13.

6 Velocity and Acceleration in Polar Coordinates 1

Chapter 13. \cctor-\aucd Iunction- and
`otion in Spacc
13.6. \cocity and Accccration in loar
Coordinatc-
Denition. \hcn a particc P(r, movc- aon. a curvc in thc poar
coordinatc panc. wc cxprc-- it- po-ition. vcocity. and accccration in
tcrm- ot thc movin. unit vcctor-
u
r
(co- i + (-in j, u

(-in i + (co- j.
Thc vcctor u
r
point- aon. thc po-ition vcctor

OP. -o r ru
r
Thc
vcctor u

. ortho.ona to u
r
. point- in thc dircction ot incrca-in.
Ii.urc 1330. pa.c `
13.6 Velocity and Acceleration in Polar Coordinates 2
Note. \c nd trom thc aovc cquation- that
du
r
d
(-in i + (co- j u

du

d
(co- i (-in j u
r
.
Licrcntiatin. u
r
and u

with rc-pcct to timc t (and indicatin. dcrivativc-

with rc-pcct to timc with dot-. a- phy-ici-t- do. thc Chain luc .ivc-
u
r

du
r
d

, u

du

u
r
.
Note. \ith r a- a po-ition tunction. wc can cxprc-- vcocity v r a-
v
d
dt
|ru
r
| ru
r
+ r u
r
ru
r
+ r

u

.
Thi- i- iu-tratcd in thc .urc cow
Ii.urc 1331. pa.c `S
13.6 Velocity and Acceleration in Polar Coordinates 3
Note. \c can cxprc-- accccration a v a-
a ( ru
r
+ ru
r
+ ( r

u

+ r

+ r

u

( r r

2
u
r
+ (r

+ 2 r

u

.
Example. la.c o0. numcr !
Denition. \c introducc cylindrical coordinates y cxtcndin. poar
coordinatc- with thc addition ot a third axi-. thc z-axi-. in a 3-dimcn-iona
ri.ht-hand coordinatc -y-tcm Thc vcctor k i- introduccd a- thc dircction
vcctor ot thc z-axi-
Note. Thc po-ition vcctor in cyindrica coordinatc- ccomc- r ru
r
+
zk Thcrctorc wc havc vcocity and accccration a-
v ru
r
+ r

u

+ zk
a ( r r

2
u
r
+ (r

+ 2 r

u

+ zk.
Thc vcctor- u
r
. u

. and k makc a ri.ht-hand coordinatc -y-tcm whcrc

u
r
u

k, u

k u
r
, k u
r
u

.
13.6 Velocity and Acceleration in Polar Coordinates 4
Ii.urc 1332. pa.c `S
Theorem. Newtons Law of Gravitation.
lt r i- thc po-ition vcctor ot an occt ot ma-- m and a -ccond ma-- ot -izc
M i- at thc ori.in ot thc coordinatc -y-tcm. thcn a (.ravitationa torcc
i- cxcrtcd on ma-- m ot
F
GmM
|r|
2
r
|r|
.
Thc con-tant G i- cacd thc universal gravitational constant and (in
tcrm- ot kio.ram-. `cwton-. and mctcr- i- o.o2o 10
11
`m
2
k.
2

13.6 Velocity and Acceleration in Polar Coordinates 5

Note. `cwton- Sccond Law ot `otion -tatc- that torcc cqua- ma--
timc- accccration or. in thc -ymo- aovc. F mr. Cominin. thi-
with `cwton- Law ot Gravitation. wc .ct
mr
GmM
|r|
2
r
|r|
,
or
r
GM
|r|
2
r
|r|
.
Ii.urc 1333. pa.c `S
Note. `oticc that r i- a parac (or. it you ikc. antiparac to r. -o
r r 0. Thi- impic- that
d
dt
|r r| r r +r r 0 +r r r r 0.
So r r mu-t c a con-tant vcctor. -ay r r C `oticc that it C 0.
thcn r and r mu-t c (antiparac and thc motion ot ma-- m mu-t c in
13.6 Velocity and Acceleration in Polar Coordinates 6
a inc pa--in. throu.h ma-- M Thi- rcprc-cnt- thc ca-c whcrc ma-- m
-impy ta- toward- ma-- M and doc- not rcprc-cnt orita motion. -o wc
now a--umc C 0
Lemma. lt a ma-- M i- -tationary and ma-- m movc- accordin. to
`cwton- Law ot Gravitation. thcn ma-- m wi havc motion which i-
rc-trictcd to a panc
Proof. Sincc r r C. or morc cxpicity. r(t r(t C whcrc C i-
a con-tant. thcn wc -cc that thc po-ition vcctor r i- away- ortho.ona to
vcctor C Thcrctorc r (in -tandard po-ition ic- in a panc with C a- it-
norma vcctor. and ma-- m i- in thi- panc tor a vauc- ot t Q.E.D.
Ii.urc 133!. pa.c `9
13.6 Velocity and Acceleration in Polar Coordinates 7
Theorem. Keplers First Law of Planetary Motion.
Suppo-c a ma-- M i- ocatcd at thc ori.in ot a coordinatc -y-tcm Lct
ma-- m movc undcr thc inucncc ot `cwton- Law ot Gravitation Thcn
m travc- in a conic -cction with M at a tocu- ot thc conic
Note. Icpcr woud think ot ma-- M a- thc -un and ma-- m a- onc
ot thc panct- (cach panct ha- an ciptica orit \c can a-o think ot
ma-- m a- an a-tcroid or comct in orit aout thc -un (comct- can havc
ciptic. paraoic. or hypcroic orit- lt i- a-o rca-onac to think ot
ma-- M a- thc Larth and ma-- m a- an occt -uch a- a -atcitc oritin.
thc Larth
Proof of Keplers First Law. Thc computation- in thi- proot arc
a-cd on work trom Celestial Mechanics y Larry loard (The Carus
Mathematical Monographs. `umcr 1S. `athcmatica A--ociation ot
Amcrica. 19o Lct r(t r c thc po-ition vcctor ot ma-- m and
ct r(t |r(t|. or in -horthand notation r |r| Thcn
d
dt

r
|r|

d
dt

r
r

r r rr
r
2
whcrc thc dot- rcprc-cnt- dcrivativc- with rc-pcct to timc t.

r
2
r r rr
r
3

(r r r (r rr
r
3
13.6 Velocity and Acceleration in Polar Coordinates 8
-incc
d
dt
|r
2
| 2r r y thc Chain ruc and
d
dt
|r
2
|
d
dt
|r r| 2r r. wc
havc r r r r.

(r r r
r
3
-incc. in .cncra. (uvw (u wv(v wu (-cc pa.c 23. numcr
1
That i-.
d
dt

r
r

(r r r
r
3

Cr
r
3
, or. mutipyin. oth -idc- y
Gm.
GM
d
dt

r
r

GM
r
3
r

or
GM
d
dt

r
r

GM
r
3
r

. (
Irom `cwton- Law ot Gravitation and `cwton- Sccond Law ot `otion.
wc havc r
GM
|r|
2
r
|r|

GM
r
3

r. and -o ( ccomc-
GM
d
dt

r
r

C(r r C. (
lntc.ratc oth -idc- ot ( and add a con-tant vcctor ot intc.ration e to
.ct
GM

r
r
+e

r C (
(rcmcmcr C i- con-tant Lottin. oth -idc- ot ( with r .ivc-
GM

r
r
r
+ r e

( r C r
13.6 Velocity and Acceleration in Polar Coordinates 9
or
GM

|r|
2
r
+ r e

(r r C
y a propcrty ot thc tripc -caar product (-cc pa.c 0!. or
GM(r + r e C C C
2
whcrc C |C|. or
r + r e
C
2
GM
. (
A- commcntcd aovc. it C 0 thcn wc havc motion aon. a inc toward-
ma-- M at thc ori.in. -o wc a--umc C 0 Iinay. wc intcrprct e |e|
Iir-t. -uppo-c e 0 Thcn r C
2
/(GM (a con-tant and -o thc motion
i- circuar aout ccntra ma-- M lcca that a circc i- a conic -cction ot
ccccntricity 0 Sccond. -uppo-c e 0 Irom (. GM

r
r
+ e

rC
whcrc C r r Ly propcrtic- ot thc cro-- product.
r
r
+ e and r arc
oth ortho.ona to C Thcrctorc r C 0 and

r
r
+ e

C
1
r
(r C + e C 0 + e C e C 0.
So e i- ortho.ona to C Sincc Ci- ortho.ona to thc panc ot motion. thcn
e ic- in thc panc ot motion (whcn put in -tandard po-ition lntroducc
vcctor e in thc panc ot motion (-ay thc xy-panc and ct c thc an.c
ctwccn thc po-itivc x-axi- and e Lct r(t c in -tandard po-ition and
13.6 Velocity and Acceleration in Polar Coordinates 10
rcprc-cnt thc hcad ot r(t a- P(r, in poar coordinatc- r and Lcnc
a-
Thc rcation-hip ctwccn r. e. . . and
Thcn r e re co- So cquation ( .ivc-
r +r e
C
2
GM
or r + re co-
C
2
GM
or r
C
2
/(GM
1 + e co-
.
Thi- i- a conic -cction ot ccccntricity e in poar coordinatc- (r, (-cc
pa.c ooS `oticc that r i- a minimum whcn thc dcnominator i- ar.c-t
Thi- occur- whcn 0 and .ivc- r
0

C
2
/(GM
1 + e
. \c can -ovc tor C
2
to .ct C
2
GM(1 + er
0
Thcrctorc thc motion i- dc-cricd in tcrm-
ot e and r
0
a- r
(1 + er
0
1 + e co-
. Ior (noncircuar orit- aout thc -un.
r
0
i- cacd thc perihelion di-tancc (it thc Larth i- thc ccntra ma--. r
0
i- thc perigee di-tancc ln concu-ion. thc motion ot ma-- m i- a conic
-cction ot ccccntricity e and i- dc-cricd in poar coordinatc- (r, a-
r
(1 + er
0
1 + e co-
. Q.E.D.
13.6 Velocity and Acceleration in Polar Coordinates 11
Theorem. Keplers Second Law of Planetary Motion.
Suppo-c a ma-- M i- ocatcd at thc ori.in ot a coordinatc -y-tcm and
that ma-- m movc accordin. to Icpcr- Iir-t Law ot lanctary `otion
Thcn thc radiu- vcctor trom ma-- M to ma-- m -wccp- out cqua arca-
in cqua timc-
Ii.urc 133`. pa.c `9
Note. lt wc know thc orit ot an occt (that i-. it wc know thc conic
-cction trom Icpcr- Iir-t Law which dc-cric- thc occt- po-ition. thcn
Icpcr- Sccond Law aow- u- to nd thc ocation ot thc occt at any
.ivcn timc (a--umin. wc havc -omc initia po-ition trom which timc i-
mca-urcd
13.6 Velocity and Acceleration in Polar Coordinates 12
Proof of Keplers Second Law. ln Lcmma wc havc -ccn that thc
vcctor r(t r(t C i- a con-tant lt wc cxprc-- thc po-ition vcctor
in poar coordinatc-. wc .ct r(t r (r co- i + (r -in j Thcrctorc
r(t ( r co- r

-in i + ( r -in + r

co- j \c a-o know that
C Ck So thc cquation r(t r(t C yicd-
r(t r(t

i j k
r co- r -in 0
r co- r

-in r -in + r

co- 0

(r co- ( r -in + r

co- r -in ( r co- r

-in

k
(r r co- -in + r
2

co-
2
r r -in co- + r
2

-in
2
k
(r
2

k Ck.
`ow in poar coordinatc-. arca i- cacuatcd a- A

b
a
1
2
r
2
(d and -o
thc dcrivativc ot arca with rc-pcct to timc i- (y thc Chain luc and thc
Iundamcnta Thcorcm ot Cacuu- lart l
dA
dt

dA
d
d
dt

1
2
r
2
(


1
2
r
2

. Thcrctorc
dA
dt

1
2
r
2


1
2
C whcrc C i- con-tant Lcncc thc ratc
ot chan.c ot timc i- con-tant and thc radiu- vcctor -wccp- out cqua arca-
in cqua timc- Q.E.D.
13.6 Velocity and Acceleration in Polar Coordinates 13
Theorem. Keplers Third Law of Planetary Motion.
Suppo-c a ma-- M i- ocatcd at thc ori.in ot a coordinatc -y-tcm and that
ma-- m movc accordin. to Icpcr- Iir-t Law ot lanctary `otion and
that thc orit i- a circc or cip-c Lct T c thc timc it takc- tor ma-- m
to compctc onc orit ot ma-- M and ct a c thc -cmimaor axi- ot thc
ciptica orit (or thc radiu- ot thc circuar orit Thcn.
T
2
a
3

!
2
GM
.
Note. Icpcr- Third Law aow- u- to nd a rcation-hip ctwccn thc
orbital period T ot a panct and thc -izc ot thc panct- orit Ior cxampc.
thc -cmimaor axi- ot thc orit ot `crcury i- 0.39 A and thc orita
pcriod ot `crcury i- SS day- Thc -cmimaor axi- ot thc orit ot thc
Larth i- 1 A and thc orita pcriod i- 3o`2` day- Thc -cmimaor axi-
ot `cptunc i- 300o A and thc orita pcriod i- o0.190 day- (1o` Larth
ycar-
Proof of Keplers Third Law. Thc arca ot thc cip-c which dc-cric-
thc orit i-
A

T
0

dA
dt

dt

T
0
1
2
C dt
1
2
CT
-incc dA/dt
1
2
C trom thc proot ot Icpcr- Sccond Law Thc arca ot an
cip-c with -cmimaor axi- ot cn.th a and -cmiminor axi- ot cn.th b i-
13.6 Velocity and Acceleration in Polar Coordinates 14
ab Thcrctorc
1
2
CT ab a
2

1 e
2
-incc trom pa.c ooo e
a
2
b
2
a
or e
2
a
2
a
2
b
2
or b
2
a
2
(1 e
2
or
b a

1 e
2
Thcrctorc
C
2
T
2
!

2
a
4
(1 e
2

or
T
2
a
3

!
2
(1 e
2
a
C
2
. (
`ow thc maximum vauc ot r. dcnotcd r
max
. occur- whcn r
max

(1 + er
0
1 + e co-

r
0
(1 + e
1 e
. Sincc 2a r
0
+ r
max
. thcn
a
r
0
+
r
0
(1+e)
1e
2

r
0
(1 e + r
0
(1 + e
2(1 e

r
0
1 e
.
Ii.urc 133o. pa.c o0
13.6 Velocity and Acceleration in Polar Coordinates 15
Su-titutin. thi- vauc ot a into ( .ivc
T
2
a
3

!
2
(1 e
2

C
2
r
0
1 e

!
2
(1 e
2

GM(1 + er
0
r
0
1 e
-incc C
2
GM(1 +er
0
trom thc proot ot Icpcr- Iir-t Law Thcrctorc
T
2
a
3

!
2
GM
. Q.E.D.
A Historical Note. Caudiu- ltocmy (90 ce1oS ce prc-cntcd a
modc ot thc univcr-c which wa- widcy acccptcd tor amo-t 1!00 ycar-
ln hi- Almagest hc propo-cd that thc univcr-c had thc Larth in thc ccntcr
with thc panct- `crcury. \cnu-. `ar-. )upitcr. and Saturn. aon. with
thc -un and moon. oritin. around thc Larth oncc cvcry day in circuar
orit- ln addition. thc -tar- wcrc ocatcd on a -phcrc which rotatcd
oncc a day Li- modc wa- quitc compicatcd and rcquircd a numcr ot
cpicycc- which wcrc additiona circc- nccdcd to cxpain thc compicatcd
o-crvcd motion ot thc panct- (in particuar. thc occa-iona rctro.radc
movcmcnt -ccn in thc motion ot thc -upcrior panct- `ar-. )upitcr. and
Saturn Somc ot thc-c idca- wcrc inhcritcd trom ltocmy- prcdccc--or-
-uch a- Lipparchu- and Apooniu- ot lcr.a (oth ivin. around 200 bce
Surpri-in.y. anothcr ancicnt Grcck a-tronomcr which prcdatc- cach ot
thc-c. Ari-tarchu- ot Samo- (310 bce230 bce. propo-cd that thc Sun
i- thc ccntcr ot thc univcr-c and that thc Larth i- a panct oritin. thc
13.6 Velocity and Acceleration in Polar Coordinates 16
-un. u-t ikc cach ot thc othcr vc panct- Lowcvcr. ltocmy- modc
wa- much morc widcy acccptcd and adoptcd y thc Chri-tian church
loi-h a-tronomcr `icoau- Copcrnicu- (1!31`!3 propo-cd a.ain
that thc -un i- thc ccntcr ot thc univcr-c and that thc panct- movc in
pcrtcct circc- around thc -un with thc -un at thc ccntcr ot thc circc-
Li- idca- wcrc pui-hcd -horty ctorc hi- dcath in De revolutionibus
orbium coelestium (On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres Thc
Copernican system ccamc -ynonymou- with hcioccntri-m Copcrni-
cu-- modc wa- mcant to -impity thc compicatcd modc ot ltocmy. yct
it- prcdictivc powcr wa- not a- -tron. a- that ot ltocmy- modc (duc to
thc tact that Copcrnicu- in-i-tcd on circuar orit-
)ohannc- Icpcr (1`11o30 u-cd cxtrcmcy accuratc o-crvationa
data ot panctary po-ition- (hc u-cd thc data ot Tycho Lrahc which wa-
cntircy a-cd on nakcd cyc o-crvation- to di-covcr hi- aw- ot panctary
motion Attcr ycar- ot tryin.. hc u-cd data. primariy that ot thc po-ition
ot `ar-. to t an cip-c to thc data ln 1o09 hc pui-hcd hi- r-t two
aw- in Astronomia nova (A New Astronomy Lowcvcr. Icpcr- work
wa- not a-cd on any particuar thcorctica tramcwork. ut ony on thc
o-crvation- lt woud rcquirc anothcr to actuay explain thc motion ot
thc panct-
13.6 Velocity and Acceleration in Polar Coordinates 17
l-aac `cwton (1o!312 invcntcd cacuu- in 1oo` and 1ooo. ut taicd
to pui-h it at thc timc (which cad to ycar- ot controvcr-y with Gotttricd
Lciniz ln 1oS!. Ldmund Lacy (ot thc comct tamc a-kcd `cwton what
typc ot path an occt woud toow undcr an invcr-c--quarc aw ot attrac-
tion (ot .ravity `cwton immcdiatcy rcpicd thc -hapc wa- an cip-c
and that hc had workcd it out ycar- ctorc (ut not pui-hcd it Lacy
wa- -o imprc--cd. hc convinccd `cwton to writc up hi- idca- and `cwton
pui-hcd Principia Mathematica in 1oS (with Lacy covcrin. thc cx-
pcn-c ot puication Thi- ook wa- thc invcntion ot ca--ica phy-ic- and
i- -omctimc- cacd thc .rcatc-t -cicntic ook ot a timc' `cwton- proot
ot Icpcr- aw- trom hi- invcr-c--quarc aw ot .ravitation i- ccrtainy onc
ot thc .rcatc-t accompi-hmcnt- ot ca--ica phy-ic- and `cwton- tcch-
niquc- (which wc havc -ccn in thi- -cction rucd phy-ic- unti thc timc ot
Acrt Lin-tcin (1S919``'