Module 4: Factors Affecting Crop Production

Lesson 1. Abiotic factors

Learning outcomes: 1. Identify the different abiotic factors affecting crop production
2. Discuss the importance of different environmental factors on the
growth, development and productivity of crops
Time frame: 8th week of the semester

Introduction
Prior to any crop production venture, it is always wise to put into consideration the factors
affecting the performance of the crop at field condition. One should think that the success
of every production enterprise depends on the many factors. These include soil and
climatic, macro and microorganism, cultural management practices, competency and
resources of farmers or growers and genetic factors. This module will tackle each of these
factors one by one. For now, this lesson will consider first the abiotic factors that
essentially include environmental and soil factors.

Activity

Let us determine what you already know?

 List down the different climatic factors based on the intensity of influence to crop
production.

Analysis
 Discuss the basis or bases of your ranking.

Abstraction
The growth of plants, aside from genetic control, is largely affected by the environment.
Some of these factors can be partially controlled if not fully. Environmental factors are
difficult to manage such as light, temperature, water, relative humidity (RH), atmospheric
gases, wind and climatic stresses. However soil factors can be managed to some extent.

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Light factors
Light or solar radiation can be considered as the
most important factor that affects crop yield as
this provides physical energy, converted by
chlorophyll into chemical energy (ATP), to
convert carbon dioxide and water into
carbohydrates (photosynthesis).
Light utilization by Plants
The process of photosynthesis consumed only
about 1% of light received by the leaf of a plant.
Thus if all other factors are favourable, a plant
with high percentages of light utilization has a high efficiency of converting light into dry
matter. There are techniques to enhance light interception by plants such as with proper
cultural and management practices, e.g. proper plant spacing, balance fertilization, proper
weed control, varieties with upright leaves or with high harvest index.

Three aspects of light

 Light intensity
 Light duration or daylength
 Light quality or wavelength

Light intensity – this refers to the amount of light received by plants usually expressed in
foot candles (ftc) or lumens or lux. Photosynthesis can proceed at very low intensity and
become maximum at bright daylight. Most of light reaching green leaves is reflected or
transmitted at full sunlight or middle of a day in which intensity
can go as high as 10,000ftc. This is favourable for sun loving
plants like rice, soybean and corn that require 6,000 to 10,000ftc
which can fix carbon at this time and condition. In contrast, shade-
loving plants can get light saturated more rapidly early morning
below 1000ftc.

Types of plants based on light intensity requirements

• Heliophytes - known as sun-loving plants; light saturated at 5000
ft.c. e.g. banana, chrysanthemum, corn, cotton, cowpea,
cucurbits, papaya, peanut, sugarcane and various vegetables
• Sciophytes - known as shade-loving plants; light saturated at 500
ft.c., e.g. begonia, black pepper, coffee, ferns, ginger,
philodendron, lanzones, mangosteen, durian

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 Light quality – this refers to the wavelength distribution
or the ratio of UV-B, red, blue, far-red. The biological
window of light in the electromagnetic spectrum is
between 300-1000 nm that has biological effect on plants
b. Visible light : Violet, Blue, Green, Yellow, Orange,
Red (400-700 nm) → corresponds to photosynthetic
photon flux (PPF)
c. Red and blue lights are effective for photosynthesis
d. Factors affecting quality includes time of the day,
season, location, atmospheric gases and moisture,
clouds, smoke, dust and other pollutants and plant
factors.

Light Duration (daylength) – known as photoperiod which is the length of exposure of the
plant to light (day length everyday). The flowering response of plants to light duration is
called photoperiodism.
The farther the country from the equator such as North America, UK, the longer the day
length, and hence the effects of photoperiod is more pronounced. In the Philippines, no
considerable effect because of its nearness to the equator, but it is usually considered a
short day from Sep – Jan and long day during summer months. Photoperiod generally
affects flowering, storage organ formation, pigmentation and other development processes.

Types of plants based on photoperiodic

responses
• Day-neutral plants - flowering not
regulated by photoperiod – flowers
over a wide range of daylength, e.g.
Kidney bean, banana, citrus,
coconut, corn, tomato
• Short-day plants - plants that flower
in short days (↓CDL): ~8-12 hrs
light/day, e.g. Chrysanthemums,
pineapple, coffee, rice, sesame, Source: botanystudies.com
soybean, winged bean
• Long-day plants - plants that flower in long days (↑CDL): ~13 to 16 hrs/day, e.g.
Wheat, aster, castor oil, onion, radish

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Photoperiodic classification of some important crops

Temperature
This amount of heat (cold, warm or hot) received by the plants. Temperature affects almost
all processes and development occurring in plants. The rate of reaction increases by 2
times for each 10 degrees centigrade rise in temperature until
an optimum is reached. Temperature is very critical in
germination, breaking seed dormancy, flowering, and growth
processes related to translocation, absorption, transpiration
and many others.
In the Philippines, the monthly average temperature is lowest
in January around 22.5 ⁰C and highest in May at 28.2 ⁰C. At
high elevations (1,200 m ASL elevation) in the country (e.g.
Bagiuo), the temperature ranges from 13.2 to 24.6 oC. In
contrast at low lying area (22 m asl elevation) such
as Laguna, it ranges from 23.3 – 31.5 oC. It is
important to note that about 0.6 oC decrease in
temperature for every 100 m increase in elevation.
For temperate plants, cold temperature is needed to
initiate flowering. The cardinal and optimum
temperatures for most plants range 5 - 54 and 20 to
25 oC, respectively. For instance, corn has a
maximum cardinal temperature of 45oC, a
minimum of 10oC and optimum of 30-35 oC.
Source: researchgate.net

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3 cardinal temperatures
a. Minimum temperature – temperature below
which reaction velocity becomes zero due to
deactivation of enzymes. This is the minimum
temp. at which the photosynthesis (PS) starts.
PS hardly starts at 500C for tropical plants
b. Optimum temperature – temperature at
maximum reaction velocity. PS increases
with rise of temp. up to 250C. Maximum PS
occurs at this range of temperature
c. Maximum temperature – temperature above
which reaction velocity becomes zero due to
desaturation of enzymes. The highest temp. at which PS can take place

Classification of crops based on temperature

a. Low temperature requiring crops - grow well between 7 and 130C. e.g. asparagus,
cauliflower, cabbage, peas, potato, lettuce, broccoli
b. Moderate low temperature (13-180C). e.g. capsicums, carrots, radish, snapbeans,
soybean
c. High temperature (19-300C). e.g. cucurbits, eggplant, okra, most legumes, taro and
others

Vernalization
Is a technique of exposing seed at imbibed state or plants
to low temperature (1-50C) for the purpose of enhancing
flowering, crop maturation, and germination. e.g. Lettuce
germination, flowering in Aster and other cool-season
crops
Source: www1.montpellier.inra.fr.

Atmospheric gases
• CO2 – its concentration in the atmosphere is about ~0.03%. This is an important
raw material for photosynthesis
• 150 billion tons of carbon fixed by photosynthesis per year; 134 bil tons of
carbon from ocean; and 16 bil tons of carbon from land

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 • Oxygen (~21%) – is important in
respiration to release ATP for plant
processes including absorption,
translocation, germination process
• N2 (~79%) – the most abundant
inert gas but it has little role on
plant growth not until it is fixed and
converted to NH4 or NO3. Source: en.wikipedia.org

Wind
A slight or mild moving air or wind is effective for
pollination and beneficial in the exchanges of gases
from the leaf surfaces. However, strong wind can be
destructive and can cause crop lodging, subsequent
yield reduction, grain shattering, hasten transpiration,
can cause straight, upright, curved growth, sterility
due to pollen loss, reduced CO2 levels especially in
enclosed spaces and enhance disease spores dispersal
In the Philippines, the average normal wind speed is
7.2 km/hr. Three-fourth of Philippines area are prone Source: bulletin.ipm.illinois.edu
tropical cyclone (63 to over 118 km/hr). The 31-41%
of these cyclone most frequently hit in Northern and
eastern Luzon, Batanes, Northern Samar, Sorsogon and Masbate. Usually it occurs more
frequent from July to December.

Relative Humidity
This is defined as the percentage of moisture in the
air relative to the amount of moisture that the air can
hold if saturated at any given temperature. RH affects
directly the water relations, photosynthesis,
pollination, occurrence of diseases, postharvest
handling, seed drying and storage, and ultimately
yield. For irrigation management, the lower the RH, Source: qsstudy.com
the more frequent watering is needed. Thus it is
important that growers maintain the RH levels at
50% or more. In addition, it is important to note that dry atmosphere (low RH) can result to
higher transpirational loss of water causing plants to wilt and shrink. Thus it would require
frequent irrigation schedules to compensate moisture loss due to elevated
evapotranspiration. On the other hand, higher RH makes fresh produce to be stored a little

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longer under ambient condition. However, drying of seed grain can take longer while
disease incidence can also be high.

Water
This is the greatest single factor that lowers yield of crops as
this is the major component of plant protoplasm, 90 to 95% on
FW basis, maintains turgidity of plant cell and a raw material
for photosynthesis. It affects the opening and closing of stomata
and controls exchanges gases for photosynthesis and regulating
plant body temperature. It serves as solvent for plant food and
nutrients from the soil. Practically, it plays an important role for
land preparation, efficient utilization of fertilizer, seed Source: reddit.com
germination, establishment of transplant, flowering and plant
nutrition. Below are stages of growth and development of some important crops considered
to be critical for drought stress. Likewise, a few listed below showing the typical values of
the amount of water needed to produce a certain economic product.

Crop growth stages critical for for drought stress

Typical values for the amount of water needed

to produce these vegetables

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Sources of water for plants
a. Rainfall
a. primary source of water for irrigation
b. supplies 80% of cropland worldwide
c. Annual ave. in PH is 2553 mm
 Luzon – 2,724 mm
 Visayas – 2,391.7 mm Source: treehugger.com
 Mindanao – 2,349.8 mm
b. Irrigation water
a. Artificially-made water source (e.g. deep well or ground water, river and impounded
and others
b. methods include flooding/furrow, sprinkler and drip irrigation

Types of Philippine climate based on the rainfall pattern

Type I – distinct wet and dry season
Type II – no dry season with pronounced maximum rain period
Type III– short dry season and no pronounced wet season
Type IV – evenly distributed rainfall

Type I Type II
a. distinct wet and dry season a. no dry season with
b. Maximum rainfall in June- pronounced maximum
Sept or Oct rain period
c. 3-6 months dry season b. maximum rain period is
(<50mm rainfall) usually from Nov to Jan
from Nov to May c. Kalinga Apayao,
d. Ilocos region, West of Northwestern
Mountain Province and Cagayan,Western Quezon,
Nueva Ecija, Central Luzon, Polilio, Bicol region,
Metro Manila, Cavite, Northeast Samar,
Laguna, Batangas, Southern Leyte, Surigao,
Occidental Mindoro, South Agusan and Misamis
of Antique and Iloilo, Occidental
Northeast of Palawan and
South of Negros.

Type III Type IV

a. short dry season and no a. rainfall is evenly
pronounced wet season distributed throughout the
b. 1-3 months dry season year
c. Northeastern of Ilocos Norte, Source: lcp.org.ph b. Batanes Province,
Kalinga Apayao, Cagayan, Northeastern Luzon,
Mountain Province; West of Western Camarines Norte
Nueva Viscaya, Bulacan, East of and Camarines Sur,
Laguna and Batangas, Oriental Albay, Eastern Mindoro,

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 Mindoro, Romblon, Marinduque, Marinduque, Western
Aklan, Capiz, North of Antique Leyte, Northern Negros
and Iloilo, Negros Occidental, and most of Central,
east of Negros Oriental, Siquijor, Eastern and Southern
Zamboanga del Sur, Basilan, Mindanao
Lanao del Sur, Bukidnon,
Misamis Oriental, west of
Agusan del Sur, North Cotabato,
and East Maguindanao

Climatic stresses that are destructive to any growing crops include the following
a. Typhoon - wind speed greater than 60 kph are destructive to any growing crops
b. Ozone Destruction - due to emission of CFCs & GHG
c. Global Warming - accumulation of GHG in the atmosphere
d. El Niño/La Niña - warming and atmospheric disturbance characterized by deficient
rainfall or prolonged drought in some areas, while heavy rains, storms or hurricanes
occur in other areas of the globe
e. Acid Rain - sulfur dioxide produces S which is released from a natural sources and
human activities
f. Lahar – a destructive thick mudflow from a slope of volcano

Soil factors
The variations in soil conditions and mineral
content affects plant growth

Phases of soil system

• Solid – mineral + organic matter
• Liquid – soil solution
• Gas – various gases

Soil properties
a. Physical – this consists of the soil texture, structure,
bulk density, porosity, water holding capacity,
hydraulic conductivity)
b.chemical properties include the pH, CEC, base
saturation, salinity, toxic elements)

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 c. biological properties are the organic mater content and kind and amount of microbial
population present

Soil texture
• the relative proportion of primary soil particles
(sand, silt and clay)
• Soil texture influences water holding capacity and
availability for plants: Sand (>0.02 µ), Silt (0.02-
0.002µ) and Clay (<0.002µ)
• Soil texture range: sand - <10% clay; Loam –
equal proportion of soil particles; Clay - >4.5%
sand

Loamy soil generally preferred for most crops. This is the blend of the different soil
particles which is moderately coarse-textured. It has high nutrient- and water-holding
capacity than sandy and yet it offers a better drainage than clayey soil.

Soil Structure
• The arrangement of soil particles into
aggregates
• How soil structure is formed?
- Natural structure called “Ped”
- Organic matter - binding agent
• Types of soil structure
- Blocky, granular, columnar, platey
and structureless
• Importance of soil structure to crops
- soil tillabilty may be related to
structure. There are soils that are
relatively easier to break up
because of their structure. Source: deeproo.comt
- Soil structure influences soil
aeration which is critical during
seed germination and seedling
emergence.

Soil pH
- degree of acidity or alkalinity
- 7 is neutral, above 7 is alkaline and below
7 is acidic
- Influences the availability of essential
nutrients

Source: slideshare.net

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 - Generally, crops can grow in soil with pH
ranging from 5.0 – 7.5
pH effects
• below 5.0: Al, Fe & Mn become toxic and
Ca & Mo deficiency
• below 5.5: Mo, Zn, K & S deficiency
• pH 6-7 (neutral): most nutrients are in
available form
• above 7.5: Salinity, Al, Zn & Fe toxicity
• above 8.0; formation of Ca phosphates
• above 8.5: salinity, Zn and Fe deficiency Source: agrobest.com.au

Cation Exchange Capacity

• ability of soil to absorb and release cations
through the soil solution
• how? – soil particles can be colloidal (e.g.,
clay) and can contain excess (net) negative
charges
• how it is measured? – sum of exchangeable
cations in a given wt. of soil expresses in Source: extension.uga.edu
me/100 g. soil

Soil organic matter

• This can be derived from plant and animal
residues
• A fertile soil should contain 2-8% OM
• Helps prevent loss of nutrients
• Facilitates absorption and percolation of water
into and through the soil = increase WHC and
reduce soil erosion Source: slideshare.net
• Improves soil structure
• Improves root penetration

Source: slideshare.net 11
Soil fertility and nutrient elements
• Nutrients – are chemical elements or compounds
required by plants for normal growth
• Plant nutrition – the supply and absorption of
chemical elements or compounds required by the
plant
• Soil fertility – the ability of the soil to supply
essential nutrients to plants in sufficient and
balanced amount
• Soil productivity – the ability of the soil to
produce desired quantities of plant yield Source: amazon.com

Essential elements
• Macroelements
- absorbed by plants in large amounts
- carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen,
phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium,
sulfur, silicon

• Microelements
- absorbed by plants in a small amounts
- iron, manganese, boron, molybdenum,
copper, zinc, chlorine, nickel, sodium

Ionic forms of nutrients that are available

for plant use
Criteria of essentiality
1. The element is required for the completion of
the vegetative and reproductive life cycle of
the plant.
2. The element is directly involved in the
nutrition of the plant and performs specific
functions
3. The element cannot be substituted with other
elements.

Order of relative concentration of nutrient element in

plants = H (60,000 or 6%) > 0 > C > N > K > Ca >
Mg > P > S > Cl > Fe > B > Mn > Zn > Cu > Mo (1
or 0.1 ppm)

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Functions of nutrient elements in plants
Macroelements
Nitrogen
- Constituent of amino acids, proteins and
nucleic acids (DNA, RNA)
- Integral part of chlorophyll molecule
- Associated with high photosynthetic activity,
vigorous vegetative growth, dark green color
of leaves and succulence of tissues
Calcium
- Enhances NO3 – N uptake and regulates cation
uptake
- Essential for cell elongation and division
- Ca – pectate in cell wall
Sulfur
- Needed in synthesis of S – containing amino
acids, such as cystine, cysteine and
methionine.
- Needed in synthesis of coenzyme A, biotin,
thiamin (or vitamin B1) and glutathione.
- Component of substances like S-
adenosylmethionine, formylmethionine, lipoic
acid and sulfolipid.
- Required for synthesis of chlorophyll
- Vital part of ferrodoxin, a Fe S protein found - Needed in ATP synthesis which is
in chloroplasts which participates in
oxidation-reduction processes by transferring
electrons, e.g., nitrite reduction, sulfate
reduction, and assimilation of N2 by module
bacteria
- Occurs in volatile compounds responsible for
the characteristic taste and smell of mustard Magnesium
and onion
- Enhances oil formation in flax and soybeans
- Improves quality of forage by narrowing N/S
ratio.
Phosphorus
- Energy storage and transfer through
ATP – ADP conversion
- Structural component of nucleic acids,
coenzymes, nucleotides,
phosphoproteins, phospholipids and
sugar phosphates
- As constituent of ATP, P is involved
in metabolic processes such as PS,
respiration, synthesis of proteins,
phospholipids, nucleic acids, lipids,
Cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin,
pectin
- Important in seed formation and
development of reproductive parts
- Associated with increased root
growth, early maturity particularly
grain development.
Potassium
- Enzyme activator
- Regulates osmotic pressure in roots
- Maintains turgor pressure of guard
cells and regulates opening of stomata,
thus controlling photosynthesis and
transpiration
used in translocation of sugars from
leaves, N uptake and protein synthesis
- Strengthens straw of grain crops and
prolongs the life of the flag leaf
- Increases pest and disease resistance
- Constituent of chlorophyll molecule
- Structural component in ribosome
which are associated with protein
synthesis
- 3. Associated with energy transfer
reactions in metabolic processes like
photosynthesis, glycolysis,TCA cycle
(or citric acid or krebs cycle), and
respiration
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Application
In the column next to the factors, briefly describe the importance of soil texture (clay and
sandy) for a given factor in relation to crop production
Factors Clayey soil Sandy soil
Tillability
Water holding capacity
Nutrient holding
capacity

Good job – you have just completed lesson 1 of this module. In this lesson, you learned
that indeed crop production is a challenging venture due to lots of factors to watch out for.
But wait, not only that because the next lesson will continue to introduce to you the biotic
and genetic factors. So hang on and keep the momentum going. All the best

Learning evidence
Documentary video - The class will be divided into groups and each group shall prepare a
video presentation on the factors affecting crop production. Output can be derived from
actual observation or taken from other sources. Each member of the group should take part
in the video preparation and presentation.
You can contact the course in-charge for your groupings. Output shall be submitted online
two (2) weeks after the mid-term exam week.

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Module 4: Factors Affecting Crop Production

Lesson 2: Biotic and Genetic Factors

Learning Outcomes: 1. Discuss the importance of biotic and genetic factors on crop
growth and yield
2. Identify the criteria in selecting crop or variety for crop
production
Time frame: 9th week of the semester

Introduction
The biotic factors include the many living macroscopic and microscopic organisms present
in the surrounding environment of the plant. These organisms may either be constructive
or destructive to the growing crops. This lesson introduces you to some of the beneficial
organisms and pest attacking crops. In addition, the genetic factor inherent by the plant that
determines the trait or character of a plant will also be dealt to some extent. The interaction
of genes and environmental is the one that controls the overall performance of the crop.

Activity
• What is pest?
_________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

• If you are to plant a crop or particular variety, what are the desirable traits or your
criteria for selecting such.
_______________________ ________________________ ____________________
_______________________ ________________________ ____________________
_______________________ ________________________ ____________________

Analysis
 In what situation, corn and rice can be considered as weeds? How do weeds affect
growth and reduce yields of crops?

_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_____________________
• Among the five criteria you have listed for a good crop or variety to plant, which of
them is the utmost and the least of your priority. Explain your answer.

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_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________
___________________________________________
________
Abstraction
Biotic factors
Vigorous and healthy plants can often result to greater
output. Superior growth and yield are usually a result
of favorable soil and climatic environment including
abundance of beneficial organisms. However, if
destructive organisms (or pest) are abundant growth
and yield can be severely affected. Hence, preventive
and control tactics have to be employed. Knowing the
pest attacking the crops and the beneficial ones are
some of the good practices for an effective pest
Source: savvygardening.com
management.
Pest is a collective term that includes insect pests,
diseases, weeds, invertebrates and vertebrates. Pests are major limiting factor in crop
production. Their damage can go as high as 100%,
Insects – are six-legged creatures with pair of antennae and wings. They feed on plants,
act as defoliators, sap feeders, stemborers, root feeders
Weeds – They are the “unwanted plants in a particular place”. Weeds are very aggressive
and competitive for light, water, nutrients and other resources.
Vertebrate pests include birds, rodents, bats and monkeys while invertebrates are slugs,
snail and nematodes
Plant diseases are usually caused by microorganisms or pathogens such as fungi, bacteria,
viruses, nematodes.
Fungi – it is usually called as molds, multi-cellular, primitive plants devoid of
chlorophyll and relied on their existence through assimilation of food from their hosts.
They can quickly spread through the production of spores which is carried by wind and
other organisms. Some of the destructive fungi diseases include downy mildew,
anthracnose, rust diseases, rice blast and phytopthora diseases
Bacteria – are unicellular microorganism which can infect plants through plant
openings such as cuts, stomates, lenticels. They affect plants by secreting substances
that can damage plant cell leading to wilting of plants. Examples include soft rot and
bacterial wilt.

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 Viruses – highly microscopic and parasitic organisms which can only live in other
cells. Vectors that carry the virus include insects, animals, planting materials,
nematodes and humans. Examples of destructive diseases caused by viruses are the
abaca mosaic and tungro diseases.
Nematodes – these are tiny worms live in soil and feed usually on plant roots causing
mechanical injuries and can cause predispose secondary infection. Classical example is
the root knot disease caused by Meloidogyne spp.
Physiological disorders/diseases – are often caused by mismanagement such as water
stress and nutrient deficiency or toxicity which can render plants susceptible to
diseases.

Beneficial organisms provide beneficial effects on crops in many ways.

Pollinators – play an important role in the preservation of species and in biodiversity

conservation

Decomposers – play an important part in the food chain which is related to energy flow in
a crop production system. Specifically important in the maintenance of soil organic matter.
Soil microorganisms act both chemically and physically. They digest crop residues and
other organic matter enzymatically by chemically action. Physically they move the
residues from one place to another, mixing it with the soil, earthworms and other
burrowing animals.

Certain beneficial fungi live in symbiotic association

with plant roots: the fungus/root association such as
mycorrhiza and rhizobia.

Natural pest enemies and microbial bio-control agents

against pest. Provide balance in a crop production
system particularly in the control of pests

Human Factors
This factor is often overlooked but probably the most Source: legit.ng
critical of all factors. From a system perspective, this
is not only a factor but rather the core of the system
itself as this dictates all farming activities and crop production output.
a. Farmer’s preference. This refers to the choice of crop type or variety to plant.
Decision should be based on farmer’s objectives and aspirations. But this is often
dictated by factors like market and government policies
b. Farmer’s capability. This depends on resources and competency of the growers or
farmers. It is obvious that most Filipino farmers are resource-poor and our culture
is very rich in indigenous knowledge particularly about farming.

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 c. Management. This is largely dependent on the factors a and b. It goes along with
eco-social-political realities.
d. Labor supply. Farm activities can be labor requiring at times. Hence, labor force
must be available in times of peak farming activities such land preparation,
planting, harvesting and among others.
e. Peace and order situation. Presence of thieves, troublesome neighbors and the anti-
government groups are among the challenges faced farmers.
f. Others such as laws and regulations, peer pressure, tradition and beliefs

Genetic Factors
This factor is governed by genes, the unit of inheritance. It has been said that favourable
environment cannot cause a plant character to develop in the absence of necessary gene
(Pava and Abellanosa, 2003). Hence, the success in crop production can be attributed to
proper selection of crop or variety at the start of farm operation. Below are some factors to
consider when selecting a crop/variety to plant.
a. Yield potential – this is the economic consideration as economic yield of crops is
one of the indices whether you are gaining or losing from your crop enterprise.
b. Adaptability – Not all the seed board or commercially available varieties may
perform well in your locality. Hence it is wise to test them in small scale or select,
if possible, those that have been tested and shown to perform well in your specific
locality.
c. Resistant to pest and diseases – it is important that varieties selected are resistant to
pest and diseases. This can save you labor and other resources in managing pest.
d. Maturity – the growth duration of the crop will greatly affect the succession in farm
operation. Therefore, it is a wise move to select high yielding and early maturing
cultivars.
e. Market demand – higher yield will become futile if you don’t have market of your
product, hence the needs of the buyer should be considered. Study the trend of
demand in the market prior to the start of operation so that you can take advantage
of the premiums.
Some selection indices for selected crops
- Banana – disease resistance (bunchy top, sigatoka), plant height, large bunch and
more uniform ripening
- Papaya –ringspot virus, crown rot resistant, fruit size, flesh color, texture, aroma,
shelf life, seediness ,bearing regularity
- Durian - phytophthora resistance, aroma, flesh color and texture, drought resistance
- Tomato - bacterial wilt resistance, tolerance to rain, fruit size and color, dry matter
content (processing paste), puffiness
- Eggplant - bacterial wilt and fruit borer resistance, fruit quality
- Rice – disease resistance (tungro), pest resistance (BLH), bluck bug, maturity,
yield, eating quality , drought resistance
- Corn – disease resistance (downy mildew, stalk rot, ear rot), pest resistance (corn
borer),drought resistance, salt tolerance, yield

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Application
• List down at least two (2) crops and identify two major pests and their nature of
damage.

• Enumerate at least three (3) crops (other than mentioned above) and their important
selection indices

Congratulations! You have just concluded this module. Now that you have already the
knowledge of the different factors affecting crop production, you can now move to the next
module which will discuss the crop improvement, and seed production and selection.

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Module summary
Success in crop production depends largely on the many factors. These generally include
soil and climatic factors, pest and diseases, genetic and human factors. In particular, these
are the soil properties, aspects of light, temperature, water, relative humidity, pest and
diseases, beneficial organisms, human capital and competency, and the crop genotypes.
Some of these can be managed to some extent while some can be difficult to deal with.
Thus, one should take into account each of these factors when planning for a crop
production enterprise. For instance, a high yielding and resistant variety to pest and
diseases will not perform best if it is not provided with favorable environmental condition.
In the same manner, poor management (human factor) can also lead to lower production
even the other factors are favorable. Thus all these factors have to be considered for
superior plant growth, yield and profitability.

References
 Pava, H.M. and A.L. Abellanosa. 2003. Introduction to Crop Science. 3rd edition.
Central Mindanao Univeristy. Musuan, Bukidnon. P 359
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