Q: What are the different types of substations?

Discuss their main functions, components used

and their field of application in electrical power transmission.

Ans: The different types of substations are:

TYPES:

• Transmission

• Terminal

• Transformer

• Distribution

• Unit

• Collector

Transmission substations:

A transmission substation connects two or more high-voltage power lines. The station contains
switches that allow lines to be connected or isolated for fault clearance or maintenance,
transformers to change voltage, and equipment to control power flow between adjacent power
systems.

Terminal substations:

A terminal substation is a facility where transmission lines of the same voltage can be connected
to establish an electricity supply to a new demand center. It is also a bulk supply point in the
electrical grid where it may serve a significant area. It is a transformation point where lower
voltages are produced to supply the metropolitan transmission system.

Transformer substations:

A transformer substation is a point where the transmission voltage level is stepped down to the
sub-transmission voltage level. The major components in station will be, one or two high voltage
disconnect switches, one or two power transformers, one or two medium voltage switchgear
lineups with their breakers, instrument transformers, relays, communication, and control
networks.

Distribution Substation:

A distribution substation is a substation that is located near the end-users. The distribution
substation transforms the transmission or sub-transmission voltage to lower levels. From there,
the power is distributed to industrial, commercial, and residential customers through distribution
transformers. The secondary of the distribution transformer is 440 V or 230 V.

Unit substations:

A unit substation consists of a load break switch and a set of power or current limiting fuses,
connected to the high voltage winding of a distribution transformer. The low voltage winding of
the transformer is connected to the main circuit breaker, feeder circuit breakers, and motor
contactors. The utility metering compartment contains the current and voltage transformers
approved for utility meter application, as well as the user instrument transformers, meters,
protection, and control.

Collector substation:

A collector substation gathers electricity from many sources, such as a wind farm, and sends it to
the transmission grid.

The main components of substations used to transmit an electrical power are the following:

-Transformers

-Circuit breakers

-Capacitors

-Reactors

Transformers: convert high-voltage electricity from the power lines to a lower voltage that can
be used by homes and businesses.

Circuit breakers: protect the transformer and the power lines from damage by opening and
closing the circuit as needed.

Capacitors: store electricity and help regulate the voltage on the power lines.

Reactors: help control the flow of electricity on the power lines.

Application: Substations are used to change the voltage of an electrical current in a power system.
Substations are used to connect two or more parts of a power system. Substations are used to connect two
or more power systems. Substations are used in electrical power transmission to connect high-voltage
power lines. They are also used to connect lower-voltage power lines and to connect power lines to
dwellings, factories, and other customers.

Main functions: A substation is an electrical installation where electricity is brought in from the high-
voltage transmission network and transformed to lower voltages for distribution to customers. A
substation can also be used to convert between different voltages, such as between alternating current
(AC) and direct current (DC).
Q: Describe the main components of HVDC system. what key benefits it offers in power
transmission?

The main components of an HVDC system are the converter stations, the transmission line, and
the control system.

The converter stations convert AC power to DC power or vice versa.

The transmission line carries the DC power from one converter station to the other.

The control system regulates the flow of DC power through the system.

HVDC systems offer several key benefits over AC systems, including higher efficiency, lower
losses, and the ability to transmit power over longer distances.

Q: What is corona in electrical power transmission? What factors affect it? How to overcome on
it? What are its disadvantages?

A corona is an electrical discharge that occurs when there is a high potential difference between two conductors. The
discharge is characterized by a bright light and a hissing noise.

The main factor that affects corona in electrical power transmission is the amount of voltage that is applied to the
transmission line. The higher the voltage, the greater the chance of corona occurring. Other factors that can affect
corona include the type of conductor used, the size of the conductor, the weather conditions, and the type of terrain
the transmission line is located in.

To overcome the challenges posed by Corona in electrical power transmission are:

▪ By increasing the conductor size: larger the diameter of the conductor, lesser the corona discharge.
▪ By increasing the distance between conductors: Larger the conductor spacing, lesser the corona.

ADVANTAGES

(i) Due to corona formation, the air surrounding the conductor becomes conducting and hence virtual diameter of the
conductor is increased. The increased diameter reduces the electrostatic stresses between the conductors.

(ii) Corona reduces the effects of transients produced by surges.

DIS-ADVANTAGES
(i) Corona is accompanied by a loss of energy. This affects the transmission efficiency of the line.

(ii) Ozone is produced by corona and may cause corrosion of the conductor due to chemical action.

(iii) The current drawn by the line due to corona is non-sinusoidal and hence non-sinusoidal voltage drop occurs in
the line. This may cause inductive interference with neighboring communication lines.
Underground Cables

The underground cables have several advantages such as,

Better general appearance

Less liable to damage through storms or lighting

Low maintenance cost

Less chances of faults

Small voltage drops

Disadvantage:

1) Insulation problems

2) Greater installation cost

Constructional Parts

Conductor:

Usually, 1 or 3 conductors are used. The conductors are made of tinned copper or aluminum and
are usually stranded to provide flexibility to the cable.
Insulation:

It is provided to withstand the electrostatic stress. Various types of insulators are utilized
depending upon the applied voltage.
Metallic Sheath:

It provides protection to the cable from moisture and other chemicals present in the environment
or soil. It’s usually made up of Aluminum or Lead
Bedding:

It is a low-grade insulator which protects the metallic sheath from corrosion

Armoring:

It provides mechanical protection from various stresses the cable may get exposed during its
installation and operational life.
Serving:

To protect armoring from atmospheric conditions

• These are mainly of two types

❑ H-type and

❑ S.L type cables

a. H-TYPE Cables:

Each core is insulated by layer of impregnated paper. The insulation on each core is covered with
a metallic screen which is usually of perforated aluminum foil. The cores are laid in such a way
that metallic screen make contact with one another.

Basic advantage of H-TYPE is that the perforation in the metallic screen assists in the complete
impregnation of the cable with the compound and thus the possibility of air pockets or voids in
the dielectric is eliminated. The metallic screen increases the heat dissipation power of the cable.
 b. S.L - Type: (Separate Lead)

Each core insulation is covered by its own lead sheath. It has two main advantages, firstly the
separate sheath minimizes the possibility of core-to-core breakdown. Secondly the bending of
cables become easy due to the elimination of overall sheath.

The disadvantage is that the lead sheaths of S.L is much thinner as compared to H-Type cables,
therefore for greater care is required in manufacturing.

Types of CABLES

• Oil Filled Cables

• Low viscosity oil is kept under pressure and fills the voids in oil impregnated paper under
all conditions of varying load

• There are three main types of oil filled cables

a. Self-contained circular type

b. Self-contained flat type

c. Pipe Type cables

(a) Single core oil filled cables used up to 132 kV

(b) Three core oil filled cables used up to 66 kV

• Gas pressure cables

(a) External pressure cables

(b) Internal pressure cable

(i) High pressure gas filled cable

(ii) Gas cushion cable

(iii) Impregnated pressure cable

There are three main ways of laying underground cables: direct laying, draw in system, and
solid systems.

1. Direct laying is the simplest method and involves simply

burying the cables in the ground. This method is typically
used for small projects or when the depth of burial is
shallow. This method requires digging a 1.5m deep and
0.45m wide trench which is then covered with a layer of
sand. The cables are laid in the trench and covered with a
10 cm thick layer of sand. To protect against mechanical
injury the trench is then covered with bricks and other
materials.
If more than one cable is required to be laid in a trench, then a horizontal or vertical inter-axial
spacing of 30 cm is provided to prevent mutual heating.
2. Draw in system is more complex and involves using a winch to pull the cables through a
pre-laid conduit. This method is typically used for larger projects or when the depth of
burial is deep.
3. Solid system is the most complex and involve encasing the cables in a pipe. This
method is typically used for large projects or when the depth of burial is very deep.
There are several methods that can be used to detect and locate faults in underground cables.
Some of these methods include:
1. Megger testing: This is a type of electrical testing that uses a high voltage to test the
insulation of cables. Megger testing can be used to detect faults in underground cables.
2. Cable fault locators: These devices are used to locate faults in underground cables. They
work by sending out a signal that is reflected by the fault.
3. Thermal imaging: Thermal imaging can be used to detect hot spots in underground cables.
Hot spots can indicate the presence of a fault.
4. Ultrasonic testing: This type of testing uses sound waves to detect faults in underground
cables.
5. Visual inspection: This is a visual inspection of the cable to look for signs of damage.
TDR works by sending a pulse of electricity down a cable and measuring the time it takes for
the pulse to reflect off a discontinuity in the cable. The reflected pulse is then received by the
TDR and the time difference between the transmitted and received pulses is measured. This
time difference is directly related to the distance to the discontinuity.
Time Deflection Reflectometry (TDR) is a type of reflectometry that uses time-of-flight
measurements to determine the distance to a reflector. The reflector can be a metal surface, a
dielectric surface, or a discontinuity in a transmission line. TDR measurements are made by
sending a pulse of energy into a transmission line and measuring the time delay between the
pulse and the reflected pulse. The distance to the reflector is determined by the time delay.
Q: What are transmission line parameters? How they affect the performance and efficiency of a
transmission lines? What methods are used to overcome the problems associated with them?
Why transposition of medium and long transmission lines is necessary?

The transmission line parameters are the inductance, capacitance, and resistance per unit
length of the transmission line.
The inductance of a transmission line affects the amount of current that can flow through the
line. The capacitance of a transmission line affects the voltage that can be applied to the line.
The resistance of a transmission line affects the power that can be transmitted through the line.
The transmission line parameters affect the efficiency of a transmission line by determining the
amount of power that can be transmitted through the line. The higher the resistance, the lower
the efficiency of the transmission line. The higher the capacitance, the higher the efficiency of
the transmission line. The higher the inductance, the lower the efficiency of the transmission
line.
EFFECIENCY OF TRANSMISSION LINE:

It is the ratio of output power delivered to the consumer/receiving end to the input power
generated at grid stations. Since the efficiency of transmission can also be affected by these
parameters. Due to these parameters the losses are increases and hence the power delivered at
receiving end is less. Therefore the efficiency is greatly effected and hence to improve the
efficiency these parameters must keep in mind.

There are several methods used to overcome the problems associated with transmission line
parameters:
1. Use of transmission line transformers\
2. Use of shunt capacitors
3. Use of series inductors
4. Use of impedance matching circuits
Transposition of medium and long transmission lines is necessary because it helps to reduce
the inductive reactance of the line. This, in turn, reduces the losses in the line and increases the
power transfer capacity of the line.
What are transmission line constants? Briefly describe each of them
There are three transmission line constants: inductance (L), capacitance (C), and resistance
(R).
Inductance is a measure of a conductor's ability to store energy in the form of a magnetic field.
The higher the inductance, the greater the ability to store energy.
Capacitance is a measure of a conductor's ability to store energy in the form of an electric field.
The higher the capacitance, the greater the ability to store energy.
Resistance is a measure of a conductor's ability to resist the flow of electric current. The higher
the resistance, the greater the ability to resist current.

Q: what do you understand by sag and tension of a power transmission line? How sag is
calculated and what factors effect it? Discuss the influence of Sag & tension on the performance
of any transmission line.
Sag is the amount by which a conductor or cable hangs down below its horizontal support. Sag
only influences the performance of a transmission line when the conductor or cable is carrying a
load. Tension is the amount of force exerted by the conductor or cable on its horizontal support.
Tension influences the performance of a transmission line when the conductor or cable is not
carrying a load.
The sag of a power transmission line is the vertical distance between the lowest point of the line
and the point of support.
The tension of a power transmission line is the horizontal force exerted by the line on its
supports.
Sag is the amount by which a conductor or cable hangs down below its horizontal support. Sag
only influences the performance of a transmission line when the conductor or cable is carrying a
load. Tension is the amount of force exerted by the conductor or cable on its horizontal support.
Tension influences the performance of a transmission line when the conductor or cable is not
carrying a load.
𝑊𝐿2
𝑆=
8𝑇

Factors Effects The Sag:

✓ Conductor weight
✓ Span length
✓ Tension
✓ Wind
✓ Temperature
Q: list-out the main components of overhead transmission lines (at least 10). Explain in detail
various types of supports used in overhead transmission lines.

1. Conductors
2. Insulators
3. Support structures
4. Cross arms
5. Insulator strings
6. hardware
7. Fittings
8. Clamps
9. Spacers
10. Suspension insulators
The various types of supports used in overhead transmission lines are:
1. Insulator strings: These are used to support the conductor and isolate it from the tower. The
strings are made of porcelain or glass and are attached to the conductor with metal clamps.
2. Crossarms: These are attached to the tower and support the conductor at right angles.
Crossarms are made of wood, steel, or concrete.
3. Guy wires: These are used to support the tower and keep it from toppling over. The guy wires
are made of steel or aluminum and are anchored into the ground.
4. Dead-end assemblies: These are used to support the conductor at the end of the line where
there is no tower. Dead-end assemblies are made of steel or concrete.
5. Suspension clamps: These are used to support the conductor from the underside.
Suspension clamps are made of steel or aluminum and are attached to the conductor with metal
clamps.