Network Analysis and Synthesis

Course code: ECEg3132

1
 CHAPTER2
NETWORK FUNCTIONS, TIME DOMAIN AND FREQUENCY
DOMAIN RESPONSE

2.1. Concept of Complex Frequency

 The solution of differential equations for the networks is of the form

x t = kest (2.1)

 This 𝑥(𝑡) may be a voltage 𝑣(𝑡) or a current 𝑖(𝑡). Generally 𝑥(𝑡) is a function
of time and ‘𝑠’ is a complex number defined as

s = σ + jω (2.2)
2
 Cont. …
where 𝜔, the imaginary part of ‘𝑠’ is called as angular frequency (radian
frequency) in radian per second (𝑟𝑎𝑑Τ𝑠) and it uses in time-domain equation
in the forms of cos 𝜔𝑡 or sin 𝜔𝑡.

 Radian frequency expressed as

2𝜋
𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓 = (2.3)
𝑇

 The dimension of 𝜎 can be determined as an exponential factor, i.e.,𝑣 =

1 v
vo e σt
or σ = ln in neper per second.
t vo

 The complex sum 𝑠 = 𝜎 + 𝑗𝜔 is defined as complex frequency.

3
 Cont. …
 Terminal pairs or ports

 The pair of terminals is connected to an energy source which is the driving

force for the network, so that the pair of terminals is known as the driving
point of the network. Consider the Fig.2.1 below showing one-port, two-port
and n-port network respectively.

Fig.2.1: Representation for a) one-port, b) two-port, c) n-port networks.

4
2.2. Network Function
 Network function is defined as the ratio of the zero state response to
the input, both the response and the input are expressed in Laplace
transform, that is,

R(s)
H s = (2.4)
E(s)

where, s the Laplace variable is the complex frequency variable 𝑠 =

𝜎 + 𝑗𝜔 and 𝜔 is the real frequency in radians per second.

 The terminal voltages and currents of the two-port can be related by

two classes of network functions.
5
 Cont. …
1) Driving Point Functions
 If the excitation and response are measure at the same terminals, then the
network function is said to be driving point function.

 The driving point functions relate the voltage at a port to the current at the
same port. Thus, these functions are a property of a single port.

 The transform impedance and transform admittance must relate to the

source port 1 − 1′ or 2 − 2′ in Figure 2.1(a) and (b).

 Transform impedance (admittance) of ports 1 − 1′ and 2 − 2′ are also called

as input and output driving point impedances (admittances)respectively.
6
 Cont. …
 Consider two-port network shown in Fig.2.2 below.

Fig.2.2: Two port network

 The two input driving point functions; impedance and admittance.

a) Driving point impedance:

V1 (s)
Z11 s = (2.5)
I1 (s)
7
 Cont. …
b) Driving point admittance:

I1 (s)
Y11 s = (2.6)
V1 (s)

 The output port driving point functions are defined in a similar way as
follow:
a) Driving point impedance:

V2 (s)
Z22 s = (2.7)
I2 (s)

b) Driving point admittance:

I2 (s)
Y22 s = (2.8)
V2 (s)
8
 Cont. …
 From the two relations, we can observe that the reciprocal of a driving point (DP)
function is another DP function.

 Because of the similarity of impedance and admittance, these two quantities are
assigned one name “Immittance” (a combination of impedance and admittance).

Table 2.1: Immittance function for circuit elements

Elements Impedance function 𝒁(𝒔) Admittance function 𝒀(𝒔)

Resistance (R) in Ω 𝑅 1ൗ = 𝐺
𝑅
Inductance (L) in H 𝐿𝑆 1ൗ
𝐿𝑠
Capacitance (c) in F 1ൗ 𝐶𝑠
𝐶𝑠
9
 Cont. …

 The impedance function Z(s) and admittance Y(s) function are easily

determined for series and parallel circuit respectively as,

i. For series circuit; Z s = Z1 s + Z2 s + Z3 s

ii. For parallel circuit;Y s = Y1 s + Y2 s + Y3 s

 For simple networks driving point function can be obtained by inspection.

Example: Consider the ladder network shown in Figure 2.3, where the

series branches are given as impedances and all parallel branches are

given as admittances. 10
 Cont. …

Fig.2.3

 The driving point impedance of a ladder network can be written in the form
of a continued fraction expansion as,
1
Z s = Z1 s + 1 (2.9)
Y2 s + 1
Z3 s + 1
Y4 s +
⋯

11
 Cont. …
Exercise 2.1: Find the Immittance function for the following simple

networks.

a) Series b) Parallel

i. 𝐑𝐂 i. 𝐑𝐂

ii. 𝐑𝐋 ii. 𝐑𝐋

iii. 𝐋𝐂 iii. 𝐋𝐂

iv. 𝐑𝐋𝐂 iv. 𝐑𝐋𝐂

12
 Cont. …
2) Transfer functions

 If the excitation and response are measured at different sets of terminals,

then the corresponding network function is called a transfer function.

 The transfer functions of the two-port network relate the voltage (or current)

at one port to the voltage (or current) at the other port.

 The transfer function is used to describe networks which have at least two
ports.

 The possible forms of transfer functions are:

13
 Cont. …
1) The voltage transfer function, which is a ratio of one voltage to another
voltage.

2) The current transfer function, which is a ratio of one current to another

current.

3) The transfer impedance function, which is the ratio of a voltage to a current.

4) The transfer admittance function, which is the ratio of a current to a voltage.

 From the two-port network of Figure 2.2, the output quantities are V2 and I2

and the input quantities are V1 and I1 .

14
 Cont. …

 Using this scheme, there are only four basic transfer function for the two port

network and these are given as:

V2 (s)
G21 s = , voltage transfer function
V1 (s)
I2 (s)
α21 s = , current transfer function
I1 (s)
V (s)
(2.10)
Z21 s = 2 , transfer impedance function
I1 (s)
I2 (s)
Y21 s = , transfer admittance function
V1 (s)

15
 Cont. …
 The ratio of input quantity to output quantity is termed as the inverse
transfer function.
V1 (s)
G12 s = , inverse voltage transfer function
V2 (s)
I (s)
α12 s = 1 , inverse current transfer function
I2 (s)
V1 (s)
(2.11)
Z12 s = , inverse transfer impedance function
I2 (s)
I1 (s)
Y12 s = , inverse transfer admittance function
V2 (s)

 It can be observed from the definition of drivng point functions and transfer
functions that for an impedance function, excitation is a current and
response is a voltage, and for an admittance function excitation is a voltage
source and response is a current. 16
 Cont. …
Example 2.1

1) Obtain the driving point impedance functions and admittance functions for
the networks shown in Figure 2.4.
Solution:

Fig.2.4.
Impedance function: Admittance function:
2 s2 +4s+3 0.7s2 +3.3s+1.6
Z s = 5 s+3 2+ = 𝑌 𝑠 =
s 0.7s2 +3.3s+1.6 s2 +4s+3

17
 Cont. …
2) For the circuit shown in the Figure 2.5, determine the network transfer
function.

Fig.2.5.

Solution:
1
V2 s = R 3 I2 (s) or V2 s = R 2 + I0 (s)
C1 s

V2 (s) V2 s C1 s 1
I1 s = I0 s + I2 s = 1 + = + V2 s
R2 +C s R3 R2 C1 s+1 R3
1
18
 Cont. …
C1 R2 +R3 s+1
I1 s = V2 (s),
R3 R2 C1 s+1

i. Transfer impedance function:

V2 (s) R 3 R 2 C1 s + 1
Z21 (s) = =
I1 (s) C1 R 2 + R 3 s + 1
ii. Transfer admittance function:
V1 s = R1 + L1 s I1 s + V2 s = R1 + L1 s I0 s + I2 s + V2 s
1
V1 s = R1 + L1 s 1 V2 s + I2 s + V2 s
R2 +C s
1

1
V1 s = R1 + L1 s 1 R 3 I2 s + I2 s + R 3 I2 s
R2 +C s
1

19
 Cont. …
1
V1 s = R1 + L1 s 1 R 3 I2 s + I2 s + R 3 I2 s
R2 +C s
1

R3
V1 s = R1 + L1 s 1 + R1 + L1 s + R 3 I2 (s)
R2 +
C1 s

L1 C1 R2 +R3 s2 + C1 R1 R2 +R2 R3 +R1 R3 +L1 s+ R1 +R3

V1 s = I2 (s)
R2 C1 s+1

I2 (s) R2 C1 s+1
Y21 s = =
V1 (s) L1 C1 R2 +R3 s2 + C1 R1 R2 +R2 R3 +R1 R3 +L1 s+ R1 +R3

iii. Voltage transfer function:

V2 (s) V2 (s) I2 (s) I1 (s)

G21 s = = × ×
V1 (s) I1 (s) V1 (s) I2 (s)
20
 Cont. …
I1 (s)
G21 s = Z21 (s) × Y21 (s) ×
I2 (s)

I0 s
I1 s = I0 s + I2 s = I2 s 1 +
I2 s

1 1
1 V2 (s) 1 R3 I2 (s)
R2 + C s R2 +C s
1 1
I1 s = I2 s 1 + = I2 s 1 +
I2 s I2 s

1
1 R3 I2 (s)
R2 + C1 R2 +R3 s+1 I1 (s) C1 R2 +R3 s+1
C1 s
I1 s = I2 s 1 + = I2 s → =
I2 s R2 C1 s+1 I2 (s) R2 C1 s+1

21
 Cont. …
R3 R2 C1 s+1 R2 C1 s+1 C1 R2 +R3 s+1
G21 s = × ×
C1 R2 +R3 s+1 L1 C1 R2 +R3 s2 + C1 R1 R2 +R2 R3 +R1 R3 +L1 s+ R1 +R3 R2 C1 s+1

R3 R2 C1 s+1
G21 s =
L1 C1 R2 +R3 s2 + C1 R1 R2 +R2 R3 +R1 R3 +L1 s+ R1 +R3

iv. Current transfer function:

I2 (s) R2 C1 s+1
α21 = =
I1 (s) C1 R2 +R3 s+1

22
 Cont. …
2) Determine the open-circuit driving point impedance ( Z11 (s) ), transfer
impedance (Z21 (s)) and voltage transfer function (G21 (s)) for the network
shown in Figure 2.6.

Fig.2.6.

Solution: First immittances are converted to s-domain

Z1 s = Z3 s = s and Y2 s = Y4 s = s
23
 Cont. …
1 1 𝑠4 +3𝑠2 +1
𝑍11 𝑠 = 𝑍1 𝑠 + 1 =𝑠+ 1 =
𝑌2 𝑠 + 1 𝑠+ 1
𝑠3 +2𝑠
𝑍3 𝑠 + 𝑠+
𝑌4 𝑠 𝑠

Ib s = Y4 s V2 s = sV2 (s)

Va s = Z3 s Ib s + V2 s = s × sV2 s + V2 s = s2 + 1 V2 (s)

I1 s = Y2 s Va s + Ib s = s × s 2 + 1 V2 s + sV2 s = s 3 + 2s V2 (s)

V2 (s) 1
Z21 s = =
I1 (s) s3 +2s

V1 s = Z1 s I1 s + Va s = s × s3 + 2s V2 s + s2 + 1 V2 s = s4 + 3s2 + 1 V2 (s)

V2 (s) 1
G21 s = =
V1 (s) s4 +3s2 +1

24
2.3. Poles and Zeros of Network Functions and Representation in
Complex s-plane
 Consider a linear time invariant network. Let x(t) be excitation and y(t) the
response. Thus, in general, we can express the relationship between x(t) and
y(t) in the form of differential equation,

dn y(t) dn−1 y(t) dy(t) dm x(t) dm−1 x(t)

an n + an−1 n−1 + ⋯+ a1 + a0 y t = bm m + bm−1 m−1 + ⋯ +
dt dt dt dt dt

dx(t)
b1 + b0 y t (2.12)
dt

 Taking Laplace transform of Eq.(2.12) and rearranging gives the general

network function as shown below (assuming all initial conditions are zero),
25
 Cont. …
N(s) Y(s) bm sm +bm−1 sm−1 +⋯+b1 s+b0
H s = = = (2.13)
D(s) X(s) an sn +an−1 sn−1 +⋯+a1 s+a0

 Thus we conclude that a network function is a rational function of s with real

and positive coefficients for passive network and no dependent sources.
Then Eq. (2.13) can be written as,
N(s) Y(s) s−z1 s−z2 … s−zm
H s = = =k (2.14)
D(s) X(s) s−p1 s−p2 … s−pn

 Alternatively, we can write Eq. (2.14) as

N(s) Y(s) ςm
i=1 s−zi
H s = = = k ςn (2.15)
D(s) X(s) j=1 s−pj

bm
Where, k = , an ≠ 0 and bm ≠ 0
an
26
 Cont. …
Note: 𝐳𝐢 is called zeros of H(s) which obtained from numerator polynomial
N s = Y s = 0 and pj is called poles of H(s) which obtained from
denominator polynomial D s = X s = 0.

 The poles and zeros of a network need not be distinct. The coefficients of
H(s) being real and any complex zeros and poles must appear in conjugate
pairs.

 Poles and zeros of a network function can be represented by a pole-zero

plots in the complex s-plane.

 In the complex s-plane, a pole denoted by a small cross (×) and a zero by
small circle (𝐨).
27
 Cont. …

Fig.2.7: Poles and zeros plotted in the complex s-plane.

Example 2.2: Consider the network shown in figure 2.8 below. Let ei (t) be
the input and eo (t) be the output.
a) Find the transfer function.
b) Find poles and zeros.
c) Locate poles and zeros on s-plane. 28
 Cont. …

Fig.2.8.
L = 1H, R = 5Ω & C = 1ൗ6 F
Solution: a)
di(t)
ei t = L + Ri t + eo t → Ei s = LsI s + RI s + Eo (s) (1)
dt

1 t
eo t = ‫ ׬‬i τ dτ → I s = CsEo (s) (2)
C 0

 From Eq.(1) and (2) 29

 Cont. …
Eo (s) 1ൗ 6
H s = = LC = 2
R
Ei (s) s 2 + s + 1ൗ s + 5s + 6
L LC
b) Zeros: There is no finite zero

Poles: s 2 + 5s + 6 = 0 → 𝑠1 = −2 & 𝑠2 = −3

c)

30
 Cont. …
 Necessary conditions for driving point function (with common factor in
N(s) and D(s) cancelled):

N(s)
 Let, Driving point function =
D(s)

1) The coefficients of the numerator polynomial N(s) and the denominator

polynomial D(s) must be real and positive.

2) If poles and zeros are imaginary then such poles and zeros must be
conjugate.

3) The real part of all the poles and zeros must be negative or zero and if the
real part is zero, then the pole or zero must be simple. 31
 Cont. …
4) The degree of the polynomial in numerator and denominator should differ
by either zero or one.

5) There should not be any missing term between the highest and lowest
degrees in the polynomials N(s) and D(s) unless all the even or all the odd
terms are missing.

6) The terms of lowest degree in N(s) and D(s) may differ in degree at the most
by one.

Example 2.3: Check whether a given functions are suitable in representing

driving point function or not.

32
 Cont. …
𝟒𝐬 𝟒 +𝐬 𝟐 −𝟑𝐬+𝟏 𝐬 𝟐 +𝐬+𝟐 𝟏𝟓 𝐬 𝟑 +𝟐𝐬 𝟐 +𝟑𝐬+𝟒
a) 𝐙 𝐬 = b) 𝐙 𝐬 = c) 𝐘 𝐬 =
𝐬 𝟑 +𝟐𝐬 𝟐 +𝟐𝐬+𝟒𝟎 𝟐𝐬 𝟐 +𝐬+𝟏 𝐬 𝟒 +𝟖𝐬 𝟑 +𝟔𝐬 𝟐
Solution:
a) No, because there is one missing term and negative coefficient.
b) Yes, all conditions are satisfied.
c) No, because lowest degree of is differ by two.
 Necessary conditions for transfer functions:
 After cancelling the common factors in the polynomials N(s) and D(s) i.e.
N(s)
H s = , the necessary conditions for the transfer functions are as follows:
D(s)

1) The coefficients of N(s) and D(s) must be real and those for D(s) must be
positive.
33
 Cont. …
2) The complex and imaginary poles and zeros must be conjugate.

3) The real part of the poles must be negative or zero and if it is zero, the pole
must be simple, including origin.

4) There should not be any missing term between the highest and lowest
degree of D(s), unless all the even or odd terms are missing.

5) The polynomial N(s) may have negative terms or even some missing terms
between the highest and lowest degree.

6) The degree of polynomial N(s) may be as small as zero independent of the

degree of the polynomial D(s).
34
 Cont. …
7) a) For G & α: The maximum degree of N(s) is equal to the degree of D(s).

b) For Z & Y: The maximum degree of N(s) is equal to the degree of D(s) plus one.

Example 2.4: Check whether given functions are suitable in representing transfer
function or not.

3s+2 2s2 +5 2s2 +5s+1 1

a) G21 (s) = b) G21 (s) = c) α21 s = d) 𝑍21 𝑠 =
5s3 +4s2 +1 3s2 +9s+1 s+7 𝑠3 +2𝑠

Solution:
a) No: because there is missing term in polynomial D(s).
b) Yes: all conditions are satisfied.
c) No: The degree of N(s) is greater than degree of D(s).
d) Yes: All conditions are satisfied. 35
2.5. Stability
 In design, the most important requirement is that the system be stable.
Unstable system is generally considered to be useless.

 For analysis and design purpose, we can classify stability as absolute stability
and relative stability.

 Absolute stability: It refers to the condition of whether the system is stable

or unstable. It is yes or no answer.

 Relative stability: It refers how close the system is to instability. It show

degree of stability.
 A system is said to be stable if its output (response) cannot be made to
increase indefinitely by the application of a bounded input excitation. 36
 Cont. …
 Relationship between impulse response and stability:

 The stability of network function can be conveniently determined by

considering its response to an impulse function which is obtained by taking

inverse Laplace transform of the partial fraction expansion of the function.

 Stable system: If the impulse response approaches to zero for sufficiently

large time.

 Unstable system: If the impulse response grows without bound i.e.,

approaches infinity for sufficiently large time. 37

 Cont. …
 Marginally stable system: If the impulse response approaches to a
constant non zero value or a constant amplitude oscillation for sufficiently
large time.

 Relationship between poles positions and stability

 Consider the transfer function given by

N(s) bm sm +bm−1 sm−1 +⋯+b1 s+b0

H s = = (2.16)
D(s) an sn +an−1 sn−1 +⋯+a1 s+a0

 The characteristics equation is given by

D s = an s n + an−1 s n−1 + ⋯ + a1 s + a0 = 0 (2.17)

38
 Cont. …

 The necessary and sufficient condition for the system to be stable is that all

the roots of characteristics equation of the system lie in the left half of the s-

plane.

 In other words the poles of transfer function (i.e., D s = 0) lies in the left half

of s-plane.

 On the other hand a system having poles in the right half of s-plane will be

unstable.
39
 Cont. …
 Routh Hurwitz stability criterion
 Routh Hurwitz stability criterion: It tells as the number of poles on right half of s-
plane.

 Consider the characteristics equation of a system given by Eq.(2.17) in the form of,

D s = an sn + an−1 s n−1 + ⋯ + a1 s + a0 = 0 (2.18)

where all the coefficient ai are real.

 In order that equation (2.18) not have roots with positive real parts, it is necessary
that the following conditions holds:

a) All the coefficients of the equation have same sign.

40
 Cont. …
b) None of the coefficients vanishes, i.e., no missing term between that of
highest and lowest degrees.

 Routh’s Tabulation

 Form the Routh array from Eq. (2.18) as follow:

41
 Cont. …
 The necessary and sufficient condition that all roots of equation (2.18) have
negative real parts if all the elements of the first column of the Routh’s
tabulation (array) are of the same sign.

 The number of changes of signs in the elements of the first column equals to
the number of roots with positive real parts.

Example 2.5:

1) Determine the stability of the systems whose characteristic equations are

a) s4 + 2s3 + 3s2 + 4s + 5 = 0

b) s4 + 8s3 + 18s2 + 16s + 5 = 0

42
 Cont. …
Solution:
s4 1 3 5 s4 1 3 5
s3 2 4 0 s3 2 4 0 −
1 3
−
1 5
a) s2 b1 b2 → s2 1 5 b1 = 2 4
2
= 1, b2 = 2 0
2
=5
s1 c1 s1 − 6
s0 d1 s0 5
2 4 2 4 b1 b2 1 5
− − − −
b1 b2 1 5 = −6, c1 0 −6 0 = 5
c1 = = d1 = =
b1 1 c1 −6
 The system is unstable because there is two sign changes in the first column.
There are two positive roots on right half of s-plane.

43
 Cont. …
2) Calculate the range of k for which the system given by characteristics
equation

s 3 + 7s 2 + 10s + 10k = 0, is stable

Ans: 0 < k < 7

s3 1 10 s3 1 10
s2 7 10kൢ → s 2 7 10k ൢ c = 7×10−1×10k = 70−10k and d = c×10k−7×0 = 10k
s1 c s1 c 0 7 7 c
s0 d s0 d
 For stability
70−10k
> 0 → k < 7 and 10k > 0 → k > 0
7
 Therefore, the range of 𝑘 for the system to be stable is 𝟎 < 𝐤 < 𝟕
44
 Cont. …
 Special cases when Routh’s tabulation terminates prematurely.

 Case1: If a zero appears in the first element of a row, the element in the next row
will all become infinite. To over come this, replace zero element in the first column
by an arbitrary small positive number 𝝐, and then proceed as usual.

 Case2: If all the elements in one row in Routh’s tabulation are zero before the
tabulation is properly terminated. To over come this we conduct the following
steps.

a) Form the auxiliary equation A s = 0 by use of the coefficients from the row just
preceding the row of zero.

45
 Cont. …
Auxiliary equation is always even polynomials.

b) Take the derivative of the auxiliary equation with respect to s; this gives
dA(s)
= 0.
ds

dA(s)
c) Replace the row of zeros with coefficients of and continue as usual
ds

manner.

Example2.6: Check the stability of the following systems with characteristic

equation.

a) 𝟐𝐬 𝟓 + 𝐬 𝟒 + 𝟔𝐬 𝟑 + 𝟑𝐬 𝟐 + 𝐬 + 𝟏 = 𝟎 b) 𝒔𝟓 + 𝟒𝒔𝟒 + 𝟖𝒔𝟑 + 𝟖𝒔𝟐 + 𝟕𝐬 + 𝟒 = 𝟎

46
 Cont. …
Solution:
a) 𝟐𝐬 𝟓 + 𝐬 𝟒 + 𝟔𝐬 𝟑 + 𝟑𝐬 𝟐 + 𝐬 + 𝟏 = 𝟎

s5
2 6 1 s5 2 6 1
s4 1 3 1 s4 1 3 1
s5 b1 b2 0 s3 𝜖 −1 0
3𝜖+1
→ s2 1
s5 c1 c2 𝜖
s 5 d1 1 − 𝜖 2 +3𝜖+1
s
3𝜖+1
s 5 e1
s0 1
1×6−2×3 1×1−2×1
b1 = = 0 ≡∈, b2 = = −1
1 1
b1 ×3−1×b2 ϵ×3−1(−1) 3𝜖+1 b1 ×1−1×0 𝜖
c1 = = = , c2 = = = 1,
b1 ϵ 𝜖 b1 𝜖
3𝜖+1
𝑐1 ×b2 −b1 ×𝑐2 𝜖
−1 −𝜖×1 − 𝜖 2 +3𝜖+1 𝑑1 ×𝑐2 −𝑐1 ×0
d1 = = 3𝜖+1 = , e1 = = 𝑐2 = 1
𝑐1 3𝜖+1 𝑑1
𝜖 47
 Cont. …
b) 𝐬 𝟓 + 𝟒𝐬 𝟒 + 𝟖𝐬 𝟑 + 𝟖𝐬 𝟐 + 𝟕𝐬 + 𝟒 = 𝟎
s5 1 8 7 s5 1 8 7
s4 4 8 4 s4 4 8 4
s3 b1 b2 0 s 3 6 6 0
→ 2
s2 c1 c2 s 4 4
s1 d1 0 s1 8 0
s0 e1 s0 4
4×8−1×8 4×7−1×4
b1 = = 6, b2 = =6
4 4
b1 ×8−4×b2 6×8−4×6 b1 ×4−4×0
c1 = = = 4, c2 = = 4,
b1 6 b1
𝑐1 ×b2 −b1 ×𝑐2 4×6−6×4
d1 = = = 0, here since all elements in row s1 becomes zero, we
𝑐1 4
form auxiliary equation using row s2
A s = 4s2 + 4
48
 Cont. …
A s = 4s 2 + 4
 Then the derivative of 𝐴 𝑠 with respect to
dA(s) d(4s 2 + 4)
= = 8s + 0
ds ds
 Then coefficients 8 and 0 replace the zero row 𝑠1
𝑑1 × 𝑐2 − 𝑐1 × 0
e1 = = 𝑐2 = 4
𝑑1
 There is no sign changes in the first column indicating that there is no roots of
characteristic equation located in right half of s-plane. Solving for auxiliary
equation 4s 2 + 4 = 0 gives two roots s1,2 = ±j, which is also the roots of
characteristic equation. Since the roots are located on jω −axis the system is
marginally stable. 49
 Cont. …
 Deficiencies of Routh Hurwitz criterion

 It is only valid if the characteristic equation is algebraic with real

coefficients. If any coefficient is complex or if equation is not algebraic such
as exponential or sinusoidal can not be applied.

 It gives information about roots of characteristic equation only with respect

to the left half or right half of s-plane. It doesn’t give information about roots
on 𝑗𝜔 axis.

 It can not be applied to discrete time systems.

50
2.6. Natural Response and Natural Frequencies
 The natural response of a network is the response that occurs when the source

excitation is reduced to zero value and the system responds to its initial conditions.

It is then also called source free response.

 Basically it is the complementary solution to of the homogeneous differential

equation. It is called the transient response too.

 The natural response of the system may also be described as the response to unit

impulse excitation and characterized by the natural frequencies of oscillation of

the system.
51
 Cont. …
 Thus, the natural response is the response of the network when it is excited
by an impulse function and resulting response singularities are defined as
the natural frequencies.

 Let the driving point impedance be given as

s−z1 s−z2 … s−zn

Z11 s = k (2.19)
s−p1 s−p2 … s−pn

Case 1: V1 s = Z11 s I1 (s)

 If I1 s = 0, V1 (s) becomes zero unless Z11 s be infinite. The poles of Z11 s

i.e., p1 , p2 , … , pm are the natural frequencies of the network with input open
circuited. 52
 Cont. …

 These frequencies are called open circuit natural frequencies (OCNF) of that

network.

1
Case 2 : I1 s = Y11 s V1 s = V (s)
Z11 (s) 1

 If V1 s is zero, i.e., the input port is short circuited, I1 s would be zero

unless Y11 s is infinite i.e., Z11 (s) is zero.

 Then the zeros of Z11 (s) i.e., z1 , z2 , … , zn represent the short circuit natural
frequencies (SCNF) of that network.

 Thus, we make the following conclusions:

53
 Cont. …
 The poles of an impedance function are the OCNF and the zeros of the
impedance function are the SCNF of the network.

 The zeros of an admittance function are the OCNF and the poles of the
admittance function are the SCNF of the network.

2.7. Frequency Response

 The response given by the system when input frequency ω is changed over
a certain range is called frequency response of the system.

 A frequency response can be obtained by expressing the system function

H(s) in the frequency domain.
54
 Cont. …
 The frequency domain transfer function can be obtained by replacing the
complex frequency variable ‘s’ by ‘ω’. It is denoted as H(jω), i.e.,

H jω = H(s)|s=jω (2.20)

2.8. Magnitude and Phase of a Function

 Frequency domain transfer function can be expressed in the polar form as,

H jω = H(jω) ∠H(jω = Mr ∠ϕr (2.21)

where, Mr −Resultant magnitude which is function of 𝜔

ϕr −Resultant phase angle which is function of 𝜔

55
 Cont. …
Example: Find the magnitude and phase for 𝜔 = 0 & 3.
2s
H jω = 2
s + 4s + 8
2s 2s
Solution: For, H jω = =
s2 +4s+8 s+2−j2 s+2+j2

2(j0) 0
At ω = 0, H jω = H s |s=jω=0 = = = 0∠0°
0+2−j2 0+2+j2 8

2(j3) j6
At ω = 3, H jω = H s |s=jω=3 = =
j3+2−j2 j3+2+j2 2+𝑗 2+𝑗5

62 ∠90° 6∠90°
H jω = 1 5 = = 0.498∠ − 4.76°
1+22 22 +52 ∠ tan−1 2 +tan−1 2 12.04∠94.76°

56
end

57