General Physics 12

TSU-LS Midterm Reviewer

Outline
I. Unit of Measurements
II. Accuracy and Precision
III. Sources and Types of Error
IV. Scalar and Vector Quantities
V. Vector Addition Through Graphical Method
VI. Components of Vectors
VII. Vector Addition Through Analytical Method
VIII. Vector Multiplication
 UNITS OF MEASUREMENTS
Measurement - It is a process of
assigning a quantity to
describe a property of an object by comparing it with a
standard.

International Sysmtem or SI - It is the standard system of

measurement for the fundamental quantities. It is also called
as the “metric system”.
7 SI Units: Derived Quantities
1. Seconds (s) - These are based
2. Meter (m) on the seven
3. Kilogram (kg) fundamental
4. Ampere (A) quantities and are
5. Kelvin (K) expressed from
6. Mole (mol) the product of two
7. Candela (cd) or more base units
Prefixes Used with SI Units - are added to the base units to make
the value of the
Power

Prefix

Abbreviation Power

Prefix

Abbreviation
10³

kilo

k 10⁻¹

deci

d
10⁶

mega

M 10⁻²

centi

c
10⁹

giga

G 10⁻³

milli

m
10¹²

tera

T 10⁻⁶

micro

μ
10¹⁵

peta

P 10⁻⁹

nano

n
10¹⁸

exa

E 10⁻¹²

pico

p
10²¹

zetta

Z 10⁻¹⁵

femto

f
10²⁴

yotta

Y 10⁻¹⁸

atto

a
 Other Systems of Measurements

Unit

Abbreviation

Metric Equivalent
pound

lb
4.448 N
slug

slug

14.59 kg
ounce

oz
28.350 grams
mile

mi

1609 m
foot

ft
30.48 cm
inch

in
2.54 cm
Conversion of Units
An equation or expression should always be consistent with the
units to correctly solve it
Units can be treated as algebraic quantities that can cancel each
other.
Example: Conver 5.0 inches to centimeter given that 1 inch is equivalent
to 2.54 centimeters.

The unit “inch” is placed in the denominator so that it cancels the unit from the
original value. The remaining unit “centimeter” is the desired result.
Conver 55 kilometers to meters.

From the table of prefixes, 1 kilometer is equal to 10³ meters.

The values in the numerator and the denominator of the conversion

factor can be interchanged to get the desired unit. The unit
“kilometer” is placed in the denominator to cancel the original unit.
The desired unit “meters” remains.
 DIFFERENTIATE ACCURACY
FROM PRECISION
Error - is the difference between the ‘true’ value and the measured
value
Uncertainty - defines the net effect of the error. It quantifies the
doubt that exists in any reported value of the measurement.
Accuracy - describes how close the measured value is to the ‘true
value’.
Precision - describes the scatter or the variability of the
measurement values made.
Arithmetic Mean - x̄ - Also known as average mean, it gives an
estimate of the ‘true’ value. To calculate,

Example: In a physics laboratory activity, you are tasked to measure

the mass of a cup of water. You were able to get five
readings as follows: 2.5 kg, 2.6 kg, 2.5 kg, 2.4 kg, and 2.6 kg.
What is the average mass

Divide the sum of the readings by the number of the readings. The average mass
of a cup of water is 2.52 kg or 2.5 kg.
Standard Deviation - s - It indicates how different a specific value is
from the average of the whole set. To calculate,

Example: Different people were made to accurately measure the

length of the hall. The set of readings is as follows: 26 m, 28
m, 27.5 m, 29 m, 31 m, 33 m, and 26.5 m. What is the
standard deviation of this set of values in m?
 x x-x̄ (x-x̄ )²

26m 26m-28.7m=-2.7m 7.29m

28m 28m-28.7m=-0.7m 0.49m

27.5m 27.5m-28.7m=-1.2m 1.44m

29m 29m-28.7m=0.3m 0.09m First, find the mean of the readings.

Then subtract all the x from the
31m 31m-28.7m=2.3m 5.29m mean. Square all the differences, then
get the summation. Divide the
33m 33m-28.7m=4.3m 18.49m summation of all the (x-x̄ )² by the
number of readings minus 1. Then
26.5 26.5m-28.7m=-2.2m 4.84m you will get the square root of the
answer, and then that square root will


37.93m be the standard deviation.
SOURCES AND TYPES OF ERROR
Two main types of errors:

1. Random error - Occur when repeated measurements

produce randomly different results.
2. Systematic error - Error that remains constant or changes
in regular fashion even if measurements are repeated.
It causes the measured values to veer away from the
accepted or predicted value.
Examples of Random Errors:
Experimental Noise:
1. Fundamental Noise - The error happens during the

process. It is governed by physical laws.

2. Technical Noise - It happens from the material you use. It
depends on how you use the material.

Sources of Systematic Error:

1. Faulty calibrations of instruments
2. Poorly maintained instruments
3. Incorrect reading by the user
Examples of Random Errors:
Experimental Noise:
1. Fundamental Noise - The error happens during the

process. It is governed by physical laws.

2. Technical Noise - It happens from the material you use. It
depends on how you use the material.

Sources of Systematic Error:

1. Faulty calibrations of instruments
2. Poorly maintained instruments
3. Incorrect reading by the user
 SCALAR AND VECTOR
QUANTITIES
Two Types of Physical Quantities:
1. Scalar Quantities - a physical quantity that has magnitude (size or
quantity) but no direction. It is described by a single number with
its appropriate unit.
2. Vector Quantities - A vector quantity is a physical quantity with
both magnitude and direction. Magnitude describes the quantity or
the size of the physical quantity while direction describes how the
vector is oriented relative to a reference point.
Representing Vector Quantities:
The magnitude of vectors is represented by the same letter used in a vector
quantity . The magnitude is a scalar quantity and it is always positive.
Displacement is a vector quantity, and it is represented by an arrow.
The length of the arrow represents the vector’s magnitude.
The arrowhead indicates the direction of the vector. A more accurate
description requires the use of xy planes.
Rules in Representing Vectors:
1. Begin by deciding on the scale.
2. Identify where to place the vector based on its direction.
The direction of the vector is expressed as an angle of rotation either from
the north, south, east, or west.
By default, angles are measured from the east direction.
Example: Car A covered 550 km, 195° while car B traveled 250 km, 40° south of
west. Illustrate the vectors in one cartesian plane.
 VECTOR ADDITION THROUGH
GRAPHICAL

METHOD
Two vectors are considered equal if their magnitudes and direction are
the same. Two vectors are considered equal if their magnitudes and
direction are the same

When two vectors have opposite directions but have the same
magnitude, they are called antiparallel.
The total displacement is called the resultant, R. The addition (and
subtraction) of vectors can be done using the head to tail method.

R=A+B B
Vectors can be added graphically (geometrically) or algebraically. A
graphing paper or a bond paper, a ruler, and a protractor are needed
in adding vectors graphically
Example: A person covered two different displacements: A = 30 m, 25°
north of east and B = 55 m, 70° south of east. What is her total
displacement?
Step 1: Draw vector A on a graphing or bond
paper. Make sure that the magnitude is
represented by a proper scale.
Step 2: Draw vector B using the same scale that
you used. Its tail should start from the tip of A.
Step 3: Draw an arrow connecting the tail of A
and the tip of B. This is the resultant vector R.
Step 4: Measure the length of R and use the
scale to find its real length. Use the protractor to
measure the angle.
 COMPONENTS OF VECTORS
A vector at an angle can be resolved into its two components: a
component parallel to the horizontal axis (x-axis) and another
component parallel to the vertical axis (y-axis).
The direction of the vector can be presented as an angle (Greek letter
for theta), measured from the +x-axis.
The components of a vector are calculated using the trigonometric
functions sine and cosine.
The magnitude and direction of a vector can be calculated through its
two components using the Pythagorean theorem and the tangent
function.
The sides of the triangle can be defined from the angle.
h = hypotenuse (hyp)
o = opposite (opp)
a = adjacent (adj)
Trigonometric functions can be expressed
as the following equations:
The relationships between its components and its angle can
be expressed as the given equations:
Hence, trigonometrically, we can define the components as the
following equations.

The resultant vector can be calculated using Pythagorean theorem.

The angle or direction of the vector is determined using the inverse

tangent function of the ratio of the x- and y- components.
Example: What are the x- and y-components of a displacement vector
with a magnitude of 50 m and an angle of 30°?

The x-component of the vector is 43.30 m while

its y- component is 25 m
Example: What is the magnitude and direction of a displacement
vector if its components are as follows: Ax = 10 m, Ay = 5 m

The angle is not given in the problem, so we need to find it first. We identified the direction of
vectors because, by default, angles are measured from the east direction. It is less than 90
degrees, so it is on the north of east side. After we find the angle, we can now find the
magnitude of the two vectors by using the Pythagorean Theorem. The displacement vector has
a magnitude of 11.18 m and a direction of = 26.57° or 26.57° north of east.
 VECTOR ADDITION

THROUGH
ANALYTICAL METHOD
Vectors can be added by placing them head to tail. Vectors can be
added by placing them head to tail. R=A+B
Analytical Method of Adding Vectors:
Step 1: Determine whether the angles given were measured from the
+x-axis.
Step 2: Resolve each vector into its x-

and y-components. Use

Step 3: Add all components together.

Step 4: Calculate the magnitude of the vector using the Pythagorean

theorem.
Step 5: Calculate the angle using the inverse tangent function.
Example: Denise walks every day from her house to the school. First,
she covers 10 m, 20° north of east. Then, she walked 15 m in a direction
50° north of east. What is her resultant displacement?

Step 1: Step 2:
Step 3:

Step 4:

The resultant vector of

Step 5: Denise is 24.18 m, 38.06° or
38.06° north of east
 VECTOR MULTIPLICATION
Scalar Product - The scalar product of a vector and another vector will
result in a scalar quantity. It is also referred to as a dot product.

Vector Product - The vector product or the cross product of two vectors
will result in a vector quantity. It is also referred to as a cross product.
Scalar Product

Example: Find the scalar product between the two vectors if the
magnitude of A is 9.0 and B is 15.0 and the angle between them is 45º.
Vector Product

Example: Find the magnitude of the vector product , if is 9 m along the

x-axis and is 12 m located along the xy-plane, making a 50°-angle
with respect to the x-axis.45º.
 VECTOR ADDITION THROUGH

PARALLELOGRAM METHOD
The parallelogram law of vector addition is used to add two vectors
when the vectors that are to be added form the two adjacent sides of a
parallelogram by joining the tails of the two vectors. Then, the sum of
the two vectors is given by the diagonal of the parallelogram.
Let P and Q be two vectors acting simultaneously at a point and
represented both in magnitude and direction by two adjacent sides OA
and OD of a parallelogram OABD as shown in figure.

Let θ be the angle between P and Q and R be the resultant vector.

Then, according to parallelogram law of vector addition, diagonal OB
represents the resultant of P and Q.
Example: Find the resultant and the Find the Alpha angle:
angle of the two vectors below: α=180°-70°
α=110°

Find the Resultant (R):

Law of Cosines
Example: Find the Beta angle:
Law of Sines

Find the angle:

θ=50°-25.8°
θ=24.2°
 MOTION DESCRIPTORS
Motion - The change of position of an object in a specific span of time
relative to an observer
Time - A quantity that describes when an event took place. It is
measured in terms of seconds (s) and is usually noted by t.
Distance - It describes how far an object has traveled. It also pertains to
the total length traveled by an object in motion. It is a scalar quantity. It
can be noted as d and has a unit of m.
Displacement - It is the length and direction of the line that connects the
initial position to the final position. It describes how far an object is from
its initial position. It is a vector quantity. It can be noted as d and has a
unit of m.
Distance is always greater than or equal to displacement.
Distance and Displacement can only be equal if the object in motion
travels in one direction only and does not go back to its original position.
Distance is the total length traveled by an object.
Displacement is defined as the length of the line that separates the
initial position (x0 ) to the final position (xf).
In general, distance can be calculated using the equation below.

In general, displacement can be calculated using the equation below

Example:

180 m

140 m

100 m
Example:

140 m
Speed and Velocity - These are quantities that combine the concept of
time and space.
Speed - Speed is the rate of change in position. It can be noted as v or s
and has a unit of m/s or ms⁻¹. It is a scalar quantity.
Velocity - Velocity is the rate of change in position with respect to a
reference point. The direction on how the object moves is important in
determining velocity. It can be noted as v or s and has a unit of m/s. It is
a vector quantity.
Mathematically, speed and velocity can be described using the equations
below.

Speed Velocity
Distance - It describes how far an object has traveled. It also
pertains to the total length traveled by an object in motion. It is a
scalar quantity. It can be noted as d and has a unit of m.
Displacement - It is the length and direction of the line that
connects the initial position to the final position. It describes how
far an object is from its initial position. It is a vector quantity. It can
be noted as d and has a unit of m.
Mathematically, speed and velocity can be described using the
equations below
Example:

180 m

140 m

100 m
d = 420 m
3 min = 180 s
Example:

140 m

3 min = 180 s
 Acceleration - It describes how an object changes its velocity per
elapsed time. It is a vector quantity with an SI unit of m/s².

Three ways to say that an object is Accelerating:

1. If the magnitude of the velocity of the object is changing
2. If the direction of the motion of the object is changing
3. If both the magnitude of the velocity and the direction of motion is
changing
 Signs of Acceleration:
1. Positive Acceleration ➡ a and v are in the same direction ➡️ speeding up
2. Negative Acceleration (Deceleration) ➡ a and v have the opposite
direction ➡ slowing down
3. Zero Acceleration ➡ object is traveling at constant v or not moving at all

Relative Nature of Motion - Motion is relative. This means that an object

which is moving for you might not be moving relative to another person.
 AVERAGE VELOCITY
ANDINSTANTANEOUS VELOCITY

total rate of change of position
Average Velocity - It is defined as the
of an object.

Instantaneous Velocity - It is defined as the velocity of an object

inaninstant.Itmeans that we are getting the rate of
changeinthepositionof an object in a single point of time.
 Instantaneous Velocity

The velocity is the slope

in a position-time graph.

The preciseness increases

with smaller time interval.
 Instantaneous Velocity

In calculus, the instantaneous

velocity can be solved by getting
the derivative of the position-time
equation.
Example: The position of a particle is given by the equation below.
Determine the instantaneous velocity of the particle at t = 2s.

Assuming all quantities are expressed in SI units, at t = 2 s, the particle is moving at 34.8 m/s.
Example: A hypothetical car stops at an intersection. When the stop light turns green, it then
travels along a straight road and its distance from the intersection is given by x(t) = at2 + bt3
– c where a = 4.6 m/s 2 , b = 1.2 m/s3 and c = 17 m. Calculate for the average velocity of the
jeep from t = 2 s to t = 8 s and its instantaneous velocity at t = 9 s. Do you think this
hypothetical car can be usually seen in our streets?

It can't be seen in the

streets because it's too fast.
ANY QUESTIONS?
IF YOU HAVE QUESTIONS, PLEASE MESSAGE OUR PAGE.