Reviewer by Chai ★ ☆ Types of Transformation:

BLK D: Midterms
BSA1: GE104 (MMW)

M1 L1: Geometric Shapes & Transformations

● GEOMETRIC SHAPE
= geometric information which remains when location,
scale, orientation and reflection are removed from the
description of a geometric object. That is, the result of
moving a shape around, enlarging it, rotating it, or
reflecting it in a mirror is the same shape as the original,
and not a distinct shape.
● ISOMETRY
= transformation that preserves congruence
● GEOMETRIC TRANSFORMATION
= transformation in which the image and pre-image have
= general term for four specific ways to manipulate the
the same side lengths and angle measurements
shape of a point, a line, or shape.
= (After any of those transformations (turn, flip or slide),
the shape still has the same size, area, angles and line
> PRE- IMAGE lengths)
= original shape of the object
> TRANSLATIONS
> IMAGE = considered a 'direct isometry' because it not only
= final shape and position of the object under maintains congruence, but it also preserves its orientation
transformation unlike reflections and rotations

> Types of Transformation: > REFLECTIONS

= is an isometry
1) TRANSLATION
= involves “sliding” the object from one position to another
> ROTATIONS
= is an isometry
2) REFLECTION
= involves “flipping” the object over a line called the line of
reflection > DILATION
= not an isometry because its image is not congruent with
its pre-image (since it either shrinks or enlarges a figure)
3) ROTATION
= involves “turning” the object about a point called the
center of rotation ☆ Keywords:
● TRANSLATION
= all points are moved in a straight line in the same
4) DILATION direction.
● REFLECTION
= involves “resizing” of the object = all points of an object are reflected or flipped on a line
= can result in an increase in size (enlargement) or a called the axis of reflection or mirror line.
decrease in size (reduction) ● ROTATION
= a transformation in which the object is rotated about a
fixed point known as the center of rotation. The amount of
rotation made is called the angle of rotation. The direction
of rotation can be clockwise or anticlockwise.
● DILATION
= it is all about resizing of the object (reduction or
enlargement)
● TESSELLATIONS ☆ Site to create Tessellations:
= aka Tiling
http://en.tessellations-nicolas.com/method.php
= repeating pattern of figures that completely covers a
plane without gaps or overlaps
= can be created using different symmetries and M1 L2: Fibonacci & Golden Ratio: The Nature’s Pattern
transformations alike

> ROMAN GEOMETRIC MOSAIC: ★ Fibonacci:

● ORIGIN OF THE FIBONACCI SEQUENCE

= on Pisa, Italy in 1202
= by Leonardo Pisano Bigollo

> Types of Tessellations/Tiling: ● LEONARDO PISANO BIGOLLO

1) APERIODIC TILING = captivated by the mathematical ideas that had come
= uses a small set of tile shapes that cannot form a west from India through the Arabic countries.
repeating pattern = Published Liber Abaci upon his return to Pisa.
= aka Fibonacci
2) PERIODIC TILING
= has a repeating system ● LIBER ABACI
= Book published by Leonardo Pisano Bigollo (aka
> Kinds of Periodic Tiling: Fibonacci) regarding a discourse on mathematical
methods in commerce.
1) REGULAR TESSELLATION
= pattern made by repeating a regular polygon
> Liber Abaci is notable for 2 contributions:
= regular polygon: all the sides and angles must be the
same 1) The Hindu system for writing numbers (we call now
Arabic notation, since it came west through Arabic lands).
The question:
2) If a pair of rabbits is placed in an enclosed area, how
many rabbits will be born there if we assume that every
month a pair of rabbits produces another pair, and that
rabbits begin to bear young two months after their birth?
This question has as an answer, a certain sequence of
2) SEMI-REGULAR TESSELLATION numbers, known now as the Fibonacci sequence.
= made of two or more regular polygons
= pattern at each vertex must be the same

3) OTHER TESSELLATIONS
= tessellation that is neither regular nor semi-regular
★ Golden Ratio:
= 1.61803399…, represented by the Greek letter Phi φ
= Aka: Golden Number, Golden Proportion, Golden Mean,
Golden Section, Divine Proportion and Divine Section
= written by the following: by Euclid in “Elements” around
300 B.C., by Luca Pacioli, a contemporary of Leonardo
Da Vinci, in “De Divina Proportione” in 1509, by Johannes
Kepler around 1600 and by Dan Brown in 2003 in his
novel, “The Da Vinci Code.”
★ Relationship Between the Golden Ratio and
Fibonacci Numbers:
IN RATIO:
IN NATURE:
Helical Pattern / Spiral Formation
> Why does nature like using Phi in so many plants?
= because of packings: best arrangement of objects to
minimize wasted space
Square Packings Hexagonal Packings
M1 L3: Patterns
● PATTERN
= arrangement or configuration which helps individuals
anticipate what might happen next
> Mathematics
= can be considered as a study of patterns for the purpose
of prediction
> Studying patterns
= allow us to discover and hypothesize
= also reveals that patterns can help individuals
understand the world and its surroundings
> Generalization of Patterns:
1) NUMBER PATTERN
= list of numbers that follow a certain sequence or pattern
= ex: 1, 2, 3, 4, __, 6, 7, … or 5, 10, 15, __, …
> Types of Number Pattern:
1) Arithmetic Sequence (7, 10, 13, 16, ___)
2) Geometric Sequence (1, 3, 9, 27, ___)
3) Triangular Number Sequence (1, 3, 6, 10, 15, …)
4) Square Numbers (0, 1, 4, 9, 16, …)
5) Cube Numbers (1, 8, 27, 64, …)
6) Fibonacci Numbers (0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, …)
7) Other Sequences
2) LOGIC PATTERN
= includes drawings/figures
= set of patterns that are usually
first to be observed
= classifying things comes first
= usual characteristics of a logic pattern involve dealing
with the characteristics of objects and about the order of
the pattern
= logic patterns-based problems were primarily used in
the aptitude or diagnostic tests
3) WORD PATTERN
= can be found in language like the morphological rules
on pluralizing nouns or conjugating verbs
= ex: blame, name, fame, tame; Hope: Aspire, Fib: Lie
 Mathematical Sentences / Expressions:
● EXPRESSION
M2 L1: Mathematical Language and Symbols
= a correct arrangement of mathematical symbols used to
represent a mathematical object of interest

Symbol:
● MATHEMATICAL SENTENCE
● SYMBOL
= a correct arrangement of mathematical symbols that
= a pattern or image used instead of words
states a complete thought

> MATHEMATICAL SYMBOL

Examples:
= a pattern or image used in the realm of mathematics
1 +2 = 3
= used preferably over word
6 – 5 = 10 (incorrect pero mathematical sen. pa din)
= ex: + , - , . or x , ÷ , f (x), ∑ , !
2+3<9
18 – 10 > 2
> WHY SYMBOLS?
7 + 9 ≠ 22
= convenience
= convention
= simplification M2 L2: SETS

Conventions:
● LETTER CONVENTIONS ● SET

= a, b, c, … (constants) = collection of well defined and distinct objects

= i, j, k, l, m, n, … (positive integers)
= x, y, z (unknown variables) Examples:
A = {1, 2, 3}

> SIMILAR TO ENGLISH B = {x | x is an odd number}

= nouns (as constants)

= pronouns (as unknown variables) ● Parts of a Well-Defined Set:

= conjunctions (mathematical symbols) 1) SET NAME

= verbs (equal sign) = typically capital letters

2) GROUPING SYMBOL

Example: = { braces } , [ brackets ], or ( parenthesis )

2x + 3y = 5; 3) ELEMENTS

Noun (2, 3, 5) = members of a given set

Pronoun (x, y) 4) SIGN OF EQUALITY

Conjunction (+)
Verb (=) Examples:
C = {2, 4, 6, 8, …}

> Characteristics of a Mathematical Language: D = {x | x is an integer}

1) PRECISE
= able to make very fine distinctions between values ● Ways of Describing Sets:

2) CONCISE 1) ROSTER/LISTING FORM

= able to say things as brief as possible = just enumerate the elements

3) POWERFUL = ex: E = {2, 3, 5, 7}

= able to express complex thoughts easier

> Set to Roster Form: 7) UNIVERSAL SET
1) H = { x | x is a counting number < 100} = a set containing all elements under consideration.
Answer: H = {1, 2, 3, 4, ... , 99} Usually denoted by U

2) I = { x | x is a negative integer}
Answer: I = {-1,- 2, -3, -4, …} 8) SINGLETON SET
= a set with only one element.

2) RULE/SET BUILDER FORM Ex: Z = (x | x is an even prime number)

= create a generalization based on the characteristics

common to each element in a given set 9) SUBSET
= ex: E = {x | x is a prime number < 8} = a set of which all the elements are contained in another
set

> Set to Set Builder Form: Ex: K = {3, 5}; x = {3, 5, 6, 7}. Therefore, K ⊆ X

1) F = {2, 4, 6, 8, …}
Answer: F = {x | x is an even number} 9.1) PROPER SUBSET

2) G = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9} = every element of the smaller set is in the larger set

Answer: G = { x | x is an odd number < 10} = the larger set has one more element compared to the
smaller set
Ex: B = {7, 8, 9}; Y = {6, 7, 8, 9}. Therefore, B ⊂ Y
● Types of Sets:
1) EQUAL SETS
9.2) IMPROPER SUBSET
= two or more sets are said to be equal if they have the
same elements = we have two; the set itself and the empty set

= ex: J = {3, 4, 5}; K = {5, 4, 3}. Therefore, J = K

10) EMPTY / NULL SET

2) EQUIVALENT SETS = a set containing no element.

= two or more sets are equivalent if they have the same = there are 2 symbols for empty set: Ø or { }
number of elements
= ex: L = {7, 8, 9}; M = {4, 5, 6}. Therefore, L ~ M ☆ Other Information:

3) FINITE SET ● Basic Set of Operations:

= a set containing countable elements
Ex: P = {3, 6, 9, 12, 15}; Q = {1, 2, 3, 4, … , 100}
4) INFINITE SET
= a set containing uncountable elements
Ex: R = {1, 2, 3, 4, …}; S = {x | x is a positive integer}
= Union of a Set (∪): all elements in sets
= Intersection of a Set (∩): common elements only
= Complement of a Set (’): elements in universal set that
are not present in given set
= Difference of a Set (-): elements of Priority (1st given)
Set - Elements of 2nd given set

Example:
5) JOINT SETS
Given:
= sets that have common element/s
U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}
Ex: T = {3, 4, 5}; V = {5, 6, 7}. Therefore, T and V are joint
sets A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
B = {6, 7, 8, 9, 10}
6) DISJOINT SETS C = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}
= sets are disjoint if the have no common elements D = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}
Ex: W = {7, 8, 9}; Y = {3, 4, 5, 6}. W and Y are disjoint sets E = {1, 2, 3}
Answers:
1) A ∪ B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}
2) B ∪ C = {1, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}
3) D ∩ E = {2}
4) C ∩ D = Ø or C ∩ D = { }
5) A’ = {6, 7, 8, 9, 10}
6) E’ = {4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}
7) U’ = Ø or U’ = { }
8) C - D = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}
9) D - C = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}
10) B - D = {7, 9}
11) A ∩ C ∩ E = {1, 3}
12) B - (C - E)
C - E = {5, 7, 9}
B - (C - E) = {6, 8, 10}
*yung nasa loob ng symbol of groupings ang uunahin
bago yung nasa labas
13) (A ∪ E) ∩ D
A ∪ E = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
(A ∪ E) ∩ D = {2, 4}
14) (E’ - B) ∩ C
E’ = {4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}
E’ - B = {4, 5}
(E’ - B) ∩ C = {5}
15) (A - C’) ∪ (B ∩ E)’
C’ = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}
A - C’ = {1, 3, 5,}
B∩E={}
(B ∩ E)’ = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}
(A - C’) ∪ (B ∩ E)’ = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}
Reviewer by Chai ★ ● TRUTH VALUE AND TRUTH TABLES
BLK D: Finals = a truth value of a simple statement is either true (T) or
BSA1: GE104 (MMW) false (F)
= truth value of a compound statement depends on truth
values of its simple statements and its connectives
M3: Mathematical Logic
= truth table is a table that shows the truth value of a
compound statement for all possible truth values of its
● PROPOSITION / STATEMENT simple statements

= it is a complete declarative sentence that can be true or = p is a simple statement while q represents simple
false, but not both statements (p, q, r, s)

Examples: Statement Connective

Symbolic Type of Statement
Form (logical connective)
Given:
1) Manila is the capital of the Philippines not p not ~ p or ⅃ p Negation

2) Rodrigo Roa Duterte is the current president of the p and q and pΛq Conjunction
Philippines p or q or pVq Disjunction
3) Stephen Curry is not a Filipino if p, then q if … then p→q Conditional
4) 5 + 5 = 25 p if and
if and only if p↔q Biconditional
5) KFC stands for “King Fried Chubby”. only if q

Answers:
1) True > Main Uses of Truth Tables:

2) False
3) True 1) PROPOSITIONAL LOGIC (LOGIC STATEMENTS)

4) False
Examples:
5) False
Given:
Consider the following compound statements below:
● 2 Types of Statement:
p: Today is Monday.
q: It is windy
1) SIMPLE STATEMENT r: I am going to a volleyball game.
= a statement that conveys a singular idea s: I am not going to the church.
= ex: 20 is a multiple of 5
a) Today is Monday and I am going to a volleyball game.
2) COMPOUND STATEMENT b) Today is Monday and it is not windy.
= a statement that conveys two or more ideas c) I am going to a volleyball game or I am not going to church.

= consists of statements, which are linked together by the d) I am going to the church if and only if it is windy.
use of the linking words - and, or, not, and if-then (AKA e) If it is windy, then I am going to a volleyball game.
logical connectives)
= ex: 20 is a multiple of 4 and 5 Answers (symbolic form):
a) p Λ q
● LOGICAL CONNECTIVES P = Today is Monday
= also called a logical operator, sentential connective, or Q = I am going to a volleyball game
sentential operator Conjuction = and
= a symbol or word used to connect two or more b) p ~ q
sentences (of either a formal or informal / a natural c) r V s
language) in a grammatically valid way d) ~ s ↔ q
e) q → r
2) TRUTH TABLES d) CONDITIONAL:
= extensive use of T and F = follow conditions
= the simple statements (p, q, r and s) will be used = 1st (T) & 2nd (F) = F
together with the logical connectives in table form = if 1st premise is true and 2nd premise is false for the
conclusion to be false, others (on table below) puro true
> 3 Possible Conclusions: p q p→q
T T T
a) TAUTOLOGY T F F
= concluding statements are all true (T) F T T
F F T
b) CONTRADICTION
= concluding statements are all false (F)
e) BICONDITIONAL:
c) CONTINGENCY
= same premises should have the same value for the
= combination of true and false (T, F) conclusion to be true
p q p↔q
> 5 Type of Statements (logical connective): T T T
T F F
Rationale: F T F
= in every simple statement there should be 2 truth/true F F T
(?) values then mag x2 sya pag nadagdagan ng
premises/statement Examples:
∴ = therefore
a) NEGATION:
= reverse 1) p V ~ p
= f will be t; t will be f p ~p pV~p
p ~p T F T
T F F T T
F T ∴ Tautology
b) CONJUNCTION:
2) p ↔ (p Λ q)
= both premises should be true para conclusion is true
p q pΛq p ↔ (p Λ q)
= both premises should be false para conclusion is false
T T T T
p q pΛq
T F F F
T T T
F T F T
T F F
F T F F F F T
F F F ∴ Contingency
c) DISJUNCTION:
3) (p V q) → (q → p)
= inclusive or (ito gagamitin): atleast one of premises is
true p q pVq q↔p (p V q) → (q → p)
= exclusive or: two or more premises are true T T T T T
p q pVq T F T T T
F T T F F
T T T
F F F T T
T F T
F T T ∴ Contingency
F F F
4) (p → q) V r REASONING
p q r p→q (p → q) V r ● Types of Reasoning:
T T T T T
T T F T T 1) INDUCTIVE REASONING
T F T F T = process of reaching a generalization or conclusion by
T F F F F examining the specific example
F T T T T = you are using IR when you scrutinize a list of numbers
F T F T T and predict the next number in the list
F F T T T
F F F T T 2) DEDUCTIVE REASONING
= process of reaching a conclusion or generalization by
∴ Contingency analyzing assumptions, principles, or trends

3) QUANTIFIERS ● Inductive Reasoning:

= Uses “some” to indicate existential quantifier while “all”,
“for every”, “no” and “none” to indicate universal quantifier > CONJECTURE
= Negation can be used to determine “the other side” of = if a conclusion that is reached by inductive reasoning
the statement may or may not be valid
= an educated guess about the pattern or what’s going to
happen next
> 2 types of Quantifiers:
a) existential quantifier Examples:
b) universal quantifier Use IR to make a conjecture about the following
observations.
Examples:
1) 3 (1) = 3, 1 (5) = 5, 3 (3) = 9, 5 (7) = 35
SAMPLE STATEMENTS NEGATIONS {Ans: The product of two odd numbers is always equal
Some perpetrators are to an odd number}
No perpetrator is arrested
arrested
2) 2 + 2 = 4, 4 + 2 = 6, 6 + 4 = 10, 16 + 10 = 26
Some humans are dumb No human is dumb
{Ans: The sum of two even numbers are always even}
Some fighters are not
All fighters are killers
killers 3) 1² = 1, 3² = 9, 5² = 25, 7²= 49
Some researchers are not All researchers are {Ans: The square of odd numbers is always odd}
scientists scientists

In Conclusion (patterns): > COUNTEREXAMPLE

= an example that disproves a conjecture
No = some
Some = no
Examples:
All = some not = Any counting number is less than its square.
Some not = all = All prime numbers are odd numbers.
{Counterexample: 2 is a prime number, but not an odd
number}
M4: Problem Solving & Reasoning
PROBLEM SOLVING

● Quote by Sir Yul Arca:
“What is consistent in this world is the presence of
PROBLEMS. So, if you have a problem, you’re fortunate.
Coz if you don’t have a problem, probably you’re dead.”
● PROBLEM-SOLVING
= a process—an ongoing activity in which we take what
we know to discover what we don't know. It involves
overcoming obstacles by generating hypotheses, testing
those predictions, and arriving at satisfactory solutions.
● HEURISTICS ● Functions of Cryptography:
= study of the methods and rules of discovery and
invention 1) PRIVACY/CONFIDENTIALITY
= ensuring the sender and the receiver that no one can
read the message except the intended receiver
● Polya’s Problem – Solving Strategy:
2) AUTHENTICATION
1) UNDERSTAND THE PROBLEM = a process of proving one's identity (no fakes allowed)

= Can you restate the problem in your own words? 3) INTEGRITY

= Can you determine what is known about these types of = assuring the receiver that the received message has not
problems? been altered by the third party in any way from the original
= Is there a missing information that, if known, would allow
you to solve the problem? 4) NON-REPUDIATION
= a mechanism to prove that the sender really sent this
= What is the goal?
message

2) DEVISE A PLAN 5) KEY EXCHANGE

= a method by which crypto keys are shared by the sender
= Make a list of the known information.
and the receiver
= Make a list of information that is needed.
= Draw a diagram. ● PROCESS OF ENCRYPTION & DECRYPTION
= Make a table or a chart. = plaintext -> encryption -> ciphertext -> decryption -> plaintext
= Look for a pattern.
= Work backwards. ● CIPHER
= Perform an experiment. = came from the Arabic word sifr, which means "nothing"
= Guess at a solution and then check your result. or "zero"
= an algorithm for performing encryption or decryption—a
series of well-defined steps that can be followed as a
3) CARRY OUT THE PLAN procedure
= Work carefully.
= Keep an accurate and neat record of all your attempts. ● SIMPLE SUBSTITUTION CIPHER
= Realize that some of your initial plans will not work and = basically consists of substituting every plaintext
that you may have to devise another plan or modify your character for a different ciphertext character. In other
existing plan. words, the cipher alphabet is completely jumbled.

4) REVIEW THE SOLUTION Example:

= Ensure that the solution is consistent with the facts of
the problem.
= Interpret the solution in the context of the problem.
= Ask yourself whether there are generalizations of the
solution that could apply to other problems.
Rot 1
= literally means “rotate 1 letter forward through the
M6: Ciphers alphabet.”
= A is replaced with B, B is replaced with C, and so on.

● CRYPTOGRAPHY
= came from the Greek κρυπτός (kryptos), or hidden and
γράφειν (graphia), or writing
= a method of storing and transmitting data in a particular
form so that only those for whom it is intended can read
and process it
● SHIFT CIPHER ● RAIL-FENCE CIPHER
= AKA Caesar Cipher or Caesar’s Code = a transposition cipher that jumbles up the order of the
= if he had anything confidential to say, he wrote it in letters of a message in a quick convenient way.
cipher, that is, by so changing the order of the letters of = has the security of a key to make it a little bit harder to
the alphabet that not a word could be made out. If anyone break
wishes to decipher these, and get at their meaning, he
must substitute the fourth letter of the alphabet, namely D,
for A, and so with the others. (Suetonius, The Twelve Examples:
Caesars)
SHIFT CIPHER:

● ATBASH CIPHER
= a cipher with a specific key where the letters of the
alphabet are reversed. I.e. all 'A's are replaced with 'Z's,
all 'B's are replaced with 'Y's, and so on. It was originally
used for the Hebrew alphabet, but can be used for any PIGPEN CIPHER:
alphabet.

● BACONIAN CIPHER
= named after its inventor, Sir Francis Bacon
= a substitution cipher in which each letter is replaced by
a sequence of 5 characters

A = aaaaa I/J = abaaa R = baaaa

B = aaaab K = abaab S = baaab
C = aaaba L = ababa T = baaba
D = aaabb M = ababb U/V = baabb
RAIL-FENCE CIPHER:
E = aabaa N = abbaa W = babaa
F = aabab O = abbab X = babab
G = aabba P = abbba Y = babba
H = aabbb Q = abbbb Z = babbb

● PIGPEN CIPHER
= an example of a substitution cipher, but rather than
replacing each letter with another letter, the letters are
replaced by symbols.