prism practical.

6. Aim, Apparatus, theory observation and table, results, precaution on

lining side paper.

7. Diagram and calculation on blank side paper.

8. Graph on graph paper attached in front of observation table.

9. Use Elite, Rohit etc. file.

10. Write Activities on classmate file (90 pages).

11. Draw the diagram from your file material for Activities.
 PRACTICAL NO- 1
Aim: To determine resistance of a given wire using meter bridge and hence determine to
specific resistance of its material

Apparatus: Meter bridge, the given wire, connecting wire sand paper, key, Leclanchi cell,
resistance box (prefer ably fractional) galvanometer, Jockey meter scale, screw gauge and
wire cutter.

Theory: The meter bridge works on the principal of wheat stone bridge. It consisted of four
resistance P,Q,R and S connected in the circuit as shown is fig (a ) it can be used to determine
any one of the fur resistance in terms of the remaining three.

Circuit Diagram-Meter Bridge

For a balanced bridge with the keys K an K1, closed no current flows through the
galvanometers and in this conditions we have

P R

Q S

Meter bridge also side wire bridge is a practical from of Wheatstone bridge, if R and S are the
resistance in the graph ab and cd of the bridge and B is the balance point on a wire of uniform
diameter, we have

R resis tan ceof wire AB


S resis tan ceof wire BC

Where AC = 100 cm is a constant or mag again wire of uniform area of cross section and
resistance of AB

And Bc are proportional to their length

Page 2 of 29
 R  l

S 100  l
S  R  100  l
( )
l

IF “L” is the length and r the redirs of the resistance wire ‘S’ then

pL
S
r 2 P  Rho
Sr 2
P 
L

Where is the specific resistance of the material of the wire.

100cm
Observation – Least count of meter scale =  0.1cm
1000

Total number of division on the circular scale = 100

Pitch 0.1
Least count (LC) of the screw gauge =   .001cm
no.of division 100

S. No Main scale Circular Diameter Mean Radius (cm)

reading scale reading (a+b) (cm) diameter
(a) (cm) (b) (cm) cm
1 0.1 0.038 0.138 0.140 0.070
2 0.1 0.040 0.140
3 0.1 0.041 0.141
Unknown Resistance S

Calculation: Unknown Resistance

Reading :

100  l 72
I. S R   2.57 
l 28

100  l 60
II. S R   2  3 
l 40

100  l 51.5
III. S R   3  3.19 
l 48.5

Page 3 of 29
 100  l 44
IV. S R   4  3.14 
l 56

100  l 38
V. S R   5  3.07 
l 62

Mean Resistance :

2.57  3  3.19  3.14  3.07 14.97 

S mean =   2.99
5 5

0.138 .140  0.141 0.419

Mean diameter of mean =   0.140cm
3 3

d mean 0.140
Redius R   0.070 cm
2 2

Specific Resistance e  Rho

s r 2
e 
l
2.99  3.14 (.070)2
e 
40cm
9.388.0049
e
40cm
e  .00115 cm

S. NO Resistance in Balancing Balancing Unknown Mean

resistance length ( l ) cm Length Resistance resistance
(box) (100- l )
1 1  28.0 72.0 2.57 
2 2  40.0 60.0 3 
3 3  48.5 51.5 3.19  2.99 
4  56.0 44.0 3.14 
5  62.0 38.0 3.07 
Result : The specific resistance of the material of the given wire is 1.15×10-3  cm

Precautions :

1. All the plugs in the resistance box should be light.

Page 4 of 29
2. The connection should be neat, clean and tight.

3. The plug in the key K should be inserted only when the observation are to taken.

Sources of Error :

1. The plug may not be clean.

2. The instrument Screws may be loose.

Page 5 of 29
 PRACTICAL NO- 2
Aim : To verify the laws of series combination of resistance using meter bridge.

Apparatus : A meter bridge, galvanometer, resistance box Jockey, two resistance

coils/wires, connecting wires, sand paper and a current Source (e.g Lechalanche cell)

Theory : For a balanced wheat stone bridge the resistance r of a wire (used as S) In given by

100  l 
r   R
 l 

For a series combination of two resistance r1 and r2 the net resistance ( rs) is given by

rs  r1  r2

Diagram:

Series combination of resistance

Observation:

Theoretical value r’s = r1 + r2 = 6.25 


Observation table:

Resistance S. No Resistance Length Length Resistance Mean

connected from the AB= l cm BC(100- l )  100  l  resistance
r  R
box cm  l  (Ohm)
R (ohm) (Ohm)
r, Only 1 2  40 60 3  r1 =
2 3  49 51 3.12  3.06 
1 2  39cm 61cm 3.13 
r2 Only 2 3  48cm 52cm 3.25  r2 = 3.19 

Page 6 of 29
r1 and r2 1 5  46cm 54cm 5.9  rs = 5.72 
in series 2 6  52 cm 48 cm 5.53 

Calculation :

I. r  (100  l)  R  60  2  3 
 

1
l 40

(100  l) 51
r  
R  
 3  3.12 
1
l 59

3  3.12
Mean r1   3.06 
2

(100  l) 61
II. r R  
 2  3.13 
2
l 34

(100  l) 52
r R  
 3  3.25 
2
l 48

3.13  3.25 
Mean r2   3.2 
2

(100  l) 54
III. r R  
 5  5.9 
3
l 46

(100  l) 48
r R  
 6  5.5 
3
l 52

5.9  5.5
r  5.72 
3
2

(Experimental value)

Difference= 6.25-5.72 = 0.53  (Negligible)

Result : Difference between experimental value and theoretical value is negligible so series
combination law is proved.

Precaution :

1. All of the plug of resistance box should be tight

Page 7 of 29
2. The connection should be neat, clean and tight

3. The plug is key K, should be inserted only when the observation are to be taken.

4. Move the jockey gently over the bridge wire and do not rub it.

Sources of Error

1. The plug may not be clean.

2. The instrument screw may be loose.

Page 8 of 29
 PRACTICAL NO- 3
Aim :- To determine the resistance of a moving coil galvanometer by half-deflection method
and to find its figure of merit.

Apparatus: Moving coil, galvanometer, a high resistance box a low resistance box, a
Laclanche cell I freshly prepared I two one – way keys , connecting wires and sand paper.

Theory – A galvanometer is a device used to detect and measure current A galvanometer

worker on this principal that a current, carrying coil placed in a uniform magnetic field
experiences a torque.

A galvanometer is said to be sensitive if it shows large defection for small current.

Mathematically its sensitivity is expressed as deflection per unit current sensitivity = IS

deflection 
 
current I
A galvanometer should have low resistance/
Figure of merit – The figure of merit of a galvanometer is defined as the current required to
produce a deflection of one division in the galvanometer
E
The figure of merit (K) of a galvanometer is given by K 
 (R  G)
Where ;- E = e.m.f of the cell

 = galvanometer deflection in divisions

R = Resistance in the circuit (from the resistance box)

G = Resistance of Galvanometer

Diagram :

Page 9 of 29
 The resistance of the galvanometer is given by

RS
G
RS

Where R = Resistance introduced by high resistance box to produce deflection 

S = Resistance introduced by low resistance box to get half deflection  /2

Observation Table : (A) Table for G

S. No H.R.B. Galvanometer Shunt Half RS

G
Resistance deflection a Resistance deflection RS

R ( Ohm) ( ) div S (Ohm)   (ohm)

div
 
 2 
1 5000 28 70 14 70.99 
2 5500 26 70 13 70.90 
3 6000 24 70 12 70.82 
4 6500 22 70 11 70.76 
5 7000 20 70 10 70.70 
Mean RG = 70.83 
Mean RG = 70.83 

Calculation For K

G = 70 
E
1. K   
2.15

2.15  0.176 104 amp / dw
1
(R  G) 28(5000  70) 141960
E
2. K   2.15


2.15  0.172 104 amp / dw
2
(R  G) 26(5500  70) 144820
E
3. K   2.15


2.15  0.171104 amp / dw
3
(R  G) 24(6000  70) 145680
E
4. K  
 2.15

2.15  0.172 104 amp / dw
4
(R  G 22(6500  70) 144540
E
5. K   2.15


2.15  0.176104 amp / dw
5
(R  G) 20(7000  70) 141400
K  K2  K3  K4  K5
Mean K  1
5
0.176 10  0.172 104  0.171104  0.172 104  0.176 104
4

5
K  0.1734 10 dmp / dw
4

Page 10 of 29
 Table of K – e.m.f of the cell (E) = 2.15 volt

S. no. Resistance introduced in Galvanometer Figure of ment

E
the higher resistance box Deflection (dw) K
 (R  G)
(Ohm)

1 5000  28 0.176 × 10-4 amp/div

2 5500  26 0.172 × 10-4 amp/div

3 6000  24 0.171 × 10-4 amp/div

4 6500  22 0.172 × 10-4 amp/div

5 7000  20 0.176 × 10-4 amp/div

Mean k = 0.1734 × 10-4 amp/division

Result : The resistance of the galvanometer = 70.834 


And figure of merit of the galvanometer = k = 0.1734×10-4 amp/division

Precautions :

1. Draw the circuit diagram before making the connections

2. While making the connection , Key k, and k2 should be removed

3. Insert key k, only after taking out a high resistance from k

4. All the connection and keys should be tight

Sources of Error :

1. The plug may not be clean.

2. The instrument screws may be loose.

Page 11 of 29
 PRACTICAL NO. 4

Aim : to find the frequency of A c main with a sonameter and a horse shoe magnet.

Apparatus :

Somometer with non- magnetic wire horse – shoe magnet, step down transformer , screw
gauge, hanger and weights.

Theory:

An current carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field experiences a force. If the conductor
carrier alternating current, the direction of the force will be reversed and the wire will
oscillate with frequency of the A.C. for wire of length ‘l’ and mass per unit length ‘m’ under
a tension T, the frequency of vibration of the wire is given by

1 1
V 
 2l m

Diagram :

Observation :

Mass of wire M1 = .005 kg/mt

Length of wire L = 1 meter

M1
=----
L
Mass per unit length of the wire m =

Page 12 of 29
Calculation :

1 T 1 1
v1 = = × 0.5 = × 100 = 50H
2l m 2×0.1 0.005 20 2

1 T 1 1 = 1
v2 = = × × 200 = 48.76H2
2l m 2×.145 0.005 .29

1 1.5 1
v3 =   300  49.48H2
2 .175 0.005 0.35
1 2 1
v4    400  50H2
2  0.20 0.005 0.40

1 2.5 1
v5    500  49.69H2
2  0.225 0.005 0.45

v1  v2  v3  v4  v5
Mean V 
5
247.93
 5
v  49.58H2

Observation table :

S. No Load Tension Resonating length Mean V=

suspend of applied Length 1 t
AB (n)
2.1 m
M ( kg)
T =Mg (N) l (cm )
Increasing / Decreasing

1 0.05 kg 0.5 9.8 10.2 10 50H2

2 0.10 kg 1 14 15 14.5 48.76 H2

3 0.15 kg 1.5 17 18 17.5 49.48 H2

4 0.20 kg 2 19 21 20 50 H2

5 0.25 kg 2.5 22 23 22.5 49.69 H2

Mean  = 49.58 H2

Result : Frequency of a. c supply

 = 49.58 H2

Page 13 of 29
Precautions :

1. The wire should be uniform and there should be no kinds in the wire.

2. The horse – shoe magnet should be placed in the middle of the wedge.

3. Weight of the hanger should also be taken in to account.

4. The magnet should not touch the wire.

5. The wedges should have sharp edges.

Page 14 of 29
 PRACTICAL NO. 5
1 1
Aim: To find the focal length of a convex lens by plating a graph between u and v or between and
u v

Apparatus:

An optical bench, there upright, a convex lens, a lens holder, two optical needles, a knitting
needle and a half meter scale.

Theory: The focal length ‘f’ of a convex lens is related to the object distance ‘u’ and image
distance ‘v’ by the formula.

1 1 1 uv
  or f 
f v u uv

According to the sign convention used, the object distance is Taken to be negative where as
the image distance and the focal length are taken as positive.

Diagram:

Observation :

Rough focal length of the convex lens = 10 cm

Least count of optical benche = 0.1 cm

Calculation –

(I) By u – v graph

OA = OB, 2f = 20 cm from graph OA = OB = 20 cm

20
F= cm So, f = 10 cm
2

Page 15 of 29
 1 1
(II)  graph
U V

By = OP = OQ = 0.1 cm–1
1 1
f or
OP OQ

1
f  f  10 cm
0.1

Observation Table :

S. Position of Distance Distance between 1 1

No between U V
Object Lens Image image & lens
Obj & lens cm- cm-
(cm) (cm) (cm) (V) (cm)
(U) (cm)

1 30 50 70 20 20 0.05 0.05

2 20 50 64.2 30 14.2 0.033 0.07

3 10 50 63.3 40 13.3 0.025 0.075

4 0 50 62.5 50 12.5 0.02 0.08

Result : focal length of lens

1. From u – v graph → f = 10 cm
1 1
2. From  graph → f = 10 cm
U V
Precautions :
1. Tip of the object and image needles lie at the same height as the centre of the lens.
2. The image and the object neegles should not be interchanged for different sets of
observation

Page 16 of 29
 PRACTICAL NO. 6

Aim : To find the value of V for different value of u in case of a concave mirror and to find the focal
length by plotting graph between.

1 1
(i) u and v (ii) u and v

Apparatus :

Optical bench, three upright, with provision for lateral movement, mirror holder, two pins, a
knitting needle and a half meter scale

Theory: The focal length ‘f’ of a concave mirror is related to the object distance u and image
distance v by the formula.

1 1 1
 
f U V
UV
Or f 
UV

Diagram:

According to Cartesian sign conversions used, the object distance and the image distance are
taken to be negative so the focal length of the concave mirror is also negative.

Observations :

Page 17 of 29
Least count of optical bench – 0.1 cm

Rough focal length of given concave mirror = – 10 cm

Observation Table :

S. Position of Distance Distance between 1 1

No between U V
Object mirror Image image & mirror
Obj & mirror cm- cm-
(cm) (cm) (cm) (V) (cm)
(U) (cm)

1 40 cm 0 cm 13.3 cm 40 cm 13.3 cm 0.025 0.075

2 50 cm 0 cm 12.5 cm 50 cm 12.5 cm 0.02 0.08

3 60 cm 0 cm 12 cm 60 cm 12 cm 0.016 0.083

4 70 cm 0 cm 11.6 cm 70 cm 11.6 cm 0.014 0.086

Result : focal length of mirror → f = -10 cm

1. From u – v graph = -10 cm

1 1
2. From  graph = -10 cm
U V

Precautions :

1. All the upright should be vertical

2. The tip of the needle, centre of the mirror & centre of the mirror should be at the
same height

3. The – concave mirror should be of large focal length

Page 18 of 29
 PRACTICAL NO. 7

Aim: To determine the refractive index of the material of a glass slab using a travelling microscope.

Apparatus:

Glass slab, traveling microscope, fine saw dust or chalk powder.

Theory: Due to the phenomenon of refraction a point X when seen through a glass slab ( or
any other medium) refracting appears to be raised to y, the apparent depth (=yz) of the slab is
less then the real depth xz , the refractive index of the material of the glass slab is given by →

Realdepth zx
 
apparent depth z  y

Observation : Vernire constant of the microscope scale = .001 cm

Diagram:

Observation Table :

S. Vertical scale reading with microscope Read Apparent ZX

µ=
No pussed on depth depth ZY
Ink mark Ink mark Chalk / (Z-X) (Z-Y) (cm)
without slab with slab dust (cm)
X Y particles Z
(cm) (cm) (cm)
1 2.00 2.400 3.240 1.240 0.840 1.476
2 3.00 3.400 4.230 1.230 0.830 1.481
3 4.00 4.405 5.240 1.240 0.835 1.485
Mean = 1.4806

Result :

Refractive inder of the material of the slab = 1.4806

Page 19 of 29
Precaution :

1. The microscope should be carefully focused.

2. The microscope screw should be moved only in one direction to avoid back – last error.
3. The particles used should be very fine.
4. The experiment should be performed in a well lit form.

Page 20 of 29
 PRACTICAL NO. 8
Aim: To draw the characteristic curve of a pn junction diode in forward bias and reverse bias.
Apparatus :

Theory: A p-n junction os forward biased when its p side is connected to the positive of
supply voltage and n to the negative terminal. Initially with the increase in voltage there is
not much rise in current due to the opposition by barrier potential. Beyond this, the current
starts rising. The forward voltage when current starts rising is termed as knee-voltage.

Reverse biasing A p-n junction is said to be reverse biased if the positive terminal of the
external battery B is connected to n side and the negative terminal to p side of the p-n
junction.

From the characteristics curve it is noted that in reverse biasing of p-n junction diode, the
reverse current is very small (mA) and is voltage independent upto certain reverse bias
voltage. It is called break down voltage.

Circuit Diagram :

Observation : L. C of voltmeter is forward bias = 0.02 v

L.C of millimeter in F.B = 0.2 ma

L. C of voltmeter in R. B = 1 V

L. C of micrometer in R.B = 2 µA.

Page 21 of 29
Observation table :

S. No Forward bias Reverse bias

Voltmeter (V) Ammeter (mA) Voltmeter (V) Ammeter (µA)

Vf If Vr Ir

1 5×0.02=.1 0×0.2=0 5×1=5 0×2=0

2 10×0.02=0.2 1×0.2=.2 10×1=10 1×2=2

3 15×0.02 = 0.3 3×0.2 = 0.6 15× 1 = 15 2×2 = 4

4 20 × 0.02 = 0.4 7 × 0 .2 = 1.4 20 × 1 = 20 4× 2 = 8

5 25 × 0.02 = 0.5 12 × 0.2 = 2.4 25 × 1 = 25 7 × 2 = 14

Result : Result is shown on graph paper

Graph:

Draw the graph on graph paper as your reading.

Precaution :

1. All connections should be neat, clean and tight

2. Keys should be used in circuit and opened when circuit is not being used.
Sources of Error :

The junction diode supplied may be faulty.

Page 22 of 29
 ACTIVITIES

Activity – 1

Aim: To assemble a household circuit, comprising there bulbs, there (on/off) switches, a
fuse and a powder source.

Apparatus And Material : A tester, three bulbs (40w, 60w and 100w) , three (on/off)
switches, red and black insulated flexible wires , a fuse wire, a kit-kat (for fuse) , the main
plug and insulating tape.

Diagram:

Procedure:

1. Connect one end of each of three switches to one end of the bulb holders using a red wire
connect the other ends of the bulb holders to the black flexible wires.

2. Connect the other ends of the switches to the red wires.

3. Connect the switch-bulb combinations in parallel keeping red wires at one common point
and the black wires at another common point.

4. Take two long flexible wires to save as lead wires.

5. Connect the red wires to the red lead wires and the black ends to the black lead wire.

6. Put the fuse wire in the live lead.

7. Connect the free ends of the lead wires to the two ends of the plug.

8. Test the live terminals using the tester insert the plug taking care that the red becomes the
live wire and the black lead the neutral wire.

9. Test the circuit by switches on and off the bulbs one-by-one.

Page 23 of 29
Precautions:

1. The connections should be tight.

2. The red lead should always act as the live wire and the fuse should be introduced in this
wire.

3. The switch should always be connected in the live wire.

4. All the joints should be properly insulated.

Activity – 2

Aim : to assemble the components of a given electrical circuit (say the circuit to determine
galvanometer resistance)

Apparatus : A galvanometer, two resistance boxes two one-way keys and a cell.

Procedure:

Connect the given pieces of apparatus as shown in the figure keeping the two keys open.
Carefully check that the high resistance box R I connected in series and the low resistance
box and is connected in parallel with the galvanometer. The circuit can be used to find the
resistance of the galvanometer.

Activity – 3

Aim: To draw the diagram of a given open circuit comprising of attest a battery, a resistor, a
rheostat , a key, an ammeter and a voltmeter. Mark the components that are not connected in
proper order and correct the circuit and also the circuit diagram.

Apparatus : A voltmeter, an ammeter, a battery, a rheostat, one way key, connecting wires.

Page 24 of 29
Procedure:

1. Ensure that the key in out of the circuit.

2. Study the circuit carefully to see whether the components have been properly connected.

3. The ammeter should be connected in series. In the circuit the ammeter is in parallel with
the resistance coil. So the ammeter is wrongly connected.

4. The voltmeter should be connected in parallel. In the circuit, the voltmeter is in series and
is honce wrongly connected.

5. In the use of rheostat as variable resistance, one box and the other top terminal has to be
used. But in the circuit both the base. Terminals have been used . so the rheostat is also
wrongly connected

6. The +ve terminals of the components should be connected to the +ve terminals of the
battery.

7. Remove one of the base connections of the re rheostat and connect it to the top terminal.
The correct connections are as shown below.

Activity – 4

Aim : To identify a diode, an LED, a transistor, an IC a every resistor and a capacitor from a
mixed collection of these items.

Apparatus: The given collection of items and a multimeter .

Theory: Characteristics of various items are as under –

Page 25 of 29
(a) A diode is a two terminal device offering low resistance when forward biased and
high resistance when reverse biased. It does not emit light when it conducts.

(b) An LED, called light emitting diode is also a two terminal device offering low
resistance when forward biased and high resistance when reverse biased. It emits light
as it conducts.

(c) A resistor is also a two terminal device it conducts and its resistance is same when
current is passed through it in any direction it conducts both alternating current as
well as direct current.

(d) A capacitor is also a two terminal device offering very high resistance to direct
current when either of its terminals is made positive the current flows is the circuit
with a capacitor connected to an AC source.

(e) A transistor is a three- terminal device its three terminals are called the emitter, the
base and the collector.

(f) An IC has four as more terminals.

Procedure:

1. From the given collection, separate all items with four or more terminals. All these items
are ICs.

2. Separate the items hairing three terminals these items are transistor.

3. Set the multi meter to measure resistance in the range of a few kilo-ohms. Take a two
terminal item and measure its resistance in both the directions.

4. Repeat step (3) with other two terminal items if it offers very high resistance in both the
directions and does not conduct, it is a capacitor.

5. The two terminals device with high resistance in same direction and low resistance in
other is a diode, it does not emit light when it conducts.

6. Identify the two – terminal devices with high resistance in one-direction (reverse bias)
and low resistance in opposite direction (forward bias). If it emits light as it conducts and
offer low resistance, it is an LED.

Page 26 of 29
 Activity – 5

Aim: To observe refraction and lateral deviation of a beam of light incident obliquely on a
glass slab.

Apparatus: A rectangular glass slab, drawing board, drawing pins, paper pins pencil,
sharpener, geometry box, a sheet of white paper.

Theory:- When a ray of tight passes through parallel to the Incident ray. The light however
undergoes lateral displacement depending on the angle of incidence, thickness of the slab
and nature of the material of the slab.

The displacement‘d’ is given by →

d sin(i r)
D = Rm =
cos r

Page 27 of 29
Procedure :

1. Fire a sheet of white paper on the drawing board by means of drawing pins.

2. Draw a line parallel to length of the paper and slighting above the half of the paper.

3. Tape a point ‘o’ on the line. Draw 1 or to the line at point 0 and a line OI such that LION
= 300

4. Fire two points P1 and P2 vertically on the line at a distance of 8 cm or more. Palace the
slab on the line and draw its boundary ABCD as shown.

5. Looking from face CD, fire pins P3 and P4 (vertically) So that the bottoms of all the pins
appears to be in the same line.

6. Join the pin pricles . draw RM pendicular to the incident ray (produced). Measure RM, Lx
and Le.

7. Repeat steps 3 to 6 for different angles of incidence to record at least five observations.

S. No Agle of Angle of Sin i Sin r sin i Lateral

u
incident, i refraction sin r displace
ment a
1.61 (cm)

1 300 180 1 5 1 1.61 1.3 cm

2 4
= 0.5 = 0.309

Page 28 of 29
 Activity – 6

Aim: To observe polarization of light using two Polaroid’s.

Apparatus: Light source, two Polaroid pieces.

Theory: Polarization is a phenomenon evehibited only by transferors waves. It is the

phenomenon by which the vibrations in o transverse wave are confined to one particular
direction only.

In ordinary light (unpolarised ) travelling in + u direction in Yoz plane. However, when light
is passed through a Polaroid, the oscillations are confined only along the pass areas of the
Polaroid. The light transmitted by ‘A’ is called polarized light. A Polaroid allows only a part
of light to pass through it.

Test for polarization: it refraction of crystal A results in continued unchanged brightness of

field of view, then the incident light is said to be inpolarised.

Pass polarized light through another Polaroid B Rotate B and study the intensity of the
transmitted light and at some stage these is total darkness, than light incident on B is plan
polarized.

Procedure:

1. Take a Polaroid A and observe a light source through it. Slowly rotate A and observe the
transmitted light. There is a decrease in the intensity of light passing through A. on
rotation there is no change in intensity of light transmitted by A Hence the light incident
on A is unpolarized.

2. Take another polarized B called analyzer, keeping the light source A, B and the eye in
same line gently rotate B. the intensity of light through B shows a variation becoming
maximum (twice) and zero (twice) in one complete rotation. The variation in intensity
confirms that light incident on ‘B’ is plane – polarized.

3. Interchange B and A. Repeat steps 1 and 2, to observe polarization. The results are
identical. The result shows that the crystals A and B have identical effects on light and
can be interchanged.

Page 29 of 29