Basic Research Writing

A Research Paper Submitted to the Department of International Relations as a

requirement for Third Year Honor;

Module No. IR 5202

Research Design and Method

By

Ingyin Thaw (3HIR-2)

Department of International Relations

Mandalay University

28 Feb, 2022
 Basic Research Writing
There are two types of basic research writings namely scientific method and artistic
method in the basic research writing.

Science
The word “science” is derived from the Latin word scientia meaning knowledge.
Science refers to a systematic and organized body of knowledge in any area of inquiry that is
acquired using “the scientific method”. Science can be grouped into two broad categories:
natural science and social science. Natural science is the science of naturally occurring
objects or phenomena, such as light, objects, matter, earth, celestial bodies, or the human
body. Natural sciences can be further classified into physical sciences, earth sciences, life
sciences, and others. Physical sciences consist of disciplines such as physics (the science of
physical objects), chemistry (the science of matter), and astronomy (the science of celestial
objects).

Sciences can also be classified based on their purpose. Basic sciences, also called pure
sciences, are those that explain the most basic objects and forces, relationships between them,
and laws governing them. Examples include physics, mathematics, and biology. Applied
sciences, also called practical sciences, are sciences that apply scientific knowledge from
basic sciences in a physical environment. For instance, engineering is an applied science that
applies the laws of physics and chemistry for practical applications such as building stronger
bridges or fuel efficient combustion engines, while medicine is an applied science that applies
the laws of biology for solving human ailments. Both basic and applied sciences are required
for human development. However, applied sciences cannot stand on their own right, but
instead relies on basic sciences for its progress. Of course, the industry and private enterprises
tend to focus more on applied sciences given their practical value, while universities study
both basic and applied sciences.

Scientific Method
The purpose of science is to create scientific knowledge. Scientific knowledge refers
to a generalized body of laws and theories to explain a phenomenon or behavior of interest
that are acquired using the scientific method. When conducting research, scientists use the
scientific method to collect measurable, empirical evidence in an experiment related to a
hypothesis, the results aiming to support or contradict a theory. The state of knowing:
knowledge is distinguished from ignorance or misunderstanding. A department of
systematized knowledge is an object of study the science of theology: something (as a sport
or technique) that may be studied or learned like systematized knowledge. Knowledge or a
system of knowledge is covering general truths or the operation of general laws especially as
obtained and tested through scientific method such knowledge or such a system of knowledge
concerned with the physical world and its phenomena: natural science.
Scientific Research
The goal of scientific research is to discover laws and postulate theories that can
explain natural or social phenomena, or in other words, build scientific knowledge. It is
important to understand that this knowledge may be imperfect or even quite far from the
truth. Sometimes, there may not be a single universal truth, but rather equilibrium of
“multiple truths.” We must understand that the theories, upon which scientific knowledge is
based, are only explanations of a particular phenomenon, as suggested by a scientist. As such,
there may be good or poor explanations, depending on the extent to which those explanations
fit well with reality, and consequently, there may be good or poor theories. The progress of
science is marked by our progression over time from poorer theories to better theories,
through better observations using more accurate instruments and more informed logical
reasoning.

In science, theories and observations are interrelated and cannot exist without each
other. Theories provide meaning and significance to what we observe, and observations help
validate or refine existing theory or construct new theory. Any other means of knowledge
acquisition, such as faith or authority cannot be considered science.

Given that theories and observations are the two pillars of science, scientific research
operates at two levels: a theoretical level and an empirical level. The theoretical level is
concerned with developing abstract concepts about a natural or social phenomenon and
relationships between those concepts (i.e., build “theories”), while the empirical level is
concerned with testing the theoretical concepts and relationships to see how well they reflect
our observations of reality, with the goal of ultimately building better theories. Over time, a
theory becomes more and more refined (i.e., fits the observed reality better), and the science
gains maturity. Scientific research involves continually moving back and forth between
theory and observations. Both theory and observations are essential components of scientific
research. For instance, relying solely on observations for making inferences and ignoring
theory is not considered valid scientific research.

Characteristics
According to Jhon Son, Reynolds, and Myco, there are eight characteristics of
scientific knowledge which are;

1) Empirical verification
2) Falsifiability
3) Value-free: Non-normative knowledge
4) Transmissible
5) Cumulative
6) Generalizable
7) Description, explanation, prediction
8) Parsimony
 1. Empirical Verification
A statement must be proved true by means of objective observation. Empirical is
originating in or based on observation or experience (empirical data). It is relying on
experience or observation alone without due regard for system and theory (an empirical
basis for the theory). It is also capable of being verified or disproved by observation or
experiment (empirical laws). For example, voting shares, number of wars, unemployment
and inflation rates.

Verification is to confirm or substantiate in law by oath, and to establish the truth,

accuracy, or reality of verify the claim. Empirical verification means reject or accept a
statement based on observations or experiences. It is based on empirical evidence.

2. Falsifiability
A statement can be rejected in the face of contravening empirical evidence. Is it
falsifiability? Is it implications? Scientific knowledge is tentative. Scientific laws can be
altered. Scientific knowledge is not an absolute truth.

For example, Newtonian physics Einsteinian physics

Comparison: Scientific knowledge Vs. Religion

Bible? Falsifiable? Are the statements in the Bible tentative?

“In the beginning God created the heavens and the earth”, Tentative?

Falsifiable? (Not asking whether or not it’s true)

Falsifiability is the capacity for some proposition, statement, theory or hypothesis to

be proven wrong. That capacity is an essential component of the scientific method and
hypothesis testing. The requirement of falsifiability means that conclusions cannot be drawn
from simple observation of particular phenomenon.

3. Normative
Normative means “what you should do” or “what you must do”. So non-normative
means what is recommended to be done? The empirical research used to acquire scientific
knowledge addresses what is and might be in the future. Thus, it can be predicted. Scientific
knowledge tries to determine how to solve political and social needs. Normative is about
what is should be. Non-normative is about is what it is. For example, normative democracy
theory: representatives should respond to the interests of their constituency. Non-normative
addressed that do representatives respond to the interests of their constituency? Scientific
knowledge is value free. Researcher study should also be value free.
4. Transmissible
Scientific knowledge can be replicated. Replication means empirical findings can be
repeated by others with the same/similar data and methods. Researchers must clearly state
research procedures so that others can replicate their research. According to Johnson and
Josyn, scientific knowledge is a social activity that it takes several scientifics, analyzing and
criticizing each other, to produce more reliable knowledge.

5. Cumulative
Both the substantive findings and research techniques are built upon the results of
prior studies.

For example, Newtonian Einsteinian physic

4. Generalizable
Scientific knowledge is applicable to many rather than a few cases. For example, E =
MC : Einstein’s famous equation says that mass (M) is equivalent to energy (E). The
2

recognition that the two quantities are related was Einstein’s stroke of genius. The speed of
light squared (C2) comes into the equation to tell us exactly how much energy a given amount
of amount represents. Another example is Economic voting theory. In political science,
economic voting is a theoretical perspective which argues that voter behavior is heavily
influenced by the economic conditions in their country at the time of the election.

7. Description, Explanation, and Prediction

Scientific knowledge can describe, explain, and predict phenomena. The explanatory
capability of scientific knowledge is also important because it is basis for prediction.

Description Descriptive statistics

Explanation Cause and effect

Prediction Foresting

8. Parsimony
Scientific knowledge is simple. Parsimony keeps explanations as simple as possible
for example, theory and scientific knowledge. Theory testing is various methods such as
statistical, formal, ad experimental approaches. A theory is a tentative conjecture about the
causes of some phenomenon of interest. It is a statement containing a causal relationship
between concepts/variables; Causal relationship? It is cause and effect relationship. How do
we know that a relationship is causal? They are (1) covariation (correlation) between
concepts/variables; and (3) cause precedes effects.

Cause Independent Variable

 Effect Dependent Variable

So, researchers should be a scientific study and have the characteristics of scientific
knowledge including theory testing. Thus, scientific method is a systematic enterprise that
builds and organizes knowledge is the form of testable explanations and predictions about the
universe. Basic research is the search for knowledge and applied research is the search for
solutions to practical problems using this knowledge.

Artistic research
Research that defines art as its object in one way or another is generally called
art research. Art can, however, also offer a premise and an aim for research: a motive, a
terrain, a context and a whole range of methods. This kind of research is often referred
to as “artistic research”. It is not a counter concept of “scientific research”, but instead,
its primary aim is to describe the framework of research in a way that does not simply
reduce art to the subject matter of a study.

If "art" is but a mode of perception is, also "artistic research" must be the mode of a
process. Therefore, there can be no categorical distinction between "scientific" and "artistic"
research - because the attributes independently modulate a common carrier, namely, the aim
for knowledge within research. Artistic research can therefore always also be scientific
research. For this reason, many artistic research projects are genuinely interdisciplinary,
specifically: indisciplinary.

In conclusion, Art and science are not separate domains, but rather two dimensions in
the common cultural space. This means that something can be more or less artistic, while
nothing would be already said about the amount of being scientific. This is also true for many
other cultural attributes, such as the musical, philosophical, religious or mathematical. Some
of them are, on the contrary, more dependent on each other than isolated.