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Introduction

English is the first and best international uttered language around the world. Hence, when we speak English, it has
been indicated by other than verbal means classically and grammatically.

I have in your temperamental makeup the first whole number of copies published at one time so we can speak in a
loud distinct voice so as to be heard at distance: ERUDICTION.

Those who learnt and understood, KNOWLEDGE 1and 2 written by the same author will also understand this first
edition of ERUDICTION.

Dindanda L. Dady

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a

retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic,
mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior
permission of the publisher.

This book is sold subject to the condition that it shall not, by trade or
otherwise be lent, resold, hired out or otherwise circulated without the
publisher’s prior consent in any form of binding or cover, other than that it is
published and without a similar condition, including this condition, being
imposed on a subsequent purchaser.

First edition dry season 2018

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C HAPTER 1

MODAL VERBS
The modal verb is always the first word in the verb phrase. It always has the same form.
And never has an ending such as ''s'', ''ed''. After modal verb we put a bare infinitive.
· present: we must know now
· past: we had to know then
· future: we must know soon
Notice: in some contexts could, would and might are past forms of can, will, shall and may.
e.g1: I can't remember the formula (present)
We may have problems direct speech (dict speech)
e.g2: I couldn't remember the formula (past)
We thought ve might have problems (indirect)
Here are some aspects which modal vers can express:
1.1 NECESSITY
must, have to, to be obliged to, to be required and to have got to, are used to talk about
necessity.
Examples
a. you must buy your ticket before starting your journey
b. I have to buy the ticket before I get on the bus
c. You are obliged to sign a declaration
d. She is required to stop the bus
Notice: when we talk about necessity in the present or the near future, we can either use must or
to have(got)to. But there is a difference in the meaning; we normally use ''must'' when the speaker
feels (a strong) necessity and ''to have(got)to'' when the necessity is outside the speaker.
ex: You must study if you want to succeed
You have(got) to buy a shirt
1.2 NO NECESSITY
''Needn't'' and ''don't have to'' are used to say that something is unnecessary.
ex: The figure doesn't have to be exact
You needn't always make an appointment
Notice: mustn't has a different meaning from needn't/don't have to. Compare the sentences:

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I needn't run, I've got plenty of time

I neen't run, I've got a weak heart.
1.3 OBLIGATION
Must, should, ought to, got to, to have to, had better to express an obligation.
ex: I must go to university
They should build more hospitals
He ought to go to kinshasa, it's the interesting place
Who should we invite? who ought we to invite?

1.4 OBLIGATION AND ADVICE

should, ought to, to have to, etc. are used for obligation and advice. To say what is the right
thing or the best thing to do.
ex: You should study tonight (advice)
They ought to pay the scolary frees (obligation)
I shouldn't leave things untill the last moment
They oughtn't to leave litter all over the place
Notice: we can use the continuous or perfect after should.
E.g. i should be doing some work really
you should have planted the potatoes last year
1.5 PERMISSION
Had better, supposed to, can, may, could, to be allowed to.
1.5.1 Had better: to say what is the best thing to do in a particular situation.
ex: Do you think I'd better call a doctor? Yes, of course
1.5.2 supposed to:
ex: Is this food supposd to be kept cool? Yes, put it in the fridge.
Notice: We also use to be supposed to for what people say.
ex:Too much sugar is supposed to be bad for you.
1.5.3 can, could, may, might and be allowed to: for giving and refusing permission
Giving
ex: You can use my phone if you like
Anyone can join the club
Any person over 18 may apply the club
Refusing
ex: I'm afraid, you can't just walk in here
Customers may not bring their own food into this cafe
Other ways of refusing permission
Ex: tourists must not take money out of the country
Smoking is prohibited on school premises

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Talk loudly is not permitted during the training

Asking permission
We use can, may, could to ask permission
Ex: can I take your umbrelle? Of course, you can
Could I borrov this calculator, please?
Well, I need it actually
May we come in? Why not
Note: we can also use ''might'' to ask permission but it is both formal and tentative.
ex: I was wondering if I might borrow your car for the afternoon
Notice: talking about permission when ve are not giving or asking for it.
Ex: I can stay up as late as I like, my parents don't mind
At one time anyone could go and live in the USA
1.6 CERTAINTY
Will, must and can't we can use these modals to say that something is uncertain true or
untrue
Ex: -There is someone at the home = it will be the milkman
- You got up at four o'clock = you must be tired
- This can't be DINDANDA's textbook = He doesn't do physics.
''will'' expresses a prediction, it means that something is certainly true, even though we can't see
that it is true. ''Must means that the speaker sees something as necessarily and logically true.
''Can't'' means that the speaker sees it as logically impossible for something to be true.
1.7 PROBABILITY
To have (got) to, t be sure to, to be bound to, should, ought to, must be, would be.
ex:- The should have (ought to have) our letter by now
-we ought to know (should know) the result soon
-The bus is ten minutes late, it must be coming soon
-The glass is craked, someone must have dropped it
- FRANC stared in amazement, it couldn't be true
1.8 POSSIBILITY
May, might, can and could to say that something is possibly true or suggest possible future
actions
ex: -you can (could) go on the train = yes, why not?(future action)
-This old picture may (might) be valuable ( is possible)
-That may not (might not) be a bad idea
Note that: we can also use may and might for an uncertain prediction or intention and can and
could to express onlt a possibility. The do not mean that something is likely to happen
ex: - You may (might)gey truck in traffic if you do not go early
- I'm not sure, but I may (might)drive to MBANZA-NGUNGU            on saturday
-we could (can) have a party? = yes, why not?(suggest)
- we may (might) have a party= oh, really? (uncertain intention)

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Notice: There are other ways of being less certain in English

Ex:- perhaps/maybe the picture is valuable
- This foaster seems (appears) to work all right
- It is possible the picture is valuable
1.8 ABILITY
can, could and be able to, to say that something is possible because someone has the ability
to do it.
Note: e use can for the present and cpould for the past
ex: -Joyce can play basketball
-Can you draw a perfect circle?
- we can't move this piano, it's so heavy
-TRACY could play guitar when she was six
-My grandfather could valk on his feet
-The pupils are already able to read
-DADY could walk (was able to walk) when he was eleven only months old
1.9 UNRAEL SITUATIONS
would, would like, would rather, don't dare, daren't look, used to, would love, would mind to
express an unreal situation.
ex:- we're going to have a barbecue= oh, it'll be nice
-we're thinking of having a barbecue= oh, it would be nice
-I would like to climb that mountain (=I want to climb it)
a. ve can also use vould with love, hate, enjoy and mind
Ex:-MASAKA would love to do deep-sea driving
-KALIDOR vould hate to be in your shoes
-we would enjoy a trip to York, We've been there before
-I would mind comming with you
b. would rather means "prefer" or"would prefer"
Ex:-I would rather walk than hang around for a bus
-The guide would prefer we keep together
c. we use this verbs for habits, actions which are repeated again and again."will" for present and
"would" for the past habit
Ex:-Everyday, SHEULA will come home from school and ring up the friends she's just been
talking to warn air will rise
-In those days, people would make their own entertamment
d. we use "used to" to express a past habit or a state and "dare" means, not to be afraid to do
something
Ex:-I used to come here vhen I vas a child
-I used to have a bicicle but I sold it
-I daren't looks at the bill
-I don't expect many people dare (to)valk along here at night

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1.10 ASSISTANCE
Can I? Could I? May I? Might I? vould I? are used for asking assistance
a. Questions
-Can I intend the meeting?
-May I come in please?
-Could you allow to get?
Please would you permet to be there?
b1. Polite answers(affirmative)
-yes, yes, of course, Naturally, Certainly, Surely
b2. Informal ansvers(affirmative)
-okay, uh-uh, not at all, sure, yeah
b3. formal ansvers negative
-I'm sorry but I can't, I would like too but I can't, I'd love but my arms are full, I'd rather but not
b4. Informal negative
-Not I can't, Hmm I refuse, I can't do it

C HAPTER 2

CONDITIONAL CLAUSES

There are 3 kinds of conditional clauses: 1st conditional, 2nd conditional and 3rd
conditional.
2.1 0 conditional
Rule: IF...+ PRESENT + PRESENT
USE: we use type 0 for the automatic result of a possible future action.
Ex: -If the doorbell rigs, the dog barks

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-If you heat iron, it expands

-If the team wins tomorrow, they get promotion to a higher school
Notice: we can use "when" instead of "If" and as well as the simple present, we can use the
continuous.
ex: -when (if) I reverse the car, it makes a funny noisy
-If you're practicing on the drums, I'm going out
2.2 1 CONDITIONAL
Rule: IF...+ PRESENT+ FUTURE
Use: this is used for the possible condition in the future
Ex: -If we don't hurry, we'll miss the train
-the milk will go off if you leave it by the radiator
Notice: As well as the present simple, we can use continuous or perfect and as well as "will" we
can use other modal verbs and similar expressions in the main clause
Ex: -If you miss the train, you can (w ill) get the next one
-If GLOIRE is hoping to borrow the car, he's going to be disappointed
-If we're having ten people to dinner, we'll need more chairs
-If I've finished my work by ten, I'll probably Watch a film on TV
2.3 2 CONDITIONAL
Rule: IF... + WOULD/SHOULD/MIGHT/COULD
Use: this expresses an unreal condition
Ex: - If I had lots of money, I would travel round the world
-I STRAY BULLET lived near he would play her visit more often
Notice: As well as the past, we can use the continuous or could and we use combine a past
condition with the future result
Ex: -If the sun vas shining, everything would be perfect
-If I could help you, I would, but I'm afraid I can't
-If they posted the parcel yesterday, it won't get there before Friday
2.4 3 CONDITIONAL
Rule: IF...+ PAST PERFECT + VOULD/SHOULD + PERFECT
Use: here the condition refers to something unreal, an imaginary past action
Ex: -If you had taken a taxi, you would have got there in time
-If you had phoned to renew the book, I wouldn't have had to pay a fine
-The man would have died If the ambulance hadn't arrived so quickly
Notice: we can also use continuous forms and sometimes we use subjunctive "were" instead of
"was"
Ex: -If he hadn't been invited by the land-lord, he wouldn't have been sleeping in the streets
-If the picture were germane, it would worth thousands of dollars
-If they weren't for BULLET, I would have no friends at all.
2.5 SOME NOTICES ABOUT CONDITIONAL
a. Then, as long as, so long as and providing/provided (that) to express a condition.
Ex: -If the pictures don't add up then We have made mistake

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- If no one else has requested the book the you renew it

- You renew a book in writing as long as you give its number
- I don't mind you using my bike provided (that) take care of it
- we are willing to accept your offer providing(that)payment is made within
b. Unless, only if, if not, in case even if, whether
ex: -you're going to have picnic unless it rains (it doesn't rain)
- we won't have a picnic only if is fine
- you are obliged to refund my money, otherwise I shall take legal action
- You should insure your beginnings in case they get stolen
- I wouldn't go on a camping holiday, even if you paid me
- She wouldn't want a dog whether she had a room for one or not
- whether it's summer or winter, our neighbor always wears a jacket

C HAPTER 3

THE PASSIVE VOICE

The use of the passive voice

we talk about active voice when the subject is the doer of the action and passive voice when
the subject undergoes the action (when the person doing the action is the subject, we use
active voice). When the subject is what the action is indicted to, then we use passive voice.
Ex:- Active voice: the secretary typed a report
- Passive voice: the report was typed(by the secretary)
Notice: the passive is often used in official, impersonal style
3.1 Tenses and aspects in the passive voice
A passive verb has a form of "be" and a participle. "Be" is in the same tense as the equivalent
active voice. The passive participle has the same form as a past participle.
Ex: -The ministry announced the figure
-The figure was announced(by the ministry)
a. TENSES
PRESENT TIME
 Simple present: simple present of to be+ passive participle
Ex: - The roads kill large number of people (s.present)
= large number of people are killed on the roads
- He is teaching a grammar lesson (present progressive)
= A grammar lesson is being taught (by him)
- You have eaten rice (present perfect)
=Rise has been eaten (by you)
- SARAH has been cooking cassava leaves(present perfect progressive)
= Cassava has been being cooked ( by SARAH)

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PAST TIME
Ex: - They spoke English well (past simple)
= English was vell spoken by them
- Mr. ENDLESS was studing biology at University (past progressive)
= Biology was being studied at Univesity
-Mrs. TABITHA had undergone some consequences about that (past perfect)
= some consequences had been undergone
- him and her had been speaking LINGALA (past perfect progressive)
= LINGALA had been being spoken

FUTURE TIME
Ex: - I shall do that work myself
=The work shall be done
-He will be teaching the lesson
= The lesson will be being taught
- RISE will have taken your biro
= The biro will have been taken
- She will have been watching TV
= TV will have been being watched

b. MODAL VERBS
1 Modal verb+be+passive voice
Ex: -stamps can be bought at any post office
-Animals should really be seen in their natural habitat
-Meals have to be prepared every day
2 Modal verbs+have been+ passive participle
Ex:- I can't find that piece of paper, it must have been thrown away
- The plane might have been delayed by fog
- This bill ought to have been paid weeks ago
Phasal or prepositional verbs
Ex: -The tree was cut down last week
-Has the doctor been sent for?
Negative and question
Ex:-How often do these offices get cleaned?
-I forgot to leave the dustbin out, so he didn't get implied
Verbs of reporting
ex:- They say that elephants have good memories
= It is said that elephants have good memories
= Elephants are said to have good memories
Subject+passive+verb+to-infinitive
Ex:- It is thought that stonehenge dates about 1900 BC

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=Stonehenge is thought to date from about 1900 BC

with perfect or continuous
Ex:-The army was reported to be crossing the frontier
-The prisoner is known to have behaved violently in the past
-Stonehenge is thought to have been built over a period of 500 years
- Police advises drivers to use an alternative route
=Drivers are advised to use an alternative route
Active participle
Ex- The detective saw the woman putting the jewelry in her bag
= The woman was seen putting f
Jewelry in the bag
with a participle with an infinitive
Ac:-Someone saw him running away, someone saw him run away
Pc:He was seen running away, he was seen run away
Other Aspects
ex:-I'm annoyed at having been made a fool of ( perfect gerund)
-Being searched by customs officers is unpleasant
-Let's not being caught in a traffic jam, I was afraid of being caught at (gerund)
-we decided that the rubbish should be cleaned away
-I expert to be invited to the wedding, let's not risk getting caught in a traffic jam

10. After an adjective phrase the infinitive is usually adjective

e.g: - This machine isn’t safe to us

- The piano is too heavy to move
- That box isn’t strong enough to move

11. if we use a phrase with by and the agent then the infinitive is passive

e.g : - The piano is too heavy to be proved by one person

C HAPTER 4

THE INFINITIVE
We can use a to-infinitive clause to express result, although this use is rather literary.
e.g : - SADRA came to find her house on fire.

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- He grew up to be a handsome young man.

4.1. verb + to-infinitive ( we can use a to – infinitive after some verbs)

e.g : - people are refusing to play the new tax

- we hope to be moving into our new flat soon

4.2. Afford and stand, care, mind, go after, can, could or be able to are often in a negative sentence or a question.

e.g : - Do you think we’ll be able to afford to go to India ?

- I can’t stand sitting around doing no thing
- Would you care to come along with us ?
- Do you mind carrying this bag

4.3. Some verbs can take either a to-infinitive or a gerund with almost no difference in
meaning.

e.g : - I hate to leave / hate leaving every thing to the last minute
- when the president appeared the crowd began to cheer/began cheering
- we intend to take/ intend taking immediate action
Notice : with verbs of linking and hating sometimes the gerund gives a sense of the action really
happening, while the infinitive often points to a possible action.
- I hate doing the same thing all the time, it gets really boring some times
- I’d hate to do the same thing    all the time, I’m lucky my job is so interesting

4.4.    like, love and hate usually take a gerund, but would like, would love and would hate
normally take a to-infinitive.

e.g : - I love swimming, I swim, really everyday.

- I’d love to go for a swim, It’s such a lovely day

4.5. We use regret to- infinitive for a present action, especially when giving bad news with a
gerund to express regret about the past.

e.g : - we regret to inform you that your application has been unsucceful
- I regret wasting (regret having wasted) so much time last year

4.6. we use dread + to-infinitive mainly in the expression ( I dread image) … but a gerund
for something that causes fear

e.g : - I dread to think (image) what might happen to you all alone in a big city
- I always dreaded being kissed by my aunts.

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4.7. we Use try to-infinitive means «’’ attempt to do’’ and try+ gerund means’’ do something
which might solve the problem’’

e.g : - I’m trying to light a fire, but this wood won’t burn
- why don’t you try pouring some petrol on it ?
Notice : in informal English we can use try and instead of try to
e.g : - let’s try and move the cupboard away from the wall

4.8. After ‘ ‘ stop’’ we often use the to-infinitive of purpose, but stop+ gerund means to end
an action.

e.g : - At the next services the stopped to buy a new paper

- you’d better stop dreaming and get out with some work

4.9. Mean+to-infinitive has the sense of ‘’intend’’. But mean+ gerund expresses result, what
is involved in something

e.g :- I’m sorry, I didn’t mean to step on your foot

- I have to be at the airport by nine, it means getting up early

4.10. Go on + to infinitive means to do something different, to do the next thing, go on+ing

form means to continue doing something.

e.g : - After receiving the award, the actor went on to bank all the people who had helped him in
his career.
- the band went on playing even after everyone had left.

4.11. Adjective + to infinitive : enough, too, and very .

e.g : - It’s too difficult a problem to solve in your head

- It’s a difficult enough problem to solve.
- It a very difficult problem to solve

4.12. Noun phrase + to- infinitive, related noun,

e.g : - I need to write a letter, we are determined to succeed

- everyone laughed at RISE’S attempt to impress the girl
Notice : Some nouns take a preposition + ing-form not an infinitive

e.g : - There’s no hope of getting there in time

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4.13. Question word + to infinitive

e.g : - I just don’t know what to say ?

- DORCAS wasn’t sure how much to tip the porter
- No one told us where to meet
- Have you any idea how to open this packet ?

4.14. We can use whether but not if

e.g :    - I was wondering whether tearing, we’ll have to decide whether to go (or not)
-
4.15. After which, what, whose, how many and how much we can use a noun.

e.g : - I didn’t know    what size to buy.

- the driver wasn’t sure which way to go
- there’s the problem of how much luggage to take.

4.16. We use verbs of reporting to report statements, thoughts, questions, requests,

apologies and so on.

e.g : - you might ask the waiter to bring another bottle

- I’ve apologized for losing the data.

4.17. With direct speech we can sometimes inverse the verb of reporting and the subject this
happens mainly in literary English.

e.g : - Nice to see you, Dady said /said dady

- I’m afraid not, the woman replied/replied the woman

4.18. After a modal verb

e.g : - you should be more careful you could have made the tea
- you ought to be more careful, you have to put some money in
- I was able to get home ok, we aren’t allowed to walke on the grass.

4.19. After had better, would rather/would sooner, and rather than

e.g : - W’d better not be late

- Ididin’t enjoy it, I’d rather have stayed at home
- They decided to accept the offer rather than go (going to court)

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Notice : Make, let and have can take an object+ bare infinitive
- The official made me fill in a form
- The headmaster let the pupils go home early
- I’ll have the porter bring up gour luggage.

C HAPPTER 5

INDIRECT SPEECH
5.1. Indirect Speech

 We use indirect speech when we rapport someone’s words by repeating them

e.g :- I’ll go and take them ; said DADY
- RISE was the first to admit ; we were simply beaten by a better side

5.2. Indirect Speech

Instead of repeating the exact words, we can give the meaning in our own words and from our
point of view.

e.g : - DADY said he would go and take it

- clevery admitted that his team were beaten by a better side

Notice : We can’t use « that » when the indirect speech comes first but we can mix direct and
indirect speech
e.g : same people think it’s a woman’s job, but I don’t think tha’s relevant          anymore

 The day after tomorrow, in two days (time), two days later
e.g : - we’ll come the day after tomorrow, they said
- they said that they would come in to days time (two days later)

 Next week/month/year, the following week/month/year

e.g : - I have an appoint mens next week she said
- she said that she had an appointnout the following week

A) CHARGE OF TIME AND PLACE REFERENCE

a) last week / month / year, previous week / month / year

e.g : - I was on holiday last week ; he told us

- He told us that he had been on holiday the previous week

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- I saw her a week ago ; he said

- He said that he had seen her a week before

b) This ( for time ) that

e.g - I’m getting a new car this week she said

- She said that she was getting a new car that week

c)    This/ that (adjectives) the

e.g. - Do you like this shirt ? He asked
- He asked if I liked the shirt
d)    Here and there
e.g. - He said i live here
- He told me he lived there

B) TENSE CHANGES

Normally, the tense in reported speech is on tense bock in a time from the tense in direct
speech
e.g. - She said i am tired
- She said that she was tired
The changes are shown below:
a) the Simple present  the Simple past
e.g.- I    always drink coffee ; she said
-she said that she always drank coffee
b) the Present continuous    the Past continuous
e.g . - I am reading a book ; he explained
- He explained that he was reading a book
c) the Simple past      the past perfect
e.g. - JEREMIE arrived on Saturday ; he said
- He said that jeremie had arrived on Saturday
d) the Present perfect      the past perfect
e.g - I had just turned out the light ; he explained
- He explained that he has just turned out the light
e) the Present perfect continuous    the past perfect continuous
e.g. - They complained we have been waiting for hours
- They complained that they had been waiting for hours
f) the simple Future    the present conditional
e.g. - I will be in BRAZAVILLE on Monday he said
- He said that he would be in BRAZAVILLE on Monday
g) the Future continuous    the conditional continuous
e.g. - She said i’ll be using the car next Friday
- She said that he would be using the car the following Friday

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Notice : You don’t need to change the tense if the reporting verb is in the present , or if the
original statement was about something that is still true
e.g. - He says he has missed the train but he’ll catch the next one
- We explained that it is very difficult to find our house

C HAPTER 6

WORD-BUILDING
Some words are formed by combining two diffirents words to masse a compound.
e.g : Barth+room= barthroom
By there, use prefixes and suffixe to add something to the meaning.
e.g - Is it a flight between countries ?
- Is it an international flight ?
- We won’t forget the fact that you’ve been so kind
- We won’t forget your kindness

6.1 PREFIXES

Prefix comes at the beginning of a word, it adds something to the meaning.

- Here are some prefixes
- re ( again) : rewrite, re-enter, remarry
- Semi= half : Semi skilled workers, semi-conscious state
- mono= one : monophthong, monolangage
- multi= many : multinational, a multi-storey coup ark
- super= big(more) : a super store, a superman effort, supersonic our craft
- sub= under(less) : subnormal intelligence, sub-zero temperature
- muni= small : a minibus, a miniskirt, a minicomputer
- pre= before : the pre-war years, prehistoric times
- post= after : a post-tasted cherub, the post war period
- ex= previously : his ex-wife, our ex-doctor
- inter= between : inter-city trains, an international phone call
- trains= across : a trans Atlantic flight, a heart transplant operation
- co= together : co-exist, a co-production, my co-driver
- over= too much : overcrowded, ill from over crawled, an over grown garden, over weight
- under= too little : under cooked food, an under staffed office, under paid
- out= more/better : outnumber the opposition, out paid, out lived both her children
- pro= in favor of : pro-government, forces, pro-European policies

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- anti= against : anti-nuclear protestors

Anti= against : anti-nuclear
Mis= badly/wrongly : misuse, misbehave, misgovern, miscount

Notice : there are some negative prefixes used to express an opposite

Un : unhappy, unfair, unofficial, unemployed, unplug a machine
This most common way of expressing an opposite, we don’t use in before, l, m, p or r, we use il,
im and ir instead
In : inexact, independent, indirect, inexpert, an injustice
Il : illegal, illogical, immobile, immoral, impossible, impatient, irrelevant, irresponsible
Dis : dishonest, disunited, disagree, disappear, dislike, disadvantage
Non : non-alcoholic drinks, a non-stop flight, a non-smoker
De : defrost a fridge, the depopulation of the country side the decentralization of government.

6.2 SUFFIXES

A suffix comes at the end of a word

- verb+ment : payment, movement, government, arrangement, development.
- verb+ion/tion/ation :correction, discussion, production, information, invitation, addition,
repetition.
- verb+t/sion : decision, permission
-      verb+ance/ence : performance, acceptance
- adj in ent/ence : existence, performance, (silent) silence, absence, intelligence, distance, importance,
independence
- adj+ty/ity : certainty, royalty, stupidity, nationality, security
- adj+ness : happiness, illness, freshness, forgetfulness, blindness
- verb+ing : a building, my feelings

 Nouns for people

Verb + er/or : walker, owner, builder, driver, editor, doctor,
Nouns,verb, adj + ist :journalist, motorist, nationalize, tourist

 But not all combinations are possible we can say :

- Statement, amusement, punishment
 Verbs
- Adj+ ize : modernize, popularize, privatize, centralize, legalize,
- Adj+en : shorten, widen, brighten, harden, loosen
- Adjectives
- Nouns al : national, industrial, cultural, additional, original
- Nouns ic : heroic, artistic, photographic, energetic
- Verb + nouns + ive : active, effective, exclusive, informative, expressive,
- Nouns ful : careful, hopeful, peaceful, beautiful, harmful
- Nouns + less : careless, hopeless, worthless, powerless
- Nouns + ous : dangerous, luxurious, famous, courageous

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- Nouns + y : salty, healthy, thirsty, wealthy, greedy

C HAPTER 7

CONJUNCTIONS

A conjunction may be use to indicate the relationship between the ideas expressed in a
clause and the ideas expressed in the rest of sentence.
e.g.: - we could go to the library, or we could go to park.
- he neither finished his home work nor studied for the test
- I went out because the sun was shining

7.1. Coordinate conjunctions

Coordinate conjunctions are used to join two (2) similar grammatical constructions; for
instance, two words, two phrases or two clauses

e.g. : - my friend and I will attend the meeting

- Kinshasa is famous is for the beauty of its landscape and the hospitality of its people
- The sun rose and the birds began to sing
- The most commonly used coordinate conjunctions are: and, in addition, but, or, nor, yet, and
neither, however, alternatively

e.g. :- she tried    and succeeded

- They tried but did not succeed
- did you go out or stay at home?
- I didn’t see it, nor did they
- The sun is warm, yet the air is cool
- I’ve got all my usual work, and in addition I’ve got to write a rapport
- We can cancel the meeting alternatively, we can find somewhere    else to hold it.

 We can also use, Besides, what’s more, further(more) moreover and then, on top of that,
plus(little formal and informal)
e.g.: - the material is very strong be sides, it is cheap to produce
- It’s raining quite hard what’s more, I have no umbrellas
- The country had suffered greatly during the war, further more (more) it had no money

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- I’m too busy to travel all that way, and then there’s the expense
- We’re go workmen in the house on top of that my sister is staying with us
- These matters are giving cause for concern, further, I must draw your attention to a recent press
report

Notice: The adverb « too » and « as well » are more emphatic than « and » along with, together
with, and the prepositions as well as and in addition to with a noun or gerund.
e.g : - John was a boxer he lectured on Shakespeare, too (as well)
- Dady was a university lecture as well as a booker
- in addition to doing all my usual work, I’ve got to write a report
- I’ve got my sister to look after along with the workmen
- Together with a film crew, they are walking towards the south pole.

7.2. Correlative conjunctions

Correlative conjunctions are used in pairs, in order to show the relationship between the ideas
expressed in different parts of a sentence

e.g : - either you should study harder, or you should take a different course

 The most commonly used correlative conjunctions are ;

Both … and ; either … or, neither … or, etc…
e.g.:- Bath …. And ; he is both intelligent and good natured
- Either …. Or ; I will either go for a walk or read a book
- Neither …nor ; He had hardly rich or famous
- Hardly … when; He had hardly began to work, when he was interrupted
- If …… the ; if that is true, than what happened is not surprising
- The no sooner…than : no sooner had I reached corner, than the bus came.
- Not only … but ; she is not only clever, but also hard-working
- Rather … than ;I would rather go swimming than go to the library
- Scarcely … when ; scarcely had we left home, when it started to rain
- What with ….. and : what with all her aunts, uncles and cousins, she has many relative
- whether … or ; have you decided whether you will come or not ?

7.3. Subordinate conjunctions

Subordinate clauses may begin with relative pronouns such as that, what, whatever, which,
who and whom, as well as, with words such as; how, when, where, wherever, and why.
e.g : - The house, which stood on a hill, could be seen for miles
- I wonder how he did that

In addition, subordinate clauses may also begin with words which are commonly referred to as
subordinate conjunctions

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e.g : - Because it was cold, I wore my winter coat

- let us wait lentil the rain stops
a. The subordinate conjunctions below are accompanied by their meanings and examples of
use.

 A.S = because and when

e.g : - as he is my friend, I will help him
- we watched as the plane took off
 After= later in time
e.g : after the train left, we went home
 Although or though = in spite of the fact that
e.g : Although it was after midnight, we did not feel tired
 Before = earlier than
e.g : I arrived before the stores were open
 Because = for the reason that
e.g : he had to wait, because we arrived early
 For = for and because
e.g : He is happy, for he en joys his work
 If = on    condition that
e.g : if she is here, we will see her
 Lest = for fear that
e.g : I watched closely, lest he make a mistake
 Providing or provided = on condition that
e.g : all will be well, providing you are careful
 Since = from a past time, as and because
e.g :-I have been here since he sun rose
- since you are here, you can help me
 So or so that = consequently and in order that
e.g : - It was raining so we did not go out
- I am saving money so I can buy a bicycle
- I am saving money so that I can buy a bicycle
 Supposing = If
e.g : supposing that happens, what will you do ?
 Than = uses in comparisons
e.g : He ‘s taller than you are
 Unless = except when, if not
e.g : unless he helps us, we cannot succeed
 Until or till = up to the time when
e.g : I will wait until I hear from you
 Whereas = because and on the other hand
e.g : - whereas this is a public    building, it is open to everyone
- He is short, where as you are tall
 Whether = If
e.g : I don’t know whether she was invited
 While = at the time when, on the other hand, although
e.g : - while ct was snowing, we played card

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-    he is rich, while his friend his poor

- while I am not an expert, I will do my best.
b. in addition the following phrase are often used at the beginning of subordinate clauses

 As if = in a similar way
e.g : she talks as it she knows everything
 As long as = if and while
e.g : - as long as we cooperate, we can finish the work easily
- he has lived there as long as I have known him
 As soon as = immediately
e.g : - write to me as soon as you can
 As though= in a similar way
e.g : it looks as though there will be storm
 Even if = in spite of a possibility
e.g : I am going out even if it trains
 In case = because of a possibility
e.g : take sweater in case it gets cold
 Or else = otherwise
e.g : please be careful, or else you may have an accident
 So as to = in order to
e.g : I hurried so as to be on time

7.4. differing preposition and conjunctions

Meaning Preposition Conjunction

For his reason Because of because
M sprit of this Despite although
At the time During while
in the similar way Like As if

Examples :

- They were upset because of the delay

- They were upset because they were delayed
- Despite the rain, we enjoyed ourselves
- Although    it rained, we enjoyed ourselves
- We stayed indoors during the storm
- We stayed indoors while the storm
- It looks like rain

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- It looks as if it will rain

7.5. a. Connecting adverbs

Connecting adverb are often used to show the relationship between the ideas expressed in a
clause and the ideas expressed in a preceding    clause.

e.g : - I wanted do study ; however, I was too tired

- we knew what to expect, therefore, we were not surprised at what happened

Notice : in formal writhen English a clause containing a connecting adverb is often separated   
from a preceding clause by semicolon : where as clause beginning with a conjunction is usually
not separated from a preceding clause by a semicolon.

e.g : - I wanted to study ; however, I was too tired

- I wanted do study; but I was too tired

7.5.b. connecting adverbs used to connect sentences

Unlike conjunctions, connecting adverbs may be used in formal English to show the relations
ship between ideas expressed in separate sentences.
e.g : the wind was strong. thus, I felt very cold.

7.5.c. position in a clause

Subordinate conjunction must usually be placed at the beginning of a clause. However, as was
seen in the discussion an adverbs, or at the end of a clause. This is illustrated below.
e.g : - his visit was unexpected. Nevertheless, I was pleased to see him
- his visit was unexpected . I was nevertheless, pleased to see him
- his visit was unexpected. I was pleased to see him, nevertheless.

7.5.d. connecting adverbs

 Accordingly = S0
e.g : he was very persuasive ; accordingly, I did what he asked
 Also = in addition
e.g : she is my neighbor ; she is also my best friend
 Besides = in addition
e.g : I like the job besides I need the money
 Consequently = so
e.g : she had a fever ; consequently, she stayed at home

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 Furthermore = in addition
e.g : you should stop smoking furthermore, you should do i tat once
 Hence = for that reason
e.g : He is a good friend. Hence, I was not embarrassed to ask him for help
 However = but
e.g : we wanted to arrive on time ; However, we were delayed by traffic
 Likewise = in addition
e.g : the region is beautiful, likewise, the climate is excellent
 Moreover = in addition
e.g : she is very intelligent ; moreover, she is very additions
 Never the less = but
e.g : they are proud , never the less, I like them
 None the less = but
e.g : the ascent was dangerous. None the less, the decided to attempt it
 Otherwise = if not and or
e.g : - we should consult them ; otherwise, they may by upset else
 Still = but
e.g : it is a lay way to the beach. still, it’s a fine day to go swimming
 Then = next and so
e.g : - we went shopping, then we had lunch, afterwards
- if you are sure, then I must believe you
 Therefore = for that reason
e.g : I was nervous ; therefore, I could not do my best
 Thus = so and in this way
e.g : he travelled as quickly as possible. Thus, he reached BULLET the next day

7.6. Parallel construction

The repetition of a particular grammatical construction is often referred to as parallel
construction.
e.g : - I’m neither angry nor excited
- the resort contains tennis courts, swimming pools and a snack bar

Notice: in English, it is considered preferable to use parallel construction whenever parallel

ideas are expressed.
a) This, whenever possible, parallel conduction should be employed when correlative
conjunctions are used.
e.g : - he has both a good education, end he has good wore habits(inc)
- he has both a good education and good habits (c)
- she turned neither right to the left(inc)
- she turned neither right nor left (c)
b)    parallel construction should also be used when listing a series of ideas.
e.g. : - the hotel is charming, well – situated is not expensive (inc)
- the hotel is charming, well- situated and inexpensive (c)

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C HAPTER 8

THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD

8.1. used of the subjuctive

In modern English, the simple present subjective is most commonly used in formal
command          s ant requests.
e.g.: - they demand that he submit a report
- we request that you be here tomorrow

a. The simple present subjective is also still used in a few traditional expressions.
e.g : long live the king !

b. The present tenses of the subjective, and the auxiliary «  would, are used in pressing
wishes.
e.g : - I wish you were here
- I wish I had known
- I wish the rain would stop

c. The past tenses of the subjunctive, and the auxiliary « would » can also be used in
order to indicate condition being expressed is false or improbable.
e.g : - if I were rich, I would travel around the world
- if he had been here, he would have been glad to see you

8.2. Making of the subjunctive

The English past and present tenses discussed in previous are in what is usually referred
to as the indicative mood. Each of the past and past and present tenses in the indicative
mood has a corresponding tense in the subjunctive mood.

In now-days English, most verb tenses in the subjunctive mood are similar or identical to
the corresponding tenses in the indicative mood. It should be noted that verbs in the
subjunctive mood do not modify, but have the same form regardless of the subject.

Simple present subjective Continuous Perfect Past perfect continuous

e.g : I work I be working I have worked I have been working
Simple past subjunctive Continuous Perfect Past perfect continuous
e.g : I were I were speaking I had worked I had been killing

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8.3. Formal commands and requests

The simple present subjunctive is still used in clauses beginning with the work « that » which
express formal commands or requests.
e.g : - They request that she arrive early
- It is important that they be present at the meeting
- The demand that he provide identification will create a delay

8.4. Wishes

The past tense of the subjunctive, and the auxiliary « would », are used in the subordinate clauses
of sentences which use the verb « to wish »in the man clause.
e.g : - He wishes that he were rich
- They wish that they had studied harder when they were young
- She wishes that you would come to the meeting tomorrow
Notice: « That »can be omitted
A/ an earlier time
a. Whey the subordinate clause refers do an earlier time than the main clause, the past
perfect subjunctive is usually used in the subordinate clause.
e.g : - we    wished he had spoken to us
- I wish you had called earlier
- They will wish they had listened to us sooner
 In the case of a continuous, ongoing action, the past perfect continuous subjunctive may
be used instead of the past perfect subjective .
e.g : she wishes tie had been staying with us last week

b. The same time

when the subordinate clause refers to the same time as the main clause, the simple past
subjunctive is usually used in the subordinate clause.
e.g : - When she was at the party, she wished    she were at home
- Now that he is in DRC, he wishes he understood LINGALA
- When we begin the trip, they will wish they were with us

c. A later time
When the subordinate clause refers to a later time than the main clause the simple
conjugation with the auxiliary « would » is usually used in the subordinate clause.
e.g : - You wished she would arrive the next day
- I wish she would change her mind
- He will wish we would join him the following week

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C HARTER 9

THE IMPERATIVE MOOD

The imperative mood is used for giving commands. Live the simple present
subjunctive, the imperative mood of a verb is formed the bare infinitive of verb.
e.g : - work !
- work harder !

a) the imperative of verbs to be is be

e.g : - be more alert !
- you ready to come with us
Notice : the imperative mood can be used only in the second person as shown in the first
three examples above, the subject of the sentence is often omitted when the imperative
mood is used. In such sentences, the subject « you » is said to be understood. In written
English, when the subject of the verb is omitted from.
A command, the command is often followed by an exclamation mark( !)
e.g : come here !
B) the imperative mood can also be used in negative statements, negative statements are
formed using the auxiliary ‘’do’’ followed    by the word ’’ not.’’
e.g : - Do not work so hard !
- Do not be afraid !

C HAPTER 10

PHRASAL VERB
A phrasal verb is an idiom which consists of a verb followed by a preposition, a verb followed by
an adverb or a verb followed by an adverb, followed by a preposition.
e.g : - I ran into old friend
- We put off washing the dishes
- They all look up to him
 Here are the verbs followed by the preposition forms an expression with an idiomatic
meaning.

10.1 Verbs followed by prepositions

 Abide by = adhere to
e.g : we abided by the rules
 Account for = explain
e.g : he accounted for the discrepancy

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 Guard against = take precautions

e.g : we guard against on her decision
 Launch into = start
e.g : he launch into explanation
 Pick on = be unkind to
e.g : because he was the youngest, the other boys picked on him
 Stand by = support
e.g : i hope you will stand by Mr. Bullet
 Rise above = be superior to
e.g : the rose above his circumstances and managed to succeed
 Reason with = try to persuade e.g : it is hard to reason with angry person
Notice : if a verb is followed by a preposition, on adverb of manner may be placed between
the verb and the preposition
e.g : - We reasoned patiently with the little girl
- I leafed quickly through the book

10.2. Phrasal verbs consisting of a verb followed by an adverb

Many phrasal verbs consist of a verb followed by an adverb some of these phrasal verbs are
intransitive and some are transitive.
a) Intransitive verbs followed by adverbs
 Blow over = pass
e.g : I wonder when the trouble will blow over
 Buckle down = work seriously
e.g : You may fail your courses if you don’t buckle down to work
 settle down=become peaceful
e.g : After the excitement, the students found is difficult to settle down
 Nod off = go to sleep e.g : Half the bus passengers nodded off
b) Transitive verbs followed by adverbs
 Back up = support
e.g : I will back up your story
 Hand over = transfer
e.g : we had to hand the evidence over to the police
 Iron out = remove
e.g : I am sure we can iron out every difficulty
 Knock out = make unconscious
e.g : boxers are often knocked out
 Let down = disappoint
e.g : we will let him down if we don’t arrive on time
 Look up = find
e.g : we looked up the word in a dictionary
 Polish off = finish
e.g : we polished off the rest of the apple pie
 Pull off = succeed
e.g : Do you think she can pull off her plan ?
 Rub out = erase

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e.g : be sure to rub out all the pencil marks

 Think over = consider
e.g : i need some time to think it over

c) Ergative phrasal verbs: are phrasal verbs whish have the same meaning whether
they are used transitively or intransitively.
 Blow up = destroy by an explosion
e.g : troops blew up the bridge
 Break up = break into pieces
e.g : the ice breaker broke up the ice
 Get across = transmit
e.g : - we go tour point across to the audience
- The engineer slowed down the train
- The train slowed down
d) Intransitive verbs followed by words whish may function either as adverbs or
preposition.

 Break through = appear

e.g : -sun broke through
- the sun broke through the clouds
 Hang around = stay near
e.g : - we hung around
- we hung around the movie theater
 Mill around = ( of a crowd) move randomly
e.g : - the students milled around
- the students milled around the lobby
 Sail trough = succeed easily
e.g : - she sailed trough
- she sailed trough the exam
e) verbs followed by adverbs followed by prepositions.
 Add up to = amount to
e.g : it is hard to see what that adds up to
 Back down from = withdraw and avoid
e.g : she never back down from a challenge
 Back out of = not fulfill
e.g : I wish I could back out of the agreement
 Brush up on = refresh knowledge of
e.g : I must brush on my English
 Carry on with = continue with
e.g : we carried on with our conversation
 Catch up to = overtake
e.g : the boy run quickly to catch up to his friends.
 Clean up after = tidy for
e.g : she spent half her time cleaning up after the children
 Come down to = become with
e.g : she came down with a cold
 Come out in = develop
 e.g : he came out in a rash
 come up against = meet an obstacle

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e.g : they come up against many difficulties

 come up with = produce
e.g : SHEULA came up with a solution to the problem
 cut back on = produce
e.g : the government has cut back on spending
 do away with = abolish
e.g : we want to do away with delays
 face up to = accept and deal with
e.g : it is best to face up to one’s problem
 fall back on = turn to for help
e.g : because of unexpected expenses, we had to fall back on our savings
 fool around with = not be serious, have as a hobby
e.g : he likes to fool around with computers
 get away with = not be punished
e.g : he got away with being late for school
 get down to = begin dealing seriously with
e.g : it is time to get down to business
 give up on = stop trying
e.g : I’ ve given up on the situation
 go    along with = agree, not resist
e.g : I’m willing to go along with your idea
 go back on = goes break a promise
e.g : he never goes back on his word
 go through with = fulfill, carry out
e.g : are you going to go through with our plan to conduct a survey ?
 grou out of = become doo big for
e.g : my son has grown out of most of his clothes
 hold out for = not compromise
e.g : we want to hold out for better conditions
 keep up with = be on the same level as
e.g : she has a hard time keeping up with her brother
 lead up to = be a preparation for
e.g : the first thirty chapters of the book lead up to the dramatic conclusion
 look forward to =anticipate
e.g : I’m looking forward to the holidays
 look up = admire
e.g : we looked up to her
 pull out of = leave (of vehicles)
e.g : the train pulled out of the station
 push on with = go ahead, continue
e.g : I must push on with my work
 put up with = endure, tolerate
 bus passengers must often put up with crowded conditions
 Stick up for = defend, support
e.g : will you stick up for me ?
 Zero in on = focus on
e.g : let us zero in on the heart of the problem

Conclusion

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Remember that I am a time and faithful friend to you and the children forever my heart is
entwined a round yours forever and ever. may God bless you all because is the one who gives me
this knowledge of writing books which fit your mental grasp. I think thast he will revive the
cleverness and wisdom of putting other books in your temperamental makeup.

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