Ecology for

Agriculture
Professor Daniele Antichi
Department of Agriculture, Food and Environment, University of Pisa

Phone: 0039-050-2218962
Unimap: https://unimap.unipi.it/cercapersone/dettaglio.php?ri=4520
ResearchGate: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Daniele-Antichi
ORCID: 0000-0002-5520-2510

Email: daniele.antichi@unipi.it

Foundation Course – University of Pisa A.Y. 2022/2023

Learning outcomes

Knowledge
The student who successfully completes the course will be able to understand the
basic information about the structure and the principles regulating ecosystems and
agro-ecosystems. The acquired knowledge will allow the student to understand also
the basic interactions between agriculture and the environment.
Assessment criteria of knowledge
The student knowledge will be assessed on his/her demonstrated ability to discuss
the main course contents using the appropriate terminology during the final exam.
Skills
At the end of the course the student will be able to understand the basic theoretical
background of ecology. He/she will be also able to read/interpret textbooks and
publications related to the subject, as related to the most important terminology and
concepts of ecology applied to agriculture.
Assessment criteria of skills
The student’s skills shall be evaluated taking into account his/her capacity to explain
with proper terms the definition, the structure and the principles regulating ecosystems
and agroecosystems.
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Foundation Course – University of Pisa A.Y. 2022/2023
Behaviors
At the end of the course the student will be able to identify in a critical perspective
the major aspects of ecosystem and agroecosystem structure, functioning and
weaknesses according to the basic theoretical background of agricultural ecology.
Assessment criteria of behaviors
The student’s behaviour will be evaluated through the group discussions driven by
the teacher during the course.
Prerequisites
To usefully follow the course, the student must previously have assimilated basic
knowledge about biology and natural sciences.
Teaching methods
The lessons will be held using PC presentations; the didactic materials will be
available at the beginning of each lesson on the Moodle of the Course. Any
communication with the teacher will ordinarily take place by E-mail. Preliminary tests
in the form of quiz could be presented to the students to facilitate the organization of
the lectures.

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Foundation Course – University of Pisa A.Y. 2022/2023
Syllabus
Ecology: definitions and brief history. The basic principles of ecology: general theory
of the systems, ecosystems. Ecosystem components: biotope (soil and climate) and
biocenosis. The concept of ecological factors. Ecosystem functions: interactions
between the components of the systems. Ecosystems structure: ecological niche,
trophic levels, food chain, ecological pyramids. Ecosystems operating systems:
concepts of autotrophy and heterotrophy, energy fluxes, biogeochemical cycles,
resistance and resilience, ecological sequences. The basic principles of vegetal
production: productivity (potential, real and net). Agro-ecosystems: definitions,
components, main differences with ecosystems.
Bibliography
-E.P. Odum, 1983. Basic Ecology. CBS College Publishing.
-Didactic material provides by the teacher (Moodle, Teams).
Non-attending students info
The non-attending students will be able to follow the lessons using the didactic
material loaded on E-learning platform and the textbook.
Assessment methods
Individual written test composed of 4-5 short essays
In case of restrictions related to the COVID-19 pandemic, the written test will be
replaced by oral interview.
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Foundation Course – University of Pisa A.Y. 2022/2023
 Ecology: definitions and

Ecology: definition brief history.

The basic principles of

and basic principles ecology: general theory of the
systems, ecosystems.

Foundation Course – University of Pisa A.Y. 2022/2023

 Ecology: definition and etimology
From ancient greek «oikos», house, and «logos», science

Literally, it means «the science that studies the house»

House –> the physical enviroment where living beings live

Ecology -> the science that studies the functional interactions

among human beings, plants, animals and their physical
environment
It studies the conditions of existence of living organisms, taking into account all
the interactions among:
- different living organisms
- living organisms and the physical environment

These interactions identify all the environmental drivers affecting growth and
development of individuals belonging to the same or different species

Foundation Course – University of Pisa A.Y. 2022/2023

 Ecology: fields of interest
Ecology is the science of the functioning of the environments
Ecology is the science of the relationships, links and interactions
Ecology is the science of systems and processes occurring on Earth

Environment:

- the set of physical, chemical and biological conditions defining the

place where an individual, a population of individuals (within a
species) or a community live -> the «reality»
- the set of external conditions that an organism can, with or without
awareness, perceive and that directly affect its growth, development
and biological activities

Foundation Course – University of Pisa A.Y. 2022/2023

Ernst Haeckel, 1866
«By ecology, we mean the whole science of the relations of the organism to the
environment including, in the broad sense, all the “conditions of existence.” These are
partly organic, partly inorganic in nature; both, as we have shown, are of the greatest
significance for the form of organisms, for they force them to become adapted. Among
the inorganic conditions of existence to which every organism must adapt itself belong,
first of all, the physical and chemical properties of its habitat, the climate (light, warmth,
atmospheric conditions of humidity and electricity), the inorganic nutrients, nature of
the water and of the soil, etc. As organic conditions of existence we consider the entire
relations of the organism to all other organisms with which it comes into contact, and of
which most contribute either to its advantage or its harm. Each organism has among the
other organisms its friends and its enemies, those which favor its existence and those
which harm it. The organisms which serve as organic foodstuff for others or which live
upon them as parasites also belong in this category of organic conditions of existence.
[…]»
Foundation Course – University of Pisa A.Y. 2022/2023
Ecology: history in brief

Ecology remained a branch of biology for all the XIX century

Only in 1968-1970, the raising environmental consciousness spotlighted on Ecology
as an authentic scientific discipline bridging natural sciences, biological sciences and
social sciences -> also human activities deal with ecology

Odum (1971): Ecology as «the study of ecosystem structure and functions»

Krebs (1985): Ecology as «the scientific study of the interactions determining the
abundance and distribution of living organisms»
Fenchel (1987): Ecology as «the study of the principles regulating temporal and
spatial patterns of organisms’ grouping»
Ehrlich and Rouhhgarden (1987): Ecology as «the study of relationships among
organisms and the totality of physical and biological factors»

Foundation Course – University of Pisa A.Y. 2022/2023

Ecology: a multidisciplinary science

Biological
Agricultural Sciences
and forest
sciences
Earth
Sciences

Medicine
Ecology Physics

Social
Maths &
Sciences
Statistics
Economics

Foundation Course – University of Pisa A.Y. 2022/2023

Ecology: history in brief

Ecological thinking has its roots far in history

Nevertheless, in Western countries the belief that humans have full

disposal of environmental resources constrained a lot the affirmation of
such thinking

Reductionist science dominated until the XX century

The raise of system thinking paved the way for Ecology to affirm itself

Foundation Course – University of Pisa A.Y. 2022/2023

Ecology and the system thinking
We are seeking another basic outlook: the
world as an organization.
This would profoundly change categories of
our thinking and influence our practical
attitudes.
We must envision the biosphere as a whole
with mutually reinforcing or mutually
destructive inter-dependencies.
Ludwig von Bertalanffy, 1968 - (Austria, 1901-1972)

System approach:
- global vs particular
- complex vs simple
- interactions vs linear causality

Foundation Course – University of Pisa A.Y. 2022/2023

General Systems Theory (GST)
Theory based on the structural complexity of the whole as a result of
the interactions among its components: the world is an organism
provided with principles and rules involving the totality of its
constitutive components
Von Bertalanffy sets alternatives to the classical reductionist approach,
for which the single parts are studied separatedly and then summed up
to each other -> example: quality of a food product
The concept of «system» becomes a key notion to formulate a new
scientific conception of the world.
-> Gaia hypothesis (Lovelock and Margulis)
-> Biospherocentric/connections theory (Teilhard de Chardin)

Foundation Course – University of Pisa A.Y. 2022/2023

Definition of a System
A set of components that depend on each other and regularly interact
each other, which form a whole that is functioning autonomously from
outside -> e.g. ICT systems, railway system, metabolic system…

More specifically, a system is a group of elements bound by

interactions and/or interdependencies, which defines a complex
organization aimed to achieve a precise target

The aggregation among the system components is so strong that the

characteristics and the functioning of the whole system are different
from those of the single components

Foundation Course – University of Pisa A.Y. 2021/2022

Biological System

A biological system is defined by:

1. Its components -> living/not living organisms

2. The connections among the components
3. The boundaries of its autonomous organizaton

The more the components, the more the interconnections and the higher
the complexity… -> BIODIVERSITY

Foundation Course – University of Pisa A.Y. 2022/2023

Open, closed, isolated systems
In thermodynamical terms, we can distinguish among:
a) OPEN SYSTEMS -> exchange energy and matter with outer environment
b) CLOSED SYSTEMS -> exchange only energy with outer environment
c) ISOLATED SYSTEMS -> don’t exchange neither energy or matter with outer
environment
SYSTEMS

Isolated Closed Open

ENERGY MATTER
Open, closed, isolated systems

Isolated Closed Open

Foundation Course – University of Pisa A.Y. 2022/2023

Characteristics of systems

A – HIERARCHICAL STRUCTURE -> autonomous

subsystems
B – CHANGE OVER TIME -> adapt to achieve their
goal in an increasingly efficient way (adaptation and
development of new functions)
C – RESPONSIVE TO THE ENVIRONMENT -> they
can be modified -> modification/adaptation loop

Foundation Course – University of Pisa A.Y. 2022/2023

Systems’ hierarchy
Level Level description Subsystems

i+3 Ecosystem Communities

i+2 Communities Populations
i+1 Populations Organisms
i Organisms Organs
i-1 Organs Tissues
i-2 Tissues Cells
i-3 Cells Organelles
i-4 Organelles Macromolecules
i-5 Macromolecules Molecules

Foundation Course – University of Pisa A.Y. 2022/2023

Ecosystem hierarchy
Characteristics of hierarchical systems
A - Each level has its own components and functions
that make it different from the others

B - Each level integrates its sublevels

C - the relationships among different levels are not

symmetric -> the behaviour of a given level depends on
the one of its sublevels, but not the opposite

Foundation Course – University of Pisa A.Y. 2022/2023

Approaches to hierarchical systems

- To know and manage the reality -> top-down

approach (the higher levels, with their constraints
and burdens, affect the lower levels)
- To understand the complexity and the organization ->
bottom-up approach (studying the simplest forms of
life makes it possible to understand the most
complex ones)

Foundation Course – University of Pisa A.Y. 2022/2023

Emerging properties in ecosystems
«Properties of groups that cannot be entirely explained
by their individual components»

Emerging properties raise up when components or

sublevels form a higher level functional aggregation
with new properties not shown by its components

The whole acts differently from the sum of its parts ->
emerging property ≠ collective property
Foundation Course – University of Pisa A.Y. 2022/2023
Emerging properties in ecosystems
The new properties emerge because of interactions among
components and not because these latter would change in their
nature

High biodiversity of components -> more possibilities to

develop new properties

The amplitude of the oscillations of a function in a whole is

lower than the sum of the ones of its components

Foundation Course – University of Pisa A.Y. 2022/2023

The ecosystem

The system defined by the physical environment and living

organisms can be considered as a single entity, the
components of which play specific roles (functions) that are
consistent with the others

In Ecology, this system is called ECOSYSTEM

Foundation Course – University of Pisa A.Y. 2022/2023

The study of ecosystems

In Ecology, the ecosystems can be studied as regards to

(Odum):

- Structure -> physical components of an environment,

description and classification of its components
- Functioning -> the role (function) played by single
components and their ensemble

Foundation Course – University of Pisa A.Y. 2022/2023

Ecosystem studies in ecology

- Living processes and interactions with physical

environment
- Energy and matter fluxes through communities
- Ecosystem development
- Abundance and restrictions of organisms and biodiversity
in a given environment
- Sustainability of human ecosystems -> agriculture

Foundation Course – University of Pisa A.Y. 2022/2023

Classification of ecological branches

- Subject: animal/plant/human/microbial ecology

- Aim: autoecology/sinecology
- Level: population/ecosystem ecology
- Human component: basic/applied ecology (application of
ecological framework to manage and foresee impacts of
human activities on ecosystems. e.g. agricultural ecology)
- Conceptualization: theoretical/experimental

Foundation Course – University of Pisa A.Y. 2022/2023

Fields of ecological studies

Autoecology

Ecology
Descriptive
sinecology

Sinecology

Functional
Sinecology

Foundation Course – University of Pisa A.Y. 2022/2023

Autoecology

- It studies the relationships between a given organism (a

species or a population) and the abiotic factors of its
environment
- It defines the needs and the tolerance limits of a species
respect to the ecological factors of its ecosystem
- It describes also the effects of the environment on
morphology, physiology and behavioral aspects of the
species -> e.g. plant physiology

Foundation Course – University of Pisa A.Y. 2022/2023

Sinecology
- It studies the relationships among different species and
between them and their environment -> how populations
and communities establish, evolve and interact with the
physical factors

- It could be:
a) Descriptive
b) Functional

Foundation Course – University of Pisa A.Y. 2022/2023

Descriptive vs Functional Sinecology

a) Descriptive -> describes the groups of living organisms

present in a given environment in terms of: abundance,
specific composition, frequence, spatial distribution

b) Functional -> analyses the function of each group of living

beings in the ecosystem, describing their evolution over
time and the dynamics of species succession in a given place

Foundation Course – University of Pisa A.Y. 2022/2023