TOM MBOYA UNIVERSITY

TABLE OF CONTENTS COURSE OUTLINE.

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................

•Definition of terms
•Application of Computers in Society
•Evolution of Computers: History of computers, Computer Generations, Computer
Classification
CHAPTER TWO: COMPUTER HARDWARE ..................................................................................
10 Categories of computer hardware: input, processing, storage, output, system unit
• acquiring computer hardware
• Computer care
• Computer Ergonomics
CHAPTER THREE- COMPUTER SOFWARE ...................................................................................
19
• categories of software: system software, application programs
• Selecting and Evaluating Software
• Data Processing Methods
CHAPTER FOUR: BASIC COMPUTER NETWORKS ........................................................................
24
• types and topologies of networks
• advantages and disadvantages of networks
• components of networks and communication,
CHAPTER FIVE - INTERNET .........................................................................................................
32
• Introduction
• Internet services
• negative Impact of the internet
CHAPTER SIX - OFFICE AUTOMATION ........................................................................................
37
• office automation systems
• software tools in office automation
• advantages of office automation
CHAPTER SEVEN – COMPUTER SYSTEM SECURITY .....................................................................
39
• What is a security system
• Computer security risks
• Physical security
• Information security
 COURSE OUTLINE Course
Objectives:
At the end the course, students will be able to:
• To gain a better understanding of the history and evolution of the computer system
• To gain a better understanding of the operation and organization of the computer system,
computer hardware
• To gain a better understanding of the computer software.
• To gain a better understanding of the basic computer networks and data communication
• Understand the evolution and role of internet in society

Course Content:
1. Chapter one – Introduction: definitions, application of computers in society. Evolution of
computers, generation of computers, classification of computers, computer structure.
2. Chapter two - Computer hardware: input, processing, storage, output, multimedia,
computer care, Ergonomics
3. Chapter three - Computer software: Types, choice of software, software requirements, data
processing methods
4. Chapter four - Basic Computer networks; components of networks and communication,
types and topologies of networks, network and communication applications.
5. Chapter five - Internet services: Communication, information search and retrieval,
application of internet in business.
6. Chapter six - Office automation : ways of office automation
7. Chapter seven – Computer System security : physical security and software security

Teaching Methods:
• Class lectures which consist of proper explanation of the various elements.
• Regular assignments and CATs and discussion of the questions asked in the assignments and
CATs.
• Group discussions and active participation in class.

Evaluation:
1. C.A.T’s - 20%
2. Assignments - 10%
3. End of Semester Exam - 70%
Reference Textbook:
1. Peters Norton’s (2006), Introduction to Computers.
2. Shelly Cashman (2011), Discovering Computers: Your Interactive Guide to the Digital World
3. Internet
4. class notes

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 ii

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

OUTLINE
• Definition of terms
• Application of Computers in Society
• Evolution of Computers
• History of computers o Computer Generations
• Computer Classification

DEFINITION OF TERMS OF IT and Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs)

IT or Information Technology which means using computers for collecting, storing, or
manipulating any information.
ICT
Refers to technologies that provide access to information through telecommunications. It is
similar to Information Technology (IT), but focuses primarily on communication technologies.
This includes the Internet, wireless networks, cell phones, and other communication
mediums.
or
Is an umbrella term that includes any communication device or application, encompassing:
radio, television, cellular phones, computer and network hardware and software, satellite
systems and so on, as well as the various services and applications associated with them,
such as videoconferencing and distance learning. Data
a collection of raw facts, figures and symbols, such as numbers, words, images, video and sound,
given to the computer during the input phase. All computer processing requires
Information
Organized data, meaningful and useful Computers manipulate data to create information.
During the output Phase, the information that has been created is put into some form, such as a
printed report. The information can also be put in computer storage for future use. Technology
Technology may well refer to advanced machines, computers, e.t.c Technology also refers to the
ways in which these machines are developed. Technology brings in the idea of devices,
techniques and organizations, i.e. Devices are used in techniques, and techniques are
coordinated by organizations. Technology implies both the tangible objects and social
relationships. Technology changes the way people work, and so certainly it is part of the
surrounding social system.
Computer
A computer is an electronic device operating under the control of instructions stored in its own
memory that can accept data, process the data according to specified rules, produce results and
sore the results for future use. Its main components are the hardware and software.
Why use computers?
Use of computers has become a necessity in many fields. Computers have revolutionized the way
businesses are conducted. This is due to the advantages that computer systems offer over
manual systems.

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• Speed – Computers have higher processing speeds than other means of processing,
measured as number of instructions executed per second.
• Accuracy – Computers are not prone to errors. So long as the programs are correct, they
will always give correct output. A computer is designed in such a way that many of the

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 inaccuracies, which could arise due to the malfunctioning of the equipment, are detected
and their consequences avoided in a way, which is completely transparent to the user.
• Consistency – Given the same data and the same instructions computers will produce
exactly the same answer every time that particular process is repeated.
• Reliability – Computer systems are built with fault tolerance features, meaning that
failure of one of the components does not necessarily lead to failure of the whole system.
• Memory capability – A computer has the ability to store and access large volumes of
data.
• Processing capability – A computer has the ability to execute millions of instructions per
second.
APPLICATION OF COMPUTERS IN SOCIETY Finance
• Management of financial records e.g. balance check books, pay bills, track personal income
and expenses, manage investments and evaluate financial plans.
• Software may provide for online services like banking. With online banking users’ access
account balances, pay bills and copy monthly transactions from banks, computer right into
their personal computer.
• Investors often use online investing to buy and sell stocks and bonds without using a broker.
• Computers are also used for investment analysis i.e. analyze performance of company shares
or debentures.
• The fundamental Analysis Package analyzes present financial position, prospect, analyses
increase in sales in previous years, present years etc.
• Personal Financial Management is used for keeping record and making analysis of a person’s
investment, income, expenditure and savings. It also helps prepare budget, calculate income,
interest, insurance, printing cheques etc.
Science
• Computers are used to assist with collecting, analyzing and modeling data.
• Internet is used by scientists to communicate with colleagues around the world.
• Neutral networks have been created to attempt to imitate the human brain so as to
recognize spoken words etc.
• Computers have been used to do research e.g. BOINC stands for Berkeley Open
Infrastructure for Network Computing and what it does is use processing power that you
aren't actively using on your computer, to help solve scientific problems in medicine,
astronomy, physics along with other important research.
• Earth scientists and computer scientists have collaborated to produce the first global digital
geological map, allowing you to see rocks underground everywhere.
• Physics, biology, chemistry, neuroscience, genetics, even sociology and anthropology depend
heavily on computers. Increasingly, experiments are done by developing and experimenting
with models of real systems rather than the systems themselves. Travel
Vehicles, Airplanes use on board navigation systems, use micro processors based systems to
control efficient burning of fuel and other operations e.g. door locks, air conditioning and
braking. Airlines provide online access, allowing passengers to connect their mobile computers
or devices to the internet. Reservation of cars, hotels and flights are made sufficient by use of
computer software.

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Industrial Control and Instrumentation
Computer Aided Manufacturing (CAM) refers to use of computers to assist with manufacturing
processes such as fabrication and assembly. Industries use CAM to reduce product development
costs, shorten a product’s time to market and stay ahead of competition.
Often robots carry out processes in a CAM environment. CAM is used by a variety of industries,
including oil drilling, power generation, food production and automobile manufacturing. Special
computers on the shop floor record actual labour material, machine and computer time used to
manufacture a particular product. The computer processes this data and automatically updates
inventory, production, payroll and accounting records on company’s network.

Computers are used in industry for automatic control of machines, process, mechanical and
display of electrical and physical quantities. Examples are automatic control of temperatures of a
furnace speed of a motor, generator’s voltage and power, boilers’ pressure, testing of products.
Furnace Temperature Control
Transducer

Furnace

A/D
Converter
Amplifier
Micro
processor
Fuel Control I/O Ports

Transducers read temperature and signal are amplified. Analogue / Digital converter convert the
signal into digital form. Digital signal is processed by the microprocessor. The processor can then
issue commands to increase or reduce fuel. LED displays are also used to show levels / values. All
type of modern instruments contain embedded, microprocessor based system or microcontroller
(single chip microcomputer) for their operation and control.
Communication
This involves the use of computers in sending and receiving information. Communication
packages are used to facilitate this. The computers are used to engage in computer conferencing
(Online conferencing, teleconferencing or video conferencing, to view or post news on computer
bulletin boards, for electronic shopping and banking & brokerage.
These services available through use of computers can be put into 3 main categories:
Communication services – email, online conferencing, bulletin boards
Transaction Services – e-shopping, banking and brokerage
Information services – online information given by organizations that maintain databases for
such purposes. Government
Provide society with direction by making and administering policies. Provides citizens with up to
date information using government web sites e.g. taxes, application for jobs, permits and
licenses, report crime and apply for financial aid and renew vehicle registrations and drive
licenses. Government agencies use computers to help protect the citizens.
Health Care
Computers are used for different purposes.
• Hospitals and doctors use computers to maintain patient records.

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• Computers monitor patient’s vital signs in hospital rooms and at home.
• Computers and computerized devices assist doctors, nurses and technicians with medical
tests
• Doctors use the Internet and medical software to assist with research and diagnosis of health
conditions.
• Pharmacists use computers to file insurance claims
• Surgeons implant computerized devices such as pace makers that allow patients to live
longer.
• Surgeons use computer controlled to provide them with greater precision during operations
such as laser eye surgery and robot assisted heart surgery surgery.
• Web sites provide up to date medical fitness, nutrition or exercise information.
• Another new development is telemedicare – healthcare which is a form of long distance
healthcare i.e. professionals in separate locations conduct live conference on the computer

Publishing
Preparation of books, magazines, newspapers, music film and video. Special software assist
graphic designers in developing pages that include text, graphics, photographs, artists composing
and enhancing songs, filmmakers in creating and editing film and journalists and mobile users in
capturing and modifying video clips . Publishers make their work s available online.
Education 1. Radio and TV Broadcasting in Education
Radio and television have been used widely as educational tools since the 1920s and the 1950s,
respectively. There are three general approaches to the use of radio and TV broadcasting in
education:
• Direct class teaching, where broadcast programming substitutes for teachers on a
temporary basis;
• School broadcasting, where broadcast programming provides complementary teaching
and learning resources not otherwise available; and
• General educational programming over community, national and international stations
which provide general and informal educational opportunities.
2. Teleconferencing
Teleconferencing refers to “interactive electronic communication among people located at two
or more different places.” There are four types of teleconferencing based on the nature and
extent of interactivity and the sophistication of the technology:
• audio conferencing - involves the live (real-time) exchange of voice messages over a
telephone network.;
• audio-graphic conferencing -When low-bandwidth text and still images such as graphs,
diagrams or pictures can also be exchanged along with voice messages
• videoconferencing - allows the exchange not just of voice and graphics but also of moving
images.; and
• Web-based conferencing - involves the transmission of text, and graphic, audio and visual
media via the Internet
Teleconferencing is used in both formal and non-formal learning contexts to facilitate
teacherlearner and learner-learner discussions, as well as to access experts and other resource

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persons remotely. In open and distance learning, teleconferencing is a useful tool for providing
direct instruction and learner support, minimizing learner isolation.

EVOLUTION OF COMPUTERS History of computers

The first electronic computers were produced in the 1940s. Since then, a series of breakthroughs
in electronics have occurred leading to great improvements in the capacity, processing speed
and quality of computer resources. The evolution of computerization in business may be
summarised as:
• 1870s: Development of the typewriter allows speedier communication and less copying.
• 1920s: Invention of the telephone enables both Wide Area Networks (WAN) and Local
Area Networks (LAN) communication in real time. This marks the beginning of
telecommunication.
• 1930s: Use of scientific management is made available to analyse and rationalise.
• 1940s: Mathematical techniques developed in World War II (operations research) are
applied to the decision making process.
• 1950s: Introduction of copying facilitates cheap and faster document production, and the
(limited) introduction of Electronic Data Processing (EDP) speeds up large scale
transaction processing.
• 1960s: Emergence of Management Information Systems (MIS) provides background
within which office automation can develop.
• 1970s: Setting up of telecommunication networks to allow for distant communication
between computer systems. There is widespread use of word processors in text editing
and formatting, advancement in personal computing- emergence of PCs. Use of
spreadsheets.
• 1980s: Development of office automation technologies that combine data, text, graphics
and voice. Development of DSS, EIS and widespread use of personal productivity
software.
• 1990s: Advanced groupware; integrated packages, combining most of the office work-
clerical, operational as well as management.
• 2000s: Wide spread use of Internet and related technology in many spheres of
organisations including electronic commerce (e-commerce), e-learning, e-health
Landmark Inventions
• ~500 B.C. - counting table with beads
• ~1150 in China - ABACUS - beads on wires
• 1642 Adding machine - Pascal
• 1822 Difference machine/Analytic Engine - design by Babbage
• 1890 Holerith punched card machine - for U.S. census
• 1944 Mark I (Harvard) - first stored program computer
• 1947 ENIAC (Penn)- first electronic stored program computer

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 • 1951 UNIVAC - first commercial computer; 1954 first installation
• 1964 IBM - first all-purpose computer (business + scientific)
• 1973 HP-65, hand-held, programmable ‘calculator’
• ~1975 Altair, Intel - first Micro-computer; CPU on a “chip”

Computer Generations
The view of computers into generations is based on the fundamental technology employed. Each
new generation is characterized by greater speed, larger memory capacity and smaller overall
size than the previous one.
First Generation Computers (1946 – 1957)
• Used vacuum tubes to construct computers.
• These computers were large in size and writing programs on them was difficult.
• Major drawbacks of First generation computers.
• The operating speed was quite slow.
• Power consumption was very high.
• It required large space for installation.
• The programming capability was quite low.
• Cumbersome to operate – switching between programs, input and output
Second Generation Computers (1958 - 1964)
• Replaced vacuum tubes with transistors
• The transistor is smaller, cheaper and dissipates less heat than a vacuum tube.
• Second generation also saw the introduction of more complex arithmetic and logic units,
the use of high – level programming languages and the provision of system software with
the computer.
• Transistors have higher operating speed. They have no filament and require no heating.
Manufacturing cost was also lower. Thus the size of the computer got reduced
considerably.
• It is in the second generation that the concept of Central Processing Unit (CPU), memory,
programming language and input and output units were developed.
• The programming languages such as COBOL, FORTRAN were developed during this period
Third Generation Computers (1965 - 1971)
Had an integrated circuit.
• Although the transistor technology was a major improvement over vacuum tubes,
problems remained. The transistors were individually mounted in separate packages and
interconnected on printed circuit boards by separate wires. This was a complex, time
consuming and error-prone process.
• The early integrated circuits are referred to as small-scale integration (SSI). Computers of
this generation were smaller in size, lower cost, larger memory and processing speed was
much higher.
Fourth Generation Computers (1972 - Present)
• Employ Large Scale Integrated (LSI) and Very Large Scale Integrated (VLSI) circuit
technology to construct computers.
• Over 1,000 components can be placed on a single integrated-circuit chip.

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Fifth Generation Computers
• These are computers of 1990s
• Use Very Large Scale Integrated (VLSI) circuit technology to build computers. Over 10,000
components can be incorporated on a single integrated chip.
• The speed is extremely high in fifth generation computer. Apart from this it can perform
parallel processing. The concept of Artificial intelligence has been introduced to allow the
computer to take its own decision.

Computer Classification
Computers can be classified in different ways as shown below:
1. Classification by power and size/ configuration
Micro Computer System - These are also known as personal computers and are the ones
mostly found in big and small office, they are normally standalone computers known PC,
or Desktop Computers. Micro Computers are small and designed for individual use.
Minicomputer systems - Mini computers are midsized computers capable of supporting
from 4 – 200 users simultaneously. Mini pc are mainly used as departmental computers
for data processing in large organization or governmental institutions like hospitals
Main frame computer systems - A main frame computer is a very large expensive
computer system capable of supporting hundreds and thousands of users
simultaneously, most of these computers are found in large organizations like
universities, hospitals, world governing body like UN among many others
Super computer systems - Super Computers are the fastest types of computers which
were very expensive and require a lot of mathematical calculations. The first generation
of super computer was developed by VON-Newman. This computer generation of super
computers had only one controller and was called VON-Newman. Modern super
computers systems are equipped with many processors enabling them to process
complex operation, e.g. weather forecast which needs to be processed within a short
period
Mobile computers – Personal Computers you can carry from place to place. e.g:
• Note Books (Laptops) – Portable personal computers designed to fit on your Lap.
• Hand Held Computers (Hand Top Computers) – Computers small enough to fit in
one hand. Many hand held computers communicate wirelessly with other devices
or computers. Many hand held computers are industry specific and serve the
needs of mobile employees such as meter readers and parcel delivery people
whose job requires them to move from place to place.
• Personal Digital Assistant (PDA) – Provide personal organizer functions such as a
calendar, appointment book, address book, calculator and notepad.
• Embedded Computers – Special purpose computers that functions as a
component in a larger product. Embedded computers are everywhere – at home,
in your car and work. Examples of everyday products that contain embedded
computers include: Consumer electronics –Mobile and digital telephones, Digital
TVs, cameras
Home Automation – Devices and appliances, thermostats, sprinkling systems,
security monitoring systems, microwaves ovens, washing machines.
Automobiles – antilock breaks, engine control, airbag controller.

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 Processor controllers & Robotics – remote monitoring systems, power monitors,
machine controllers, medical devices. Computer Device & Office Machine –
Keyboard, Printers, Faxes, Copies.
2. Classification by purpose General
Purpose Computers
General-purpose computers are designed to solve a large variety of problems. That is
they can be given different programs to solve different types of problems.
Generalpurpose computers can process business data as readily as they process complex
mathematical formulas. General-purpose computers can store large amount of data and
the programs necessary to process them. Because general-purpose computers are so
versatile, most businesses today use them. Most digital computers are general
computers and it is mainly such computers that are used in business and commercial
data processing.

Special Purpose Computers

Special purpose computers are designed to solve a specific problems; the computer
program for solving the problem is built right into the computer. Special purpose
computers have many features of general-purpose computers but are designed to handle
specific problems and are not applied to other computerized activities. For example,
special purpose computers may be designed to process only numeric data or to
completely control automated manufacturing processes. Moat analogue computers are
special purpose computers. Special purpose computers are often used as training
simulators. A simulator is a computer-controlled device for training people under
simulated, or artificially created, conditions. The computer creates test conditions the
trainee must respond t. it then records and evaluates he responses, providing these
results to both trainee and supervisor.
3. Classification by generation
This is a time-based classification coinciding with technological advances.
The computers are categorized as First generation through to Fifth generation.
First generation - Computers of the early 1940s. Used a circuitry of wires and
vacuum tubes. Produced a lot of heat, took a lot of space, were very slow and
expensive. Examples are LEO 1 and UNIVAC 1.
Second generation - Computers of the early 1950s. Made use of transistors and thus
were smaller and faster. (200KHz). Examples include the IBM system 1000.
Third generation - Computers of the 1960s. Made use of Integrated Circuits. Speeds
of up to 1MHz. Examples include the IBM system 360.
Fourth generation - Computers of the 1970s and 1980s. Used Large Scale Integration
(LSI) technology. Speeds of up to 10MHz. Examples include the IBM 4000 series.
Fifth generation - Computers of the 1990s, Use Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI)
technology and have speeds up to 400MHz and above
4. Classification by processing
This is by how the computer represents and processes the data.
Digital computers - are computers which process data that is represented in the
form of discrete values by operating on it in steps. Digital computers process data
represented in the form of discrete values like 0, 1, 2. They are used for both

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business data processing and scientific purposes since digital computation results
in greater accuracy.
Analog computers - are used for scientific, engineering, and process-controlled
purposes. Outputs are represented in the form of graphs. Analogue computers
process data represented by physical variables and output physical magnitudes in
the form of smooth graphs.

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 CHAPTER TWO: COMPUTER HARDWARE
OUTLINE
Categories of computer hardware
1. Input
2. System unit o power supply o buses
o Mother Board
o Processor – Control Unit, Arithmetic Unit, Registers o Primary
Memory (main)
3. Secondary Storage
4. Output
Computer care
Ergonomics
Block Diagram showing components of a computer

INPUT DEVICES
An input device is any hardware component that allows users to enter data and instructions into
a computer. Instructions entered into the computer can be in form of:
• Programs – Series of instructions that tells a computer what to do how to do it.
• Command – an instruction that causes a program to perform a specific action. Users issue
command by typing or pressing keys on keyboard, click a mouse button, speaking into a
microphone or touching an area of a screen.
• User response – an instruction a user issues by replying to a question displayed by a
program.
Types of Input Devices
1. Keyboard – an input device that contains keys users press to enter data and instructions into
a computer. Desktop computers keyboards have from 101 to 105 keys. Categories of keys on
a keyboard include:
a) Function Keys – F1, F2, F3 to F12. They have programmed instruction depending on
the application.

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 b) Typing Keys – Alphabetic and numeric keypads
c) Numeric Keypad
d) Arrow keys- control cursors
e) Special Keys – SHIFT, CTRL, ALT, WINDOWS KEY, ESCAPE, ENTER, BACKSPACE Some
keyboards do not use wires at all (wireless keyboards or cordless keyboards). Has a
battery powered device that transmits data using wireless technology.
2. Pointing Devices - Input devices that allow a user to control a pointer on the screen.
a) Mouse – is appointing device that fit under the pointer of your hand comfortably. Used to
control a mouse pointer.
b) Track ball – a stationary pointing device with a ball on its top or side. To move the pointer
using a trackball you rotate the ball with your thumb, fingers or palm of your hand.
c) Touch pad – a small flat rectangular pointing device that is sensitive to pressure and
motion. To move the pointer using a touch pad slide your fingers across the surface of
the pad.
d) Pointing Stick – a pressure sensitive device shaped like a pencil eraser that is positioned
between keys and keyboard.
e) Light Pen – Handled input device that can detect the presence of light. Some light pens
require a specifically designed monitor. To select objects on the screen points the light
pen at the screen and press a button on the pen.
f) Touch screen – is a touch sensitive display,. Users can interact with these by touching
areas of the screen.
g) Joystick: A hand-held stick that can be moved around in any direction. Used mainly for
playing games (i.e., flight simulators etc).
h) Graphics Pad: This is a square piece of material that you can use to draw pictures (as a
mouse is not always practical for drawing complicated lines and shapes).
(a) (b)
(c)

(d )

(e) (f) (g) (h)

3. Voice Input – Entering input by speaking into a microphone or wireless technology using blue
tooth. Voice recognition programs recognize a vocabulary of programmed words.
4. Digital Cameras – allow users to take pictures and store the photographed images digitally,
instead of traditional film.
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5. Video Input – Process of capturing full motion images and storing them on a computer’s
storage medium of hard disk. A digital Video (DVD) camera can be used for this purpose.
Personal Computer Video cameras is a type of video camera that enables a home or small
business user to capture video and still images, send email messages with video attachments.
6. Scanners and reading devices – They eliminate manual data entry, users do not type, speak,
or write into the computer. They capture data from a source document which is the original
form of the data. Examples of such devices include:
• Optical scanners – is alight sensing input device that reads a printed text and graphics and
then translates the results into a form the computer can process.
• Optical readers – uses light source to read characters, marks and codes and then converts
then into digital data that a computer can process.
7. Biometric Input – is a technology of authenticating a person’s identity by verifying personal
characteristics. Biometric identifier is a physiological (Related to physical or chemical
activities in the body) or behavioral characteristics e.g. finger prints, facial features, voice,
signatures
SYSTEM UNIT
It is a case that contains electronic components of the computer used to process data. Many
electric components and most storage devices are part of the system unit. Other devices such as
keyboards, mouse, microphone, monitor, printer, and scanner are all connected to the system
unit.
Inside the System Unit

a) Mother Board (System board)

It is the main circuit board of the computer system unit. Many electronic components are
attached to it.

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b) Processor (Central Processing Unit)
Interprets and carries out the basic instructions that operate a computer. It impacts on overall
computing power and manages most of a computer’s operations. Examples of Processor
Manufacturers: Intel Corporation (Xeon MP, Itanium, Pentium, 80486, Celeron). AMD (Opteron,
Athlon MP, Duron). Motorola (68040, 68030) Motorola/IBM(Power PC). Transmeta (Efficeon,
Crusoe)
Parts of a processor
• Control Unit (CU) - Component of the processor that directs and co-ordinates most of the
operations in the computer. It interprets each instruction issued by a program then
initiates the appropriate action to carry out the instruction.
• Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU) - Performs arithmetic comparison and other operations.
Also includes basic calculations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division.
• Registers - A processor contains small high speed storage locations called registers that
temporarily hold data and instructions.Register functions include storing the locations
from where an instruction was fetched, storing an instruction while the CU decodes it,
storing data while the ALU computes it and storing these results of a calculation. Bus –
This is a highway connecting internal components to each other.
c) System Clock – The processor relies on a small quartz crystal circuit called system clock to
control the timing of all computer operations. Just as your heart beats at a regular rate to
keep you body functioning, the system clock generates regular electronic pulses or ticks that
set the operating pace of components of the system unit. The pace of the system clock,
called clock speed is measured by no of ticks per second (current personal computer
processors have clock speeds in gigahertz. Giga is a prefix that stands for billions and hertz is
one cycle per second; thus one gigahertz equals one billion ticks of the system clock per
second)
d) Main Memory - Consists of electronic components that store instructions waiting to be
executed by the processor, data needed by those instructions and results of processed data
(Information). Memory usually consists of one or more chips on the motherboard. Memory
sizes are given in terms of number of bytes the device has available for storage:
1 kilobyte = 1024 bytes
1 Megabytes = 1024 Kilobytes
1 Gigabytes = 1024 Megabytes
1 Terabytes = 1024 Gigabytes
Types of memory
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 Volatile – when power of computer is turned off it loses its contents.
Non – volatile – Doesn’t lose its contents when power is removed from computer Volatile
• RAM (Random Access Memory) – Main memory which consists of memory chips that can
read from and written to by the processor and other devices. The processor interprets
and executes a program’s instructions while the program is in the RAM. RAM can
accommodate multiple programs simultaneously. Examples of RAM include:
• Dynamic RAM (DRAM) – must be energized constantly or they lose their contents.
• Static RAM (SRAM) – Chips are faster and more reliable than any variation of DRAM. They
do not have to be energized as often as DRAM chips.
• Magneto-resistive RAM (MRAM) – stores data using magnetic charge instead of electrical
charges. Have greater storage capacity, consumes less power and has faster access that
electronic RAM. Non – Volatile
• ROM (Read Only Memory) - are chips storing permanent data and instructions. Data on
most ROM chips cannot be modified hence the name read only. Manufacturers of ROM
chips often record data and instructions or information on chips (firmware). Other types
of ROMs include PROM and EEPROM. SECONDARY STORAGE
Storage holds data, instructions and information for future use. Is cheaper, infinitely extendable
than primary storage which is finite. Is not volatile. It is portable than primary storage – that is, it
is possible to remove it from a computer and use the device and its contents in another.
Examples include:
 Floppy Disks (Magnetic Disks)
 Hard Disks (Magnetic Disks)
 Magnetic Tapes (Magnetic Disks)
 Compact Disks (Optical Discs)
 Digital Versatile Disks (DVD) -(Optical Discs)
 PC Cards
 Flash Memory
 Microfiche
Capacity is the number of bytes (Characters) a storage medium can hold. Terms used by
manufacturers to measure capacity are same as those used for memory.
Typical sizes for devices include
Floppy Disks 1.44 Megabytes
Hard Disks 20 – 320 Gigabytes up to terabytes
Flash Memory 512 – 16 GB
Compact Disc 700 MB DVD
– 4.7 Gigabytes
Secondary Storages are used to supplement the Primary storage. Their typical uses include:
a) Storing the operating system, Application software, user data and information b)
Software back ups
c) Transportation of files
Magnetic Disks – use magnetic materials to store items such as data, instructions, and
information on a disk’s surface. Depending on how the magnetic particles are aligned, they
represent either a 0 bit or a 1 bit. Examples are floppy disks, Zip Disks, Hard Disks.
Optical Discs – Is a type of storage media that consists of a flat, round, portable disc made of
metal, plastic, and lacquer that is written and read by a laser. They primarily store software,

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data, digital photographs, movies and music. Some optical discs are read only – meaning users
cannot write (save) on media. Others are read/write – allows users to save on discs. Examples
include: CD (Compact Discs), DVD (Digital Versatile Disc)/ (Digital Video Disc).
USB Flash Drives – is a flash memory storage device that plugs in a USB port on a computer or
mobile device. They are convenient for mobile users because they are small and light weight
enough to be transported in a pocket. Experts predict that USB flash drives will become the
mobile user’s primary portable storage device, eventually making the floppy disk obsolete.
ZIP/JAZ drives are another type of floppy drive that use special disks instead of floppy disks. Zip
disks can hold about 100 times as much as a floppy disk. JAZ disks can hold much more data.
Currently, ZIP and JAZ disks range from 100MB diskettes to around 2GB’s.

OUTPUT DEVICES
Output is data that has been processed into a useful form. A computer generates several types of
output depending on hardware and software being used and the requirements of the user.
These types may include: Text, Graphics, Audio, and Video.
An output device is any type of hardware component that conveys information to one or more
people.
Examples of Output devices include:
a) Display devices – give output that is visually conveyed sometimes called soft copy. Examples
include:
- Monitor (Display device packaged as a separate device)
- Flat Panels Displays (is a lightweight display device with a shallow depth and flat
screen and that typically uses Liquid Crystal Display-LCD)
b) Printers – is an output device that produces text and graphics on a physical medium such as
paper or transparency film. Printed information, called hard copy, exists physically and is a
more permanent form of output. Examples of types of printers include:
- Non Impact printers (Ink Jet Printers, Photo Printers, Laser Printers, Mobile Printers)
- Impact Printers (Dot Matrix, Line Printers)
c) Speakers and Head sets – Produce music speech or other sounds such as beeps.
d) Plotters and Large formats Printers – are sophisticated printers used to produce high quality
drawings such as blue prints, maps and circuit diagrams.
e) Other Output Devices - Fax Machines, Multifunction Peripherals (printer, scanner, and
photocopy) and Data Projectors.
MULTIMEDIA DEVICES
Multimedia is used to describe something that uses sound, music, pictures, video, and
animation. Most modern PCs are multimedia machines, and need certain hardware to
input/output information:
• Sound card: A special controller inside the PC that translates sound into a form the computer
can understand.
• Microphone: So that you can record your voice, for example.
• Speakers: So that you can hear the sounds and music playing.
• Digital camera: This works like a normal camera, but doesn't use film - instead it lets you
transfer the pictures directly into your PC.

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COMPUTER PORTS
Standard computer ports : Keyboard and mouse ports, USB ports, Parallel, Network, Modem,
Audio, Serial, Video

Selecting and Acquisition of Computer Hardware

Some factors that need to be considered include the following:
1. Decide on reason for purchase – Is it for general or specific purpose? Should it be a desktop
or mobile computer?
2. Decide on how much you want to spend – This will determine the computer to go for.
3. Determine the specific software you want to use on your computer. Operating and system
software may determine the machine to be purchased in terms of their minimum
requirements
4. Check main memory capacity (Random Access Memory) – big RAM means faster operations.
5. The microprocessor and clock speed of the computer. (It contributes to processing speed).
Range of Giga Hertz would good.
6. Check the capacity of the Hard disk(Gigabytes)
7. Make sure you can expand the system later i.e. RAM, Hard Disk, connection ports, adding
graphics capabilities. (Check mother board)
8. Look at the documentation provided. It should be clearly written, illustrated and easy to
understand.
9. Decide on specific hardware features you require i.e. Type of monitor (Cathode Ray Tube or
Flat screen), type of printer, surge protectors etc. Considerations for hardware may also look
at availability of : CD/DVD Drivers, Keyboard, Modem, Monitor, mouse, Network card,
processor, Scanner, Sound Card, Speakers, USB Flash Drive, Wireless LAN Access Point
10. Test equipment or ask for a demonstration.
11. Determine level of service and maintenance the vendor provides. Learn about company’s
service contract – some cover repairs after warranty period has ended.
Warranty is a document that states the rights you have and the degree to which the
company is liable for repairs. It covers repairs during a set of period of time (Warranty
period) unless damage results from improper handling abuse or accident.
12. Beware of hidden costs – Before purchasing be sure to consider additional costs associated
with buying a computer, such as an additional telephone line, cable or modem, an
uninterruptible power supply, computer furniture, flash drive, paper, computer training
classes you may want to take. COMPUTER CARE
• Dust free environment
• Good ventilation
• Dust cover when not in use

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 • Do not expose to direct sunlight
• Keep away from foods and drinks
• Service=blowing, clean keyboard, monitor etc
• Peripherals also clean=printers ,mouse
• Use UPS for steady input power in areas of power fluctuations.
• Viruses???????????????
• Booting= process(startup) by which the computer becomes ready for use.
o We have warm booting and cold booting. - cold-from ON state, Warm-restart
COMPUTER ERGONOMICS
Ergonomics is the study of how people physically interact with their work – fitting the job, the
equipment and the work environment to the worker. Essentially, ergonomics is the relationship
between the worker and the job and focuses on the design of work areas to enhance job
performance. Ergonomics can help prevent injuries and limit secondary injuries as well as
accommodate individuals with various disabilities, including those with musculoskeletal
disorders (MSDs).
Eliminate any reflection on your monitor, Position any additional equipment in accessible places

Computer addiction occurs when the computer consumes someone’s entire social life Symptoms
of users include:
• Craves computer time
• Overjoy when at the computer
• Unable to stop computer activity
• Irritable when not at the computer
• Neglects family and friends
• Problems at work or school

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Computer ethics are the moral guidelines that govern the use of computers and information
systems. Information accuracy is a concern. Not all information on the Web is correct

CHAPTER REVISION QUESTIONS

1) Describe the categories of the computer hardware
2) Explain the main components of the CPU
3) With the aid of a well labeled diagram, explain the basic organization of the computer
system
4) Using a block diagram, describe the components of the system unit
5) Discuss the factors that affect the speed of the CPU
6) Distinguish between bit and byte as used in computer memory
7) Explain the various types of computer memory
8) Describe the following computer memories; Registers, RAM, Cache.
9) Explain the main ports available on the system unit
10) You would like to acquire a printer for your office, describe the factors to consider while
buying the hardware.
11) Define ergonomics and describe the various health risks related to computer use.

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 CHAPTER THREE- COMPUTER SOFWARE
OUTLINE
categories of software o
system software o
application programs
Selecting and Evaluating Software Data Processing Methods

CATEGORIES OF SOFTWARE
Software is a set of electronic instructions consisting of complex codes (also known as programs)
that make the computer perform tasks. In other words, software tells the computer what to do.
Some programs exist primarily for the computer's use and help the computer perform and
manage its own tasks. Other types of programs exist primarily for the user and enable the
computer to perform tasks, such as creating documents or drawing pictures.

Two major types of software’s Systems software

Consists of programs that coordinate the activities of hardware and other programs.
Designed for a specific CPU and hardware class. Combination of a particular hardware
configuration and operating system is called a computer platform.
Application software
Applications software includes programs designed to help end users solve particular
problems using the computer or to perform specific tasks

Systems software Operating system

An operating system (OS) is a software program that manages the hardware and software
resources of a computer. The OS performs basic tasks, such as controlling and allocating
memory,
prioritizing the processing of instructions, controlling input and output devices, facilitating
networking, and managing files.

Functions of an Operating System

1. Perform common hardware functions - Accept input and store data on disks and send
data to output devices
2. Provide a user interface
3. Provide hardware independence
4. Manage system memory
5. Manage processing
6. Control access to system resources
- Protection against unauthorized access
- Logins and passwords
7. Manage files
- Physical storage location
- File permissions
- File access

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Examples of Operating Systems
a) DOS - DOS has a "command line interface". The user has to remember common commands
e.g. CD (Change Directory), DIR (give directory listing).
b) Apple Macintosh OS - While MS were developing DOS, Apple was working on a GUI
(Graphical User Interface). This was launched in 1984. It had a WIMP environment (WIMP =
windows, icons, menus, pointers). The term "user-friendly" was used to describe the MacOS.
Users of the MacOS could have more than one application open at once, each within its own
"window". Data could easily be transferred from one application to the other. Even after
GUIs became available for the PC, most people continued to be of the opinion that the
MacOS was much easier to use.
c) Windows 95/98/2000/NT - Windows 95 is a full OS offering 32 bit processing (this means that
applications should run faster and should multi-task. Windows 95 offers long filenames (DOS
had an 8 character restriction). "Plug and Play", in theory, allows users to add and remove
hardware very easy by auto detecting devices). By their dominance in the software market,
Microsoft have ensured that their OS is also dominant. To add insult to injury, Microsoft
have also launched their own web browser and integrated it with the operating system. MS
have even produced popular hardware that is optimized to work best with their OS (e.g.
keyboards and mice). To many people, this amounts to a "monopoly".
Windows NT is a 32 bit environment that is designed for networking. It is said to be more
stable than Windows 95.
d) Unix - UNIX is a very old OS but it is still widely used today. It is available on a wide variety of
platforms (from home PCs to supercomputers). It has a command line interface and it very
complicated to use. It is extremely stable and it used for computers that are hardly ever
turned off. On some computers, it can keep running while maintenance is being performed
on the computer (this is crucial for 24/7 services, such as those on the Internet). UNIX offers
good security on networks against unauthorised access. UNIX is a network OS. "Dumb
terminals" can be networked to a UNIX server, allowing many users to use the same powerful
machine at once. Software written for UNIX is very expensive.
e) Linux - Linux was started as a hobby by a Finnish college student called Linus Torvalds. He
had bought a brand new 386 computer and he didn't want to put any Microsoft software on
it. He couldn't afford UNIX so he started writing his own OS. He kindly made the code
available to anyone to edit, so nowadays, LINUX is not only free, it has been worked on by
thousands of the world's most talented programmers. The OS has attracted the attention of
big software developers who are distributing the product and, slowly, writing applications for
it.

Utility programs
Utility software consists of programs which are designed to help with the maintenance of the
computer and to ensure that it works correctly and efficiently.
Examples of utility programs
• Programming Language Compilers - used to translate instructions into a programming
language
• Disk Defragmenter – reorganizes the file sand unused space on a computer’s hard disk so
that the operating system accesses data more quickly and programs run faster).

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• Diagnostic Utility – Compiles technical information about your computer’s hardware and
certain system software programs and prepares a report outlining any identified problem.
• Back up utility - allows users to copy or back up selected files or an entire hard disk to
another storage medium.
• Disk editor is a utility program that lets the user read, edit, and write the low-level raw data
on a disk. It can be used to repair/reconstruct damaged files and directories.
• Virus Checker - A virus is a program or programming code that replicates by being copied or
initiating its copying to another program, computer boot sector or document. A virus checker
examines a computer system to find virus software.
Applications Software
Applications are written to perform a specific task.
• Bespoke software is "tailor made" to meet the requirements of a specific organization. Off
the Shelf software can be purchased by anyone.
• General Purpose software does a particular job e.g. WP, DTP, Spreadsheets, CAD etc.
• Integrated Packages/Software Suites e.g. Lotus SmartSuite, MS Office are packages of
common productivity tools that are bundled together at a lower price than if they were
purchased separately. The applications are "integrated" i.e. they have a common interface
and they can export/import data between applications.

Common Applications Software

Word Processing: Used for creating, formatting and checking text documents. Most word
processor applications can also perform the functions of desktop publishing to incorporate
graphics and page layout. Examples include Microsoft Word, Lotus WordPro and Corel
WordPerfect.
Spreadsheets: Consists of a table containing rows, columns and cells. When numbers are
entered into cells, formulae can be applied – enabling complex calculations to be carried out.
Examples include Microsoft Excel, Lotus 1-2-3, and Corel QuattroPro.
Database: Enables you to store, organize and retrieve information. Databases can search
through thousands of records very quickly and display data in a suitable format. They can be
used to store many different types of information such as customer details, patient records and
so on. Examples include Microsoft Access, Lotus Approach and Corel Paradox.
Presentation: Enables you to create sophisticated business presentations that can be displayed
as an on-screen slide show or printed onto transparencies. Logos, graphics, text and charts can
be added to slides and may also include animations. Examples include Microsoft PowerPoint,
Lotus Freelance Graphics and Corel Presentations.
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Communication: Allows you to send and receive faxes and email and to also browse the Internet.
Examples of email programs include Microsoft Outlook, Microsoft Outlook Express and Lotus
Notes. Examples of Internet browsers include Microsoft Internet Explorer and Netscape
Navigator.
Accountancy/Payroll: There are many examples of pre-designed databases to perform common
functions, such as keeping accounts or managing staff (Sage Line50 or Simply Personnel etc).
These database applications also come with functions for working out tax liabilities, NI
contributions, pension payments and so on. Many companies may also have their own ‘in house’
software to fulfil these functions.
Desktop Publishing: These applications control page layout in documents and generally require
other applications to supply the content in the form of text/graphics. Often used for the
generation of posters, newsletters and leaflets. Examples include Microsoft Publisher, Serif Page
Plus, Adobe PageMaker, Quark Xpress and Adobe InDesign.
Graphics/Design: Graphics programs can perform a wide range of functions such as editing
bitmaps, drawing, painting, 3D graphics, animations, video, multimedia and web design.
Examples include Adobe Photoshop, JASC Paint Shop Pro, CorelDraw, AutoCAD and Adobe
Premiere.
Web Design/Development: These applications allow users to graphically design and build either
a simple web-page or a full web-site. You can incorporate text, graphics, animations, web-objects
(Flash, Shockwave) etc. Examples include Macromedia Dreamweaver and Microsoft Frontpage.
Multimedia / Games: These applications incorporate text, graphics, sound, video and
animations. Educational software often uses a lot of multimedia techniques. Games require lots
of system resources and can consist of simple desktop games (cards, tetris etc) or the very latest
in 3D simulations and arcade 1st person perspective adventures.

SELECTING AND EVALUATING SOFTWARE

The factors to consider when selecting software include:
a) Ensure the software for the task is available i.e. that which perfectly fits your task. This
information can be gotten from reading trade magazines, software directories etc. You can
also visit computer stores and ask friends with experience.
b) Know what operating system controls your computer i.e. it should be compatible with the
software.
c) Decide how much you want to spend (Does it require additional hardware).
d) Examine specific features of the software (Ask for a demonstration).
e) Determine if it is easy to learn and uses i.e. are commands simple to use and remember.
Does it have menu driven features or command driven features?
f) Examine written and graphic descriptions of software documentation (It it readable, accurate
and compatible).
g) Determine amount of support or assistance you will receive from vendor or developer in
troubleshooting or solving problems.
h) Compare cost to value received
i) Look for program flexibility - can it adapt to a variety of situations and hardware
configurations.
j) Check ability to upgrade and package – i.e. upgrades to incorporate the latest technology and
advances in programming techniques. Is it easy to get them?

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DATA PROCESSING

Batch Processing
Batch data processing involves the processing of data in groups (or batches) of like transactions
at periodic intervals. Used when transaction activity is low or periodic. In batch processing,
transaction data are stored in a transaction file until a master-file update is performed. The
storing of transaction data in a transaction file may occur either through off-line or on-line entry
of data
Advantages of batch processing include:
• processing can be done in background mode
• processing is only performed when needed
• batch processing leaves a good audit trail Disadvantages:
• the master-file is only as current as last processing run.
• If transactions are batched before entry, any errors in transaction data cannot be
corrected at the time of entry. They must be corrected and reentered either through a
separate run or during the next processing cycle Real-time processing consists of processing
each transaction as it arises and is captured. Real-time processing involves the processing of
each transaction as it arises and is captured. Data from each transaction are entered via an
online device and posted directly and immediately to the affected record(s) in one or more
master files. Real-time processing may be interactive in that it may involve direct interactions
between humans and computerized systems Advantages of real-time processing include:
• This method keeps the master file more current than the batch runs
• Errors are caught at the time of data entry Drawbacks of real-time processing
include:
• More complex and expensive than batch systems
• Harder to audit
• Controls and backup procedures are more elaborate in order to guard against
unwarranted access and human error

Page 25
 CHAPTER FOUR: BASIC COMPUTER NETWORKS
OUTLINE
types and topologies of networks advantages and disadvantages of networks
components of networks and communication, ,
applications
Definition of computer network
A network consists of two or more computers that are linked in order to share resources (such as
printers and CD-ROMs), exchange files, or allow electronic communications. The computers on a
network may be linked through cables, telephone lines, radio waves, satellites, or infrared light
beams.

TYPES OF NETWORKS
The three basic types of networks include:
Local Area Network (LAN)
• Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
• Wide Area Network (WAN)

Local Area Network

A Local Area Network (LAN) is a network that is confined to a relatively small area. It is generally
limited to a geographic area such as a lab, school, or building. Rarely are LAN computers more
than a mile apart. In a typical LAN configuration, one computer is designated as the file server. It
stores all of the software that controls the network, as well as the software that can be shared
by the computers attached to the network. Computers connected to the file server are called
workstations. The workstations can be less powerful than the file server, and they may have
additional software on their hard drives. On most LANs, cables are used to connect the network
interface cards in each computer.

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Metropolitan Area Network
A Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) covers larger geographic areas, such as cities or school
districts. By interconnecting smaller networks within a large geographic area, information is
easily disseminated throughout the network. Local libraries and government agencies often use
a MAN to connect to citizens and private industries.

Wide Area Network

Wide Area Networks (WANs) connect larger geographic areas, such as Nairobi, the Kenya, or the
world. Dedicated transoceanic cabling or satellite uplinks may be used to connect this type of
network. A WAN is complicated. It uses multiplexers to connect local and metropolitan networks
to global communications networks like the Internet. To users, however, a WAN will not appear
to be much different than a LAN or a MAN.

NETWORKING TOPOLOGIES
Topology: Commonly used to discuss the properties of various types of networks. Topology is the
branch of mathematics that examines the characteristics of geometric shapes. Networks have
shapes, and the shape of a network determines the way it functions. Different types of
topologies are used because each topology has strength and weaknesses.

Factors affecting the choice of topology used

Impact of cable breaks on a network.
• Impact of adding or removing nodes.
• Flow of messages and which nodes see the messages.
• Ability to use nodes as repeaters.
• Maximum physical size of the network.
• Amount of cable used. - The final choice of topology could be either one or more
likely a combination of topologies that depend upon, need, cost, speed, and reliability
Examples of topologies
Star Topology
Each device connects to a central point via a point-to-point link.
Depending on the logical architecture used, several names are used for the central point
including the following:
Hub, Multipoint Repeater, Concentrator, Multi-Access Unit (MAU), Switch
All devices connected with a Star setup communicate through a central Hub by cable segments.
Signals are transmitted and received through the Hub. In a star topology, each network device
has a home run of cabling back to a network hub, giving each device a separate connection to
the network. So, there can be multiple connections in parallel

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Advantages of the star topology
• Network administration and error detection is easier because problem is isolated to central
node
• Networks runs even if one host fails
• Expansion becomes easier and scalability of the network increases
More suited for larger networks Disadvantages
of the star topology
• Broadcasting and multicasting is not easy because some extra functionality needs to be
provided to the central hub
• If the central node fails, the whole network goes down; thus making the switch some kind of
a bottleneck
• Installation costs are high because each node needs to be connected to the central switch

Bus Topology
Consists of a single cable, called a Backbone that connects all workstations on the network using
a single line. All transmissions must pass through each of the connected devices to complete the
desired request. Each workstation has its own individual signal that identifies it and allows for
the requested data to be returned to the correct originator. In Bus Network, messages are sent
in both directions from a single point and are read by the node (computer or peripheral on the
network) identified by the code with the message. the network will continue to function even if
one computer is down. This topology works equally well for either peer to peer or client server.

Advantages
• Broadcasting and multicasting is much simpler
• Network is redundant in the sense that failure of one node doesn't affect the network. The
other part may still function properly.

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• Least expensive since less amount of cabling is required and no network switches are
required
• Good for smaller networks not requiring higher speeds
Disadvantages
• Trouble shooting and error detection becomes a problem because, logically, all nodes are
equal
• Less secure because sniffing is easier
• Limited in size and speed

Ring Topology
It is a physical, closed loop consisting of point-to-point links. Each node is connected to the two
nearest nodes so the entire network forms a circle One method for passing data on ring
networks is token passing. Each workstation transmits data.

Advantages
• All workstations share the same communication medium.
• The loss of one workstation does not affect the functionality of the network.
• The cost of a single shared medium is low.
• Adding another station amounts to making a connection to the single communication
medium.

Disadvantages
 Each workstation must pass on unintended messages.
 Response speed degrades as the network size increases.
 Network intelligence must be distributed

Mesh topology
Devices are connected with many redundant interconnections between network nodes.

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Advantages
 Fast response time.
 Single workstation failure does not affect network.
 Connections determined by movement of data
Disadvantages
 Network intelligence must be distributed.
 Adding a new station can be expensive.
 Making connections between many stations is expensive.

ADVANTAGES OF INSTALLING A NETWORK

a) Speed - Networks provide a very rapid method for sharing and transferring files. Without a
network, files are shared by copying them to floppy disks, then carrying or sending the disks
from one computer to another. This method of transferring files (referred to as sneaker-net)
is very time-consuming.
b) Cost - Networkable versions of many popular software programs are available at
considerable savings when compared to buying individually licensed copies. Besides
monetary savings, sharing a program on a network allows for easier upgrading of the
program. The changes have to be done only once, on the server, instead of on all the
individual workstations.
c) Security - Files and programs on a network can be designated as “copy inhibit,” so that you
do not have to worry about illegal copying of programs. Also, passwords can be established
for specific directories to restrict access to authorized users.
d) Centralized Software Management - One of the greatest benefits of installing a network at a
school is the fact that all of the software can be loaded on one computer (the server). This
eliminates the need to spend time and energy installing updates and tracking files on
independent computers throughout the building.
e) Resource Sharing - Sharing resources is another area in which a network exceeds stand-alone
computers. Most firms cannot afford enough laser printers, fax machines, modems,
scanners, and CD-ROM players for each computer. However, if these or similar peripherals
are added to a network, they can be shared by many users.
f) Electronic Mail - The presence of a network provides the hardware necessary to install an
email system. E-mail aids in personal and professional communication for all school
personnel, and it facilitates the dissemination of general information to the entire school
staff.

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g) Flexible Access - Networks allow users to access their files from computers throughout an
organization. Users can begin an assignment in their office, save part of it on a public access
area of the network, and then go home after work to finish their work. Users can also work
cooperatively through the network.
h) Workgroup Computing - Workgroup software (such as Microsoft BackOffice) allows many
users to work on a document or project concurrently. For example, educators located at
various schools within a county could simultaneously contribute their ideas about new
curriculum standards to the same document and spreadsheets.
DISADVANTAGES OF INSTALLING A NETWORK
a) Expensive to Install - Although a network will generally save money over time, the initial
costs of installation can be prohibitive. Cables, network cards, and software are expensive,
and the installation may require the services of a technician.
b) Requires Administrative Time - Proper maintenance of a network requires considerable time
and expertise. Many firms have installed a network, only to find that they did not budget for
the necessary administrative support.
c) File Server May Fail - Although a file server is no more susceptible to failure than any other
computer, when the files server “goes down,” the entire network may come to a halt. When
this happens, the entire school may lose access to necessary programs and files.
d) Cables May Break - Some Network configurations are designed to minimize the
inconvenience of a broken cable; with other configurations, one broken cable can stop the
entire network.

NETWORK COMPONENTS
Networking hardware includes all computers, peripherals, interface cards and other equipment
needed to perform data-processing and communications within the network.
1. Servers The server controls the communication of information between the nodes on a
network. For example, it may be asked to A server stands at the heart of most networks.
It is a very fast computer with a large amount of RAM and storage space, along with a fast
network interface card. The network operating system software resides on this
computer, along with any software applications and data files that need to be shared.
Server types include file, application, database, web, mail, print, and backup.

Server
The server controls the communication of information between the nodes on a network.
For example, it may be asked to send a word processor program to one Workstation,
receive a database file from another workstation, and store an e-mail message during the
same time period. This requires a computer that can store a lot of information and share
it very quickly.
2. Workstations - All of the computers connected to the server on a network are called
workstations. A typical workstation is a computer that is configured with a network
interface card, networking software, and the appropriate cables. Workstations do not

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 necessarily need floppy disk drives or hard drives because files can be saved on the
server. Almost any computer can serve as a network workstation.

3. Network Interface Cards- The network interface card (NIC) provides the physical
connection between the network and the computer workstation. Most NICs are internal,
with the card fitting into an expansion slot inside the computer. Network interface cards
are a major factor in determining the speed and performance of a network. It is a good
idea to use the fastest network card available for the type of workstation you are using.

4. Hubs/Switches - A hub is a device that provides a central connection point for cables
from workstations, servers, and peripherals. In a star topology, twisted-pair wire is run
from each workstation to a central hub. Some hubs are passive, that is they allow the
signal to pass from one computer to another without any change. Most hubs are active,
that is they electrically amplify the signal as it moves from one device to another. Active
hubs are used like repeaters to extend the length of a network.

A hub is a device that provides a central connection point for cables from workstations,
servers, and peripherals. The repeater electrically amplifies the signal it receives and
rebroadcasts it. Repeaters can be separate devices or they can be incorporated into a
hub. They are used when the total length of your network cable exceeds the standards
set for the type of cable being used. A good example of the use of repeaters would be in
a local area network using a star topology with unshielded twisted-pair cabling. The
length limit for unshielded twisted-pair cable is 100 meters. The most common
configuration is for each workstation to be connected by twisted-pair cable to a multiport
active concentrator. The hub amplifies all the signals that pass through it allowing for the
total length of cable on the network to exceed the 100 meter limit.
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5. Bridges - A bridge is a device that allows you to segment a large network into two
smaller, more efficient networks. If you are adding to an older wiring scheme and want
the new network to be up-to-date, a bridge can connect the two. A bridge monitors the
information traffic on both sides of the network so that it can pass packets of information
to the correct location. Most bridges can “listen” to the network and automatically figure
out the address of each computer on both sides of the bridge. The bridge can inspect
each message and, if necessary, regenerate it on the other side of the network. The
bridge manages the traffic to maintain optimum performance on both sides of the
network. You might say that the bridge is like a traffic cop at a busy intersection during
rush hour. It keeps information flowing on both sides of the network, but it does not
allow unnecessary traffic through. Bridges can be used to connect different types of
cabling, or physical topologies. They must, however, be used between networks with the
same protocol.
6. Routers - A router translates information from one network to another; it is similar to a
super intelligent bridge. Routers select the best path to route a message, based on the
destination address and origin. The router can direct traffic to prevent head-on collisions,
and is smart enough to know when to direct traffic along back roads and shortcuts. While
bridges know the addresses of all computers on each side of the network, routers know
the addresses of computers, bridges, and other routers on the network. Routers can even
“listen” to the entire network to determine which sections are busiest—they can then
redirect data around those sections until they clear up.If you have a school LAN that you
want to connect to the Internet, you will need to purchase a router. In this case, the
router serves as the translator between the information on your LAN and the Internet. It
also determines the best route to send the data over the Internet.
Routers can:
• Direct signal traffic efficiently
• Route messages between any two protocols
• Route messages between linear bus, star, and star-wired ring topologies
• Route messages across fiber optic, coaxial, and twisted-pair cabling

7. Cables - Cable is the medium through which information usually moves from one
network device to another. There are several types of cable that are commonly used with
LANs. In some cases, a network will utilize only one type of cable, other networks will use
a variety of cable types. The type of cable chosen for a network is related to the
network’s topology, protocol, and size. Understanding the characteristics of different
types of cable and how they relate to other aspects of a network is necessary for the
development of a successful network. Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Cable

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 • Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Cable
• Coaxial Cable
• Fiber Optic Cable
• Wireless LANs
Twisted pair
The cabling comes in two varieties: shielded and unshielded. Unshielded twisted pair
(UTP) is the most popular and is generally the best option for school networks.
A disadvantage of UTP is that it may be susceptible to radio and electrical frequency
interference. Shielded twisted pair (STP) is suitable for environments with electrical
interference; however, the extra shielding can make the cables quite bulky. Shielded
twisted pair is often used on networks using Token Ring topology.
Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cabling has a single copper conductor at its center. A plastic layer provides
insulation between the center conductor and a braided metal shield. The metal shield
helps to block any outside interference from fluorescent lights, motors, and other
computers. Fiber Optic Cable
Fiber optic cabling consists of a center glass core surrounded by several layers of
protective materials. It transmits light rather than electronic signals, eliminating the
problem of electrical interference. This makes it ideal for certain environments that
contain a large amount of electrical interference. It has also made fiber the standard for
connecting networks between buildings, due to its immunity to the effects of moisture
and lighting.

Wireless LANs
Not all networks are connected with cabling; some networks are wireless. Wireless LANs
use high frequency radio signals, infrared light beams, or laser beams to communicate
between the workstations and the server or hubs. Each workstation and server on a
wireless network has some sort of transceiver/antenna to send and receive the data.
Information is relayed between transceivers as if they were physically connected. For
longer distances, wireless communications can also take place through cellular telephone
technology, microwave transmission, or satellite.
8. Firewall - It is a system designed to prevent unauthorized access to or from a private network.
Firewalls can be implemented in both hardware and software, or a combination of both.
Firewalls are frequently used to prevent unauthorized Internet users from accessing
private networks connected to the Internet, especially intranets. All messages entering or
leaving the intranet pass through the firewall, which examines each message and blocks
those that do not meet the specified security criteria.

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NETWORK COMMUNICATION STANDARDS (PROTOCALS)
• Ethernet is a network standard that specifies no computer controls when data can be
transmitted. It is specified by the 802.3 standards.
• The token ring standard specifies that computers and devices on the network share or
pass a special signal (token)
• Wi-Fi identifies any network based on the 802.11 standard that facilitates wireless
communication Sometimes referred to as wireless Ethernet.
• Bluetooth defines how two Bluetooth devices use short-range radio waves to transmit
data
• UWB (ultra-wideband) specifies how two UWB devices use short-range radio waves to
communicate at high speeds
• IrDA(Infrared) transmits data wirelessly via infrared (IR) light waves
• RFID uses radio signals to communicate with a tag placed in or attached to an object,
animal, or person

CHAPTER FIVE - INTERNET

OUTLINE
Introduction Internet services negative Impact of the internet
THE INTERNET
The Internet is a worldwide collection of computer networks, cooperating with each other to
exchange data using a common software standard. Through telephone wires and satellite links,
Internet users can share information in a variety of forms. The size, scope and design of the
Internet allow users to:
• Connect easily through ordinary personal computers and local phone numbers;
• Exchange electronic mail (E-mail) with friends and colleagues with accounts on the
Internet;
• Post information for others to access, and update it frequently;
• Access multimedia information that includes sound, photographic images and even
video; and
• Access diverse perspectives from around the world.

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An additional attribute of the Internet is that it lacks a central authority—in other words; there is
no "Internet, Inc." that controls the Internet. Beyond the various governing boards that work to
establish policies and standards, the Internet is bound by few rules and answers to no single
organization.
How Do People Use the Internet?
Among the ways that users like you are taking advantage of the Internet are:
• Sharing research and business data among colleagues and like-minded individuals.
• Communicating with others and transmitting files via E-mail.
• Requesting and providing assistance with problems and questions.
• Marketing and publicizing products and services.
• Gathering valuable feedback and suggestions from customers and business partners. The
Internet's potential is limited only by users' vision and creativity. And as the Internet
grows, new and innovative uses will surely follow.
Connecting to the Internet
An ISP, or Internet Service Provider, is a company that provides you with a point of access to the
Internet. When you connect to your ISP, your computer (or your own network) becomes an
extension of the Internet itself whilst you remain connected.

INTERNET SERVICES
1. WORLD WIDE WEB - It is a method of posting and accessing interactive multimedia
information & is a true "information superhighway," allowing users the world over to access
a wealth of information quickly and easily.
Importance
The World Wide Web brings you all of the advantages of the Internet—and more! Among the
things that the Web allows you to do are:
• Publish and make frequent updates to on-line documents, and receive direct feedback on
those documents via E-mail.
• Connect with a diverse, global audience—a community defined not by geography, but by
interests.
• Keep abreast of the latest news and developments in your profession... often before such
news appears in conventional media.
• Reference other Web resources easily via hypertext.
• Access otherwise obscure information not readily available in other media.
• Download useful software at little or no cost.
The difference between world wide web and internet…?

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 Many people use the terms Internet and World Wide Web, but in fact the two terms are not
synonymous. The Internet and the Web are two separate but related things.
• The Internet is a massive network of networks. It connects millions of computers
together globally, forming a network in which any computer can communicate with any
other computer as long as they are both connected to the Internet.
• The World Wide Web, or simply Web, is a way of accessing information over the medium
of the Internet.
So the Web is just a portion of the Internet, albeit a large portion, but the two terms are not
synonymous and should not be confused.
The Fundamental concept of the World Wide Web The Hypertext concept
Hypertext is text which contains links to other texts. The term was coined by Ted Nelson
around 1965.
The Hypermedia concept
Hypermedia is a term used for hypertext which is not constrained to be text: it can include
graphics, video and sound. Uniform Resource Identifiers
Web resources need names/identifiers – Uniform Resource Identifiers (URIs). Resource can
reside anywhere on the Internet. A pointer to a resource to which request methods can be
applied to generate potentially different responses. A request method is e.g. fetching or
changing the object. Most popular form of a URI is the Uniform Resource Locator (URL) Web
browsers
A web browser is a software application for retrieving, presenting, and traversing
information resources on the World Wide Web. Examples of web browsers
• Mosaic, April 22, 1993
• Netscape Navigator and Netscape Communicator, October 13, 1994
• Internet Explorer 1, August 16, 1995
• Opera, 1996, see History of the Opera web browser
• Mozilla Navigator, June 5, 2002
• Safari, January 7, 2003
• Mozilla Firefox, November 9, 2004
• Google Chrome, September 2, 2008
The Web Server
This is a program that waits patiently for the browser to request a web page. The servers
looks for the requested information, retrieves it and send it to the browser or sends an error
message if the file is not found.
2. ELECTRONIC MAIL - Electronic mail, commonly called email or e-mail, is a method of
exchanging digital messages from an author to one or more recipients. Modern email
operates across the Internet or other computer networks. Some early email systems required
that the author and the recipient both be online at the same time, in common with instant
messaging. Today's email systems are based on a store-and-forward model. Email servers
accept, forward, deliver and store messages. Neither the users nor their computers are
required to be online simultaneously; they need connect only briefly, typically to an email
server, for as long as it takes to send or receive messages.
3. FILE TRANSFER PROTOCOL - File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is a standard network protocol used
to transfer files from one host to another over a TCP-based network, such as the Internet.
FTP is built on a client-server architecture and utilizes separate control and data connections

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 between the client and server. The first FTP client applications were interactive commandline
tools, implementing standard commands and syntax. Graphical user interface clients have
since been developed for many of the popular desktop operating systems in use today.
4. CHAT - Online chat may refer to any kind of communication over the Internet, that offers an
instantaneous transmission of text-based messages from sender to receiver, hence the delay
for visual access to the sent message shall not hamper the flow of communications in any of
the directions. Online chat may address as well point-to-point communications as well as
multicast communications from one sender to many receivers.
5. NEWSGROUPS - A newsgroup is a discussion about a particular subject consisting of notes
written to a central Internet site and redistributed through Usenet, a worldwide network of
news discussion groups. Usenet uses the Network News Transfer Protocol (NNTP).
Newsgroups are organized into subject hierarchies, with the first few letters of the
newsgroup name indicating the major subject category and sub-categories represented by a
subtopic name. Many subjects have multiple levels of subtopics. Some major subject
categories are: news, rec (recreation), soc (society), sci (science), comp (computers), and so
forth (there are many more). Users can post to existing newsgroups, respond to previous
posts, and create new newsgroups.
6. BLOGS - A blog (a blend of the term web log) is a type of website or part of a website. Blogs
are usually maintained by an individual with regular entries of commentary, descriptions of
events, or other material such as graphics or video. Entries are commonly displayed in
reverse-chronological order. Blog can also be used as a verb, meaning to maintain or add
content to a blog. Most blogs are interactive, allowing visitors to leave comments and even
message each other via widgets on the blogs and it is this interactivity that distinguishes
them from other static websites. Many blogs provide commentary or news on a particular
subject; others function as more personal online diaries. A typical blog combines text,
images, and links to other blogs, Web pages, and other media related to its topic. The ability
of readers to leave comments in an interactive format is an important part of many blogs.
Most blogs are primarily textual, although some focus on art (art blog), photographs
(photoblog), videos (video blogging or vlogging), music (MP3 blog), and audio (podcasting).
Microblogging is another type of blogging, featuring very short posts.
7. VIDEO CONFERENCING - Video conferencing is a communications technology that integrates
video and voice to connect remote users with each other as if they were in the same room.
Each user needs a computer, webcam, microphone, and broadband internet connection for
participation in video conferencing. Users see and hear each other in realtime, allowing
natural conversations not possible with voice-only communications technology. Very
appealing to the educational and business sectors, video conferencing allows users to save
time and money on travelling and housing costs by bringing people face-to-face virtually.
Many prominent universities have adopted video conferencing as an educational tool to be
used in conjunction with online courses. Business leaders around the world use video
conferencing to keep in touch with important contacts while on the go.
The components required for a videoconferencing system include:
• Video input : video camera or webcam
• Video output: computer monitor , television or projector
• Audio input: microphones, CD/DVD player, cassette player, or any other source of
PreAmp audio outlet.

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 • Audio output: usually loudspeakers associated with the display device or telephone
• Data transfer: analog or digital telephone network, LAN or Internet
• Computer: a data processing unit that ties together the other components, does the
compressing and decompressing, and initiates and maintains the data linkage via the
network.
NEGATIVE IMPACT OF USING THE INTERNET
There are a number of psychological implications, with the growing use of internet by children.
Some of which include the following:
1. Limited Knowledge: With the growing use of internet for research purposes, there is now
a decline in the number of books used for research. Also the information available on the
internet is limited and mostly pertains to the developed nations; a result, the knowledge
obtained is limited.
2. Isolation: Due to spending countless hours on the internet, children now spend a very
limited time with family and actual friends. Therefore, there is a weakening of the family
bond and also limited interaction with actual people. As a result, the children may miss
out on real life interaction with different relatives’ results in distorted social skills &
limited real life social network.
3. Feeling of Deprivation: Since most of the information available online is about the
developed nations, the people in developing countries, feel that the developed nations
are much better off and they have a feeling of deprivation.
4. Distorted Sense of Reality: Since the online games are completely cut off from reality,
the children tend to confuse the “real world” from their “game world”. This results in a
distorted sense of reality. Can result in Identity Confusion. Furthermore, online, a
person’s identity is concealed and therefore people act like themselves and have no
inhibitions saying how they feel. As a result, racist, sexist people have made hate sites.
And this is a growing problem.
5. Negative Impact of Uncensored Material: In today’s day and age it is harder to keep a
check on the websites, a child is visiting and therefore, a lot of children are now being
exposed to obscene, sexual material online such as pornography. Also since the identity
of an individual is concealed online, there are a number of sexual predators online, who
take advantage of children.
6. Exposure to Violence: With the growing use of the internet by children, there is an
increase in online games. These games are very violent and expose children to explicit
content and violent situations thus desensitizing the children and making them more
prone to inflicting self harm, as well as harm on others.
7. Addiction to the Internet: The children also have an unrealistic feeling of power and
control, when using the internet and as a result, they become addicted to the internet.
8. Information Fatigue Syndrome: With the growing use of the internet, there is an excess
of knowledge available online. As a result, there is “too much information”. Information
Fatigue Syndrome is when an individual becomes highly stressed through trying to cope
with the huge amounts of information.
CHAPTER SIX - OFFICE AUTOMATION
OUTLINE Introduction office automation systems software tools in office automation
advantages of office automation
What is office automation?
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Office automation refers to the varied computer machinery and software used to digitally create,
collect, store, manipulate, and relay office information needed for accomplishing basic tasks and
goals. Raw data storage, electronic transfer, and the management of electronic business
information comprise the basic activities of an office automation system.

Office automation helps in optimising or automating existing office procedures. The backbone of
office automation is LAN, which allows users to transmit data, mail and even voice across the
network. All office functions, including typing, filing, copying, fax, Telex, microfilm and records
management, telephone and telephone switchboard operations, fall into this category.

There are three basic activities of an office automation system:

Storage of information, data exchange, and data management.
Within each broad application area, hardware and software combine to fulfill basic functions
that are needed to successfully accomplish the goals for a specific business.
• Storage of information would be the computer or a computer like system.
• Data Exchange would be a fax, phone, or some type of communication hardware.
• Data management would be using specific software tools to organize and maintain data
Office Automation Systems

TOOLS IN OFFICE AUTOMATION

Software Package - A program of instructions that interacts with the system's hardware to
perform operational or functional tasks. Software packages are comprised of program
instructions that are applicable to a specific office requirement such as producing textual
documents, developing spreadsheets, establishing databases, or presenting information in
graphic form.
Software Type - Software packages that provide similar capabilities are categorized as a
particular type of software, e.g., database management, electronic spreadsheet, or word
processing. This guide also refers to some of the more commonly used types of software
described in the sections that follow
• Word Processing - Word processing software, designed for developing textual
documents, permits users to create, format, modify and print documents
electronically.
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 • Electronic Spreadsheet - Spreadsheet software, used extensively for accounting and
financial purposes, is designed for maintaining, manipulating, and calculating
numerical data. A typical electronic spreadsheet consists of a matrix of rows and
columns similar to the conventional columnar pad. The user can add, delete, or
modify the numerical records maintained in these spreadsheets.
• Database Management - Database management software provides capability for
organized electronic storage of information in general categories or files. It allows the
user to rearrange the order and number of items of information in printed form, and
to search for and display specific items of information.
• Desk-Top Publishing - Desk-top publishing software is used to lay out text, graphics,
and pictures on a page. With desk-top publishing software, the user can perform such
tasks as : integrating text and graphics on a page; increasing or decreasing the size of
charts, graphs, or pictures and using multiple styles and sizes of type.
• Graphics - Graphics software typically allows the creation of charts and graphs based
on data provided through a spreadsheet or by the user directly
• Project Management- permits the user to identify tasks, task relationships, resources,
and time requirements of a project; to manipulate that information for planning
purposes; to track work progress against the plans; and to report and display
information about the project in varied ways.
• Calendar - Calendar software generally permits the user to schedule events on one or
more calendars. Additional functions may include capabilities for such purposes as "to
do" lists, short notes and reminders, and recording time spent on various projects.
• Electronic Mail - Electronic mail (email) permits sending information to users through
their computers' communication links. For example, memos can be sent to those on
designated distribution lists, and the recipients can acknowledge receipt, print copies,
and respond through the electronic mail system

BENEFITS OF OFFICE AUTOMATION

• Office automation reduces the number of clerical workers carrying out routine tasks
• Large firms no longer have to employ typists
• Office employees become more flexible and as a result one person can now do the jobs of
several people
• Receptionists can spend more time with clients
• Managers need not necessarily delegate typing, with the secretary's role being redefined to
include more Public Relations work.

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 CHAPTER SEVEN – COMPUTER SYSTEM SECURITY
OUTLINE What is a security system Computer security risks Physical security
Information security WHAT
IS A SECURITY SYSTEM?
A security system is a set of mechanisms and techniques that protect a computer system,
specifically the assets. They are protected against loss or harm including unauthorized access,
unauthorized disclosure and interference of information
A computer security risk is any event or action that could cause a loss of or damage to computer
hardware, software, data, information, or processing capability Hazards (exposures) to
information security An exposure is a form of possible loss or harm.
Examples of exposures include:
• Unauthorized access resulting in a loss of computing time
• Unauthorized disclosure – information revealed without authorization
• Destruction especially with respect to hardware and software
• Theft
• Interference with system operation.
Computer Security Risks

PHYSICAL SECURITY
Physical accesses exposures exist from accidental or intentional violation include:
• Unauthorized entry
• Damage, vandalism or theft to equipment or documents
• Copying or viewing of sensitive or copyrighted information
• Alteration of sensitive equipment and information
• Public disclosure of sensitive information
• Abuse of data processing resources
• Blackmail

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 • Embezzlement
Physical access controls
1. Bolting door locks – these locks require the traditional metal key to gain entry. The key
should be stamped ‘Do not duplicate’.
2. Combination door locks (cipher locks) – this system uses a numeric keypad or dial to gain
entry. The combination should be changed at regular intervals or whenever an employee
with access is transferred, fired or subject to disciplinary action. This reduces the risk of the
combination being known by unauthorized people.
3. Electronic door locks – this system uses a magnetic or embedded chip-based plastic card key
or token entered into a sensor reader to gain access.
4. Biometric door locks – an individual’s unique body features, such as voice, retina, fingerprint
or signature, activate these locks.
5. Manual logging – all visitors should be required to sign a visitor’s log indicating their name,
company represented, reason for visiting and person to see. Logging typically is at the front
reception desk and entrance to the computer room. Before gaining access, visitors should
also be required to provide verification of identification, such as a driver’s license, business
card or vendor identification tag.
6. Electronic logging – this is a feature of electronic and biometric security systems. All access
can be logged, with unsuccessful attempts being highlighted.
7. Identification badges (photo IDs) – badges should be worn and displayed by all personnel.
Visitor badges should be a different colour from employee badges for easy identification..
8. Video cameras – cameras should be located at strategic points and monitored by security
guards. Sophisticated video cameras can be activated by motion. The video surveillance
recording should be retained for possible future playbacks.
9. Security guards – guards are very useful if supplemented by video cameras and locked doors.
Guards supplied by an external agency should be bonded to protect the organization from
loss.
10. Deadman doors – this system uses a pair of (two) doors, typically found in entries to facilities
such as computer rooms and document stations. For the second door to operate, the first
entry door must close and lock, with only one person permitted in the holding area. This
reduces risk of piggybacking, when an unauthorized person follows an authorized person
through a secured entry.
The Workstations
• Workstations should ALWAYS be logged off or locked out whenever unattended.
• Screens positioned such that they cannot be seen through the windows. o Hackers with
telescopes to record keystrokes.
• Workstations should be secured and physically locked while unattended.
• Steel cable that runs through the computer case and attaches to an “anchor” to prevent
the tower from being removed
Safeguarding the Computer Rooms
• Keep the doors locked
• Tuck networking cables out of sight o Keep networking cables inaccessible
from outside room
• Secure items in the room according to value
• Intrusion detection systems
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 • Ensure walls extend to the physical ceiling versus ceiling panels o Attackers
can gain access to the room via scaling the wall
• Access Control Methods o Biometrics
o Key Card access w/ PIN #s
o Security Guard presence at all times - Watchdogs if the assets merit o
Security Cameras
Fire
• Extinguishers
• Fire Detectors/Alarms
Flood/Water
• Locate sensitive equipment on the second story or above
• Don’t allow water pipes to run through or around computer room
Earthquake/Seismic Vibrations
• Airports, railroads, major thoroughfares, industrial tools, and road construction are
common sources of vibration
• Common solutions involve supporting the foundation of computers with springs,
gelfilled mats, or rubber pads.
• THE most effective solution: o Don’t position your data center near a source of
seismic vibrations Power Outages/Fluctuations
• UPS
o Large solutions available to large power consumption
• Generator o When UPS just isn’t enough
• Extreme Temperature/Humidity o Control must be maintained over the environment
o Larger computers run hotter and thus more susceptible to heat in the room o
Humidity problems with moisture developing on the inside of the machine
 Redundant HVAC unit (Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning) that can
handle temperature and humidity control of the computer room,
sheltered from the weather

INFORMATION SECURITY Hazards to information security

• Unauthorized access resulting in a loss of computing time
• Unauthorized disclosure – information revealed without authorization
• Destruction especially with respect to hardware and software
• Denial of Service(DOS)-Resulting from Interference with system operation.
• Cybercrime -: hackers, Crackers, script kiddies, Cyber terrorism, Corporate Spies
• Internet and Network Attacks:- Computer Virus,Worm, Trojan Horse, Rootkit
Symptoms of an infected computer
• Operating system runs much slower than usual
• Available memory is less than expected
• Files become corrupted
• Screen displays unusual message or image
• Music or unusual sound plays randomly
• Existing programs and files disappear
• Programs or files do not work properly
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 • Unknown programs or files mysteriously appear
• System properties change
• Operating system does not start up
• Operating system shuts down unexpectedly
Malware and Viruses Prevention
Users can take several precautions to protect their home and work computers and mobile
devices from these malicious infections

Prevention against Intrusion

• Using a firewall. A firewall is
hardware and/or software that
protects a network’s resources from
intrusion
• Intrusion detection software o
Analyzes all network traffic o
Assesses system vulnerabilities
o Identifies any unauthorized intrusions
o Notifies network administrators of suspicious behavior patterns or security breaches
• Unauthorized access and use
control o Acceptable use policy o
Disable file and printer sharing o
Firewalls
o Intrusion detection software
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Unauthorized Access and Use Control
• Access controls define who can access a computer, when they can access it, and what
actions they can take
• Two-phase processes called identification and authentication o User name o Password
• Use of possessed object. A possessed object is any item that you must carry to gain
access to a computer or computer facility
o Often are used in combination with a personal identification number (PIN) o A
biometric device authenticates a person’s identity by translating a personal
characteristic into a digital code that is compared with a digital code in a computer
• Encryption is a process of converting readable data into unreadable characters to prevent
unauthorized access
• A digital signature is an encrypted code that a person, Web site, or organization attaches
to an electronic message to verify the identity of the sender
o Often used to ensure that an impostor is not participating in an Internet transaction
• Web browsers and Web sites use encryption techniques
• A backup is a duplicate of a file, program, or disk that can be used if the original is lost,
damaged, or destroyed
o To back up a file means to make a copy of it
• Offsite backups are stored in a location separate from the computer site

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