Journal of Baltic Science Education, Vol. 21, No. 6, 2022

Vol.21, No.
6, 2022
ISSN 1648-3898 /Print/
ISSN 2538–7138 /Online/
The International Journal of the Scientia Socialis Ltd., & SMC “Scientia Educologica”
Journal of Baltic Science Education, Vol. 21, No. 6, 2022
Editorial Board
ISSN 1648–3898 /Print/
Editor-in-Chief ISSN 2538–7138 /Online/
Prof., Dr. Vincentas Lamanauskas Vilnius University, Lithuania
Deputy Editor-in-Chief
Prof., Dr. Andris Broks University of Latvia, Latvia
Deputy Editor-in-Chief
Prof., Dr. Miia Rannikmäe University of Tartu, Estonia
Executive Secretary
Dr. Laima Railienė SMC “Scientia Educologica”, Lithuania
Editors:
Prof., Dr. Boris Aberšek University of Maribor, Slovenia
Prof., Dr. Agnaldo Arroio University of Sao Paulo, Brazil
Prof., Dr. Martin Bilek Charles University, Czech Republic
Dr. Paolo Bussotti University of Udine, Italy
Prof., Dr. Bulent Cavas Dokuz Eylul University, Turkey
Prof., Dr. Salih Cepni Uludag University, Turkey
Dr. Peter Demkanin Comenius University, Slovakia
Dr. André du Plessis Nelson Mandela University, South Africa
Dr. Markus Sebastian Feser University of Hamburg, Germany
Prof., Dr. Jack Holbrook University of Tartu, Estonia
Prof., Dr. Ryszard M. Janiuk Maria Curie Sklodowska University, Poland
Dr. Milan Kubiatko Jan Evangelista Purkyně University in Ústí nad Labem, Czech Republic
Dr. Todar Lakhvich Belarusian State Medical University, Republic of Belarus
Prof., Dr. Jari Lavonen University of Helsinki, Finland
Dr. Rita Makarskaitė-Petkevičienė Vilnius University, Lithuania
Prof., Dr. Paul Pace Malta University, Malta
Prof., Dr. Valfrids Paškevičs Daugavpils University, Latvia
Prof., Dr. Jongwon Park Chonnam National University, Korea
Prof., Dr. Raffaele Pisano University of Lille, France
Prof., Dr. Pavol Prokop Comenius University in Bratislava, Slovakia
Prof., Dr. Konstantinos Ravanis University of Patras, Greece
Dr. Alona Rauckienė-Michaelsson Klaipėda University, Lithuania
Dr. Dušica Rodić University of Novi Sad, Serbia
Prof., Dr. Heimo Saarikko Helsinki University, Finland
Prof., Dr. Hae-Ae Seo Pusan National University, Korea
Dr. Uladzimir K. Slabin Lane Community College, USA
Prof., Dr. Andrej Šorgo University of Maribor, Slovenia
Prof., Dr. Borislav V. Toshev Sofia University, Bulgaria
Prof., Dr. Georgios Tsaparlis University of Ioannina, Greece
Dr. Muhammet Usak Kazan Federal University, Republic of Tatarstan, Russian Federation
A scientific journal JBSE issued by the Scientia Socialis Ltd., in cooperation with SMC Scientia Educologica, Lithuania,
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contribution.
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ISSN 1648–3898 /Print/ CONTENTS
CONTENTS
Editorial
NATURAL SCIENCE EDUCATION IN PRIMARY SCHOOL: SOME SIGNIFICANT POINTS
Vincentas Lamanauskas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 908
Articles
EARLY CHILDHOOD PRE-SERVICE TEACHERS’ READINESS FOR USING DRAWING AS A
SCIENCE TEACHING STRATEGY
Ainara Achurra, Teresa Zamalloa, Araitz Uskola . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 911
TEACHING NATURAL SCIENCES: SIMPLIFYING SOME PHYSICS CONCEPTS AS ACTIVITIES AND
LABORATORY TOOLS FOR KINDERGARTEN CHILDREN
Nadia Ahmed A AL Jadidi, Dalia Abdelwahed Mohamed, Enas Mahmoud Elrefee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 928
ENHANCING THE LEARNING OF NEWTON’S SECOND LAW OF MOTION USING COMPUTER
SIMULATIONS
Khaleel AlArabi, Hassan Tairab, Yousef Wardat, Shashidhar Belbase, Suzan Alabidi . . . . . . . . . . . . . 946
DEVELOPING A SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT-ORIENTED PICTURE BOOK SELECTION
SYSTEM THROUGH EMPLOYING THE MODIFIED DELPHI METHOD
Shin-Cheng Yeh, Hsin-Ya Li . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 967
SCIENCE TEACHING SELF-EFFICACY BELIEFS OF PRE-SERVICE TEACHERS: CONTEXT OF
TECHNOLOGICAL PEDAGOGICAL CONTENT KNOWLEDGE AND VISUAL METAPHORS
Zeynep Yıldız . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 989
CONNECTION OF TERMS BETWEEN INQUIRY ACTIVITIES AND THE MAIN TEXT IN THE LIFE
SCIENCE UNIT OF LOWER SECONDARY SCHOOL TEXTBOOKS IN THE REPUBLIC OF KOREA
Youngshin Kim, Chaewon Oh, Mohadesse Eskandari, Soo-min Lim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1004
MEASURING CHINESE RURAL SCIENCE TEACHERS’ SELF-PERCEPTION TOWARDS TEACHING
COMPETENCIES: INSTRUMENT DEVELOPMENT
Mengmeng Li, Le Cai, Dimei Chen, Jianqiang Ye . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1026
NARRATIVES OF THREE NOVICE IN-SERVICE SCIENCE PRIMARY SCHOOL TEACHERS: THEIR
JOURNEY OF ACHIEVING TEACHER AGENCY AND TEACHER BELIEF
Sungman Lim, Soyoung Yun . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1040
EXPLORING EFFECT ON PRIMARY SCHOOL STUDENTS’ STEM ATTITUDE DETERMINED VIA
STRUCTURAL EQUATION MODELING
Si-Jia Liu, Shao-Na Zhou, Shao-Rui Xu, Hua Xiao . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1052
THE EFFECTS OF CROSS-DISCIPLINARY LIFE SCIENCE INNOVATION IMPLEMENTED BY
STUDENTS’ STIMULATED STRATEGIES FOR PBL-STEM SELF-EFFICACY
King-Dow Su . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1069
COMPONENTS OF GEOGRAPHICAL PRACTICE POWER COMPETENCY (GPPC) FOR PRIMARY
AND SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS: CONCEPTUALIZATION, CONTEXTS, AND CONTENT
Yanhua Xu, Zile Liu, Peiying Lin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1083
THE SCOPE OF SCIENCE PROCESS SKILLS AND THE 5E EDUCATIONAL MODEL IN SCIENCE
EDUCATION
Seraceddin Levent Zorluoğlu, Eylem Yalçınkaya Önder, Betül Timur, Serkan Timur, Elif Güvenç,
Ilgım Özergun, Muzaffer Özdemir . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1101
Information
INFORMATION FOR CONTRIBUTORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1119
907
This is an open access article under the Journal of Baltic Science Education, Vol. 21, No. 6, 2022
Creative Commons Attribution 4.0
International License ISSN 1648–3898 /Print/
NATURAL SCIENCE EDUCATION IN PRIMARY SCHOOL: SOME SIGNIFICANT

POINTS
Vincentas Lamanauskas
Vilnius University, Lithuania
The problems of natural science education remain extremely relevant. Over the last two decades, interna-
tional conferences and symposia dedicated to the study of issues of natural science education have been held in
many countries and at various levels. It was especially emphasized that the natural science literacy of society is
insufficient, and its relevance will only increase in the 21st century. Early natural science education promotes and
develops natural science literacy (Ferreira et al., 2015). In general, various changes have taken place and are taking
place in the field of natural science education: the content of education is changing, the search for more effective
forms and methods of teaching is taking place, etc., on the other hand, new quality society needs are emerging.
There is no doubt that the significance of natural science education for the development of a child’s personality
is extremely high.
One cannot disagree that although science education (SE) in primary school is implemented in an integrated
form, it must be of high quality. In other words, primary school students should be able to make simple observations
and experiments, formulate conclusions, use the simplest devices and instruments, etc. It is understandable that
students’ abilities are developed gradually and purposefully, that already from the first grade of primary school,
students receive basic knowledge of nature, develop certain abilities, and finally, naturalistic world conception
(naturalistic worldview) is formed (Lamanauskas & Augienė, 2021). Primary school students (aged 6/7-11/12)
acquire and accumulate knowledge about the constant variability of nature and the surrounding natural and
technological environment, about the change of materials under the influence of the most diverse factors. In
general, the student receives knowledge about the surrounding world, i.e., knows it. The most significant result
of such knowledge is – the formation of a position (the belief is developed) that the surrounding world can be
known, i.e., the world is knowable.
Science education includes various components – ecological, environmental, healthy lifestyle, sustainable
development, etc. Experimental-research activity is extremely important. Effective integration of all components
into the educational process in primary grades remains problematic (Lamanauskas & Augienė, 2018). Various
research studies emphasise that primary school teachers face various problems in teaching natural sciences at
primary level. General problem is quite clear – students are not interested in natural sciences, or such interest is
relatively low. According to the researchers, such problems, if not identified, can affect the quality of natural science
teaching in the higher stage of general education (Garraway-Lashley, 2019). Researchers from foreign countries
claim that little is still known about the position (opinion) of teachers regarding the goals of research activities, the
processes of organisation and implementation of research activities, finally, about teachers’ motivation to perform
more complex research activities (Keys & Bryan, 2001). It is obvious that increasing motivation, promoting teacher
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(pp.744-746)
cooperation, appropriate support remains an important factor in improving natural science education (Watters &
Ginns, 2000). On the other hand, it is important how primary school teachers can perceive new opportunities for
natural science learning, as well as adequately understand the potential of SE. According to the researchers, it is
necessary to explore how primary school teachers understand natural sciences and natural science teaching. In this
way, it would be possible to clearly identify, what aspects of natural sciences are important at primary school level,
and how they can turn into appropriate teaching/learning experiences (Fitzgerald & Smith, 2016). The problem
also remains, when primary school teachers are not adequately prepared in the field of natural science education.
Research shows that many primary school teachers avoid teaching natural sciences, lack science knowledge and
often they lack confidence in teaching science (Mellado et al., 1998; Smith & Neale, 1989).
The results of the pilot study conducted in Lithuania in 2020 showed that primary school teachers use suf-
ficiently diverse methods in natural science education of children. Most frequently is used students’ involvement
in practical work (activity), experiment demonstration, efforts are made to relate natural science content with the
everyday students’ life, to organise students’ group work. Class discussions are much less encouraged, and students
are allowed to conduct independent research (experiments). It is rarely sought to include technologies, to encour-
age (facilitate) research, to satisfy (take into account) individual differences of students (Lamanauskas, 2022). In
the process of primary natural science education, the research most often conducted with students is related to
healthy lifestyle, environmental protection, ecology. Less often students conduct research on vegetation (flora),
animal life (fauna), and physical phenomena. Very rarely students conduct research related to agriculture / farming,
the effects of chemicals on plants and animals. Especially rarely students research soil, minerals, and rocks. Teachers
say that natural science education in primary school could be improved having more recourses / equipment, etc.,
including more practical work (activity), trying to bring natural science content closer to students’ everyday life,
making lessons more student centred, having better access to technologies and their use, reducing the number
of students in classes. Some teachers indicate that it is important to devote more time to the selection, analysis of
natural science content, etc., lesson preparation, to have more opportunities for teacher’s professional development.
Thus, the importance of primary school teacher in the process of natural science and technological education
process remains indisputably important. In addition, natural science competence of primary school teachers is
one of the constituent parts of general professional competence (Lamanauskas, 2011). It is sought that teachers,
using various methods and ways, should be able to motivate students to be interested in animate and inanimate
nature, to apply already acquired knowledge and abilities in everyday life, to use information received in further
education. It is important that education is organised creatively, encouraging students to think systematically,
logically, and critically, and finally to develop cognitive abilities/capacities. It would be good to seek that students
know the surrounding world as much as possible through research-experiential activity. Unlike the other subjects
that can be learned by reading a textbook, natural science education must be practical (Hallez, 2008), research
activity (education and learning through research activity) is crucial in developing and sustaining curiosity (Smith,
2016). What is more, primary school teacher must be an effective implementer of science education, but not the
one, who can’t teach science! and/or hate science (Kazempour, 2013).
Both teachers and curriculum developers, primary school training institutions should understand that natural
science education at primary school level includes the transfer of empirical experience of understanding the world
to the younger generation. In the same way, it includes the formation of ideas about the natural science concept
of the world. Moreover, the understanding of the integrity and diversity of the world is formed. From the practical
activity point of view, the foundation is laid for the understanding of nature research continuity.
For primary school students, natural science education is an effective way to solve educational problems
relevant to them, choosing and expanding the circle of communication, choosing/forming life values and future
career guidelines. The value of such education is primarily expressed in the fact that it strengthens the variable
component of general education and helps children make decisions in personal and professional lives, helps realise
personal immanent powers and previously acquired knowledge, abilities, and experience. It is regrettable that
quite often in the current educational practice, natural science education is significantly distorted, following the
so-called “modern” forms and strategies, associated with pseudo-integration, inclusion, STEM without STEM, and
other fashionable, but temporary educational subjects. It doesn’t matter in what form natural science education is
implemented in primary school (e.g., in Lithuanian primary schools through “World cognition” subject), it is inevi-
tably/inseparably related to natural sciences. Natural science knowledge consists of correct understanding of facts
and a relationship between them, which in turn allows identifying certain models, as a basis for new knowledge
and technology creation. And this is an obvious methodological position.
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NATURAL SCIENCE EDUCATION IN PRIMARY SCHOOL: SOME SIGNIFICANT POINTS !
(pp. 744-746)
Thus, nature cognition (in a wider sense) is a complex, specific thing. A person needs to be prepared for this –
taught to explore, feel nature, communicate directly with it. Understanding the value of nature, experiencing the
value of nature and practical embodiment of the value of nature are essential manifestations of the relationship
between man and nature. This is one of the essential goals of science education in the new 21st century.
References
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teaching in teacher primary school training. Journal of Education and Practice, 6(8), 24-31. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1082747
Fitzgerald, A., & Smith, K. (2016). Science that matters: Exploring science learning and teaching in primary schools. Australian
Journal of Teacher Education, 41(4), 63–78. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1098113.pdf
Garraway-Lashley, Y. M. (2019). Teaching science at the primary school level: “Problems teachers’ are facing”. Asian Journal of
Education and E-Learning, 7(3), 81–94. https://doi.org/10.24203/ajeel.v7i3.5847
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Lamanauskas, V., & Augienė, D. (2021). Gamtamokslinis ugdymas pradinėje mokykloje: procesas ir jo gerinimas [Natural science
education in primary school: The process and its improvement]. Gamtamokslinis ugdymas bendrojo ugdymo mokykloje /
Natural Science Education in a Comprehensive School, 27, 24-35. https://doi.org/10.48127/gu/21.27.24
Mellado, V., Blanco, L. J., & Ruiz, C. (1998). A framework for learning to teach science in initial primary teacher education. Journal
of Science Teacher Education, 9, 195–219. https://www.jstor.org/stable/43156195
Smith, D. C., & Neale, D. C., (1989). The construction of subject matter knowledge in primary science teaching. Teaching and
Teacher Education, 5(1), 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1016/0742-051X(89)90015-2
Smith, K. (2016). Working scientifically: A guide for primary science teachers. David Fulton.
Watters J. J., & Ginns, I. S. (2000). Developing motivation to teach elementary science: Effect of collaborative and authentic learning
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Received: October 28, 2022 Revised: November 12, 2022 Accepted: November 15, 2022
Cite as: Lamanauskas, V. (2022). Natural science education in primary school: Some significant points. Journal of Baltic Science
Education, 21(6), 908-910. https://doi.org/10.33225/jbse/22.21.908
Vincentas Lamanauskas PhD, (HP), Professor, Chief Researcher, Vilnius University Šiauliai
Academy, Institute of Education, P. Visinskio Street 25-125, LT-76351
Siauliai, Lithuania.
E-mail: vincentas.lamanauskas@sa.vu.lt
Website: http://www.lamanauskas.puslapiai.lt/;
https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Vincentas_Lamanauskas
ORCID ID: http://orcid.org/0000-0002-4130-7899
910
This is an open access article under the
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EARLY CHILDHOOD PRE-

SERVICE TEACHERS’
READINESS FOR USING ISSN 1648-3898 /Print/
DRAWING AS A SCIENCE ISSN 2538-7138 /Online/
TEACHING STRATEGY
Abstract. The use of drawings for science

learning helps students to develop
Ainara Achurra, communication, modelling, and reasoning
skills. Teachers should be trained to use
Teresa Zamalloa,
them. This study addresses the readiness
Araitz Uskola (knowledge, confidence and awareness of
the importance and usefulness of drawings)
of 120 preservice teachers (PSTs) for using
teacher-made drawings as a strategy for
teaching science, after participating in
activities in which they used drawing as a
Introduction
way to represent scientific knowledge. The
knowledge of how to draw was analysed
Drawings can be a useful strategy for teaching and learning science,
by evaluating the presence of interrelated
but are teachers ready for using drawings in science teaching? The use of
components, mechanisms and phenomena
drawings for science learning brings multiple benefits for the students not
in drawings of the digestive system.
only in terms of visual skills (García Fernández & Ruiz-Gallardo, 2017), but
Open questions were used to examine
also in the development of communication, modelling, and reasoning skills
three aspects: confidence, awareness of
(Ainsworth et al., 2011). Few studies have focused on the teacher’s role in the
the importance and awareness of the
use of drawings in science teaching (Areljung et al., 2021a; Areljung et al.,
usefulness. Exploratory cluster analyses
2021b; Monteira et al., 2022), even though the teacher is the key factor for the
were also conducted. 69% scored low in
success or failure of putting any curricular innovation into practice (Mitchener
knowledge, more than 90% scored high in
& Anderson, 1989; Tobin et al., 1994). According to the literature, teachers
awareness of the importance and of the
should know how to draw scientific phenomena (Wilson & Bradbury, 2016);
usefulness. 28% showed high confidence.
and they should be aware of and value the importance of drawing in science
No PSTs with high knowledge and low
education (Areljung et al., 2021a). Moreover, given that the deployment of
confidence were found. All PSTs with high
strategies in class depends, to a large extent, on the degree of the teacher’s
knowledge showed high awareness of the
confidence (Garbett, 2003; Holroyd & Harlen, 1996), teachers will need to
importance. It is concluded that in order
develop not only the ability to draw pictures about scientific phenomena,
to prepare teachers for using drawings
but also their confidence in that ability, and, in that way, acquire the view
in science teaching, teacher education
that drawings are useful strategies for learning science. This study examined
programs should include the development
the readiness of a cohort of early childhood PSTs to use drawing for science
of drawing skills that could enhance
teaching, in terms of their knowledge, confidence and beliefs about its use.
their confidence and awareness of its
importance.
Use of Drawing to Learn Science: Teacher’s Role
Keywords: early childhood education,
drawing science, teachers’ readiness,
Making visualisations is integral to scientific thinking (Ainsworth et al.,
science education
2011). Drawing can develop one’s visualisation as it involves the integration
of nonverbal representational modes in terms of constructive learning pro-
cesses (Van Meter & Gardner, 2005).
Effective learning strategies help students to integrate new and existing Ainara Achurra, Teresa Zamalloa,
understanding, organise their ideas, construct new inferences and overcome Araitz Uskola
difficulties in presented material (Chi et al., 1989; Kombartzky et al., 2010). University of the Basque Country, Spain
Drawing can be an effective strategy in science education because it helps to
911
(pp. 911-927) ISSN 2538–7138 /Online/
understand the natural world (Dempsey & Betz, 2001), contributes to the reorganisation of ideas and the integra-
tion of new knowledge (Gómez & Gavidia, 2015) and has a great communicative potential. Besides, the majority of
science learning requires visual-spatial demands that cannot be provided by other constructive strategies such as
summarising or providing oral explanations (Ainsworth et al., 2011). Consequently, drawing is a common strategy
for modelling in the science class, where students represent their mental models as drawings, which are then evalu-
ated and revised (Schwarz et al., 2009). For example, drawing in anatomy (Borreli et al., 2018), histology (Balemans
et al., 2015) and biology (Edlund & Balgopal, 2021) has indeed been proven to improve students’ knowledge.
With respect to the teacher’s role, Monteira et al. (2022) have specifically analysed both the drawings produced
by a group of early childhood education students in Spain during three years and the type and intensity of the scaf-
folding given by the teacher. Researchers have found that the children included more details in their drawings and
used symbolic and iconic modes in an increasingly autonomous way; and that the teacher lowered the intensity in
some forms of scaffolding, although not in all of them. Wilson and Bradbury (2016) have compared drawings and
written explanations given by elementary students in the United States of America about structure and functions
in carnivorous plants and have observed that structural elements were better represented by the students in the
drawings, while functions were better represented in the explanations. They have also observed that the children
received scaffolding about how to explain the model, but not about how to draw; this has led them to suggest
that perhaps the children did not represent the actions because the teachers did not help them to internalise the
accepted conventions for representing those actions in drawings. Although the scaffolding offered by teachers has
been found to be key, it should be mentioned that, according to Eilam et al. (2014), teachers lack training in visual
representation. This may well be a problem for using drawing as a science teaching strategy.
Teachers’ Readiness to Use Drawings as a Science Teaching Strategy
Being ready for the teaching profession is known in the literature as “teaching readiness” (Manasia et al., 2020).
The term is used to indicate teachers’ competence in doing both the whole job or just certain aspect/s of the job
(Mohamed et al., 2016), and it is considered a significant predictor of change in practice (Lang, 1992). Today, specific
elements of teachers’ readiness are still under-study, with researchers being interested in measuring beliefs about
knowledge, confidence, importance, usefulness, attitudes, and interest, among others (Lang, 1992; Mohamed et
al., 2016; Nadelson & Nadelson, 2010; Paik et al., 2011; Park et al., 2017).
Beliefs about teaching make up an important part of teachers’ thought processes (Fang, 1996), and, con-
sequently, they influence teachers’ practice by guiding their behaviours and decisions in the classroom (Vartuli,
2005). Specifically, it has been shown that beliefs in the value of a certain teaching practice support and predict
the implementation of that practice in the class (Charlesworth et al., 1991; Nathan et al., 2010; Pajares, 1992; Parker
& Neuharth-Pritchett, 2006; Stipek & Byler, 1997), and ultimately affect his/her students’ learning (Fang, 1996).
In respect to the drawing strategy, several studies have analysed the use of drawings related to teachers’ beliefs
and practice. Areljung et al. (2021a) have examined 45 science class sessions of 11 early childhood and primary
school teachers in Sweden, focusing on the 15 sessions in which the children drew pictures. These researchers have
found that the teachers’ beliefs about the role of drawing in science learning seems to be a key factor in enabling
children to benefit from the pedagogical potential of drawing for learning science. Indeed, the few teachers who,
in the interviews, related drawing to science teaching and learning, were the ones who made explicit use of draw-
ing for science learning in the classroom. In another paper from the same project (Areljung et al., 2021b), it has
been highlighted the importance of the drawings produced by teachers. The researchers have found that when a
teacher draws a schematic drawing on the blackboard about a plant growth experiment to be conducted, all the
children draw it in the same way. It has been interpreted that the teacher conveys the conventions of how to draw
in teaching science and helps the children to foreground the scientific content.
Confidence can be defined as “the strength of one’s beliefs in one’s capabilities” (O’Neill & Stephenson, 2012).
It has been shown that teachers’ confidence influences their practice. For example, when confidence to teach sci-
ence concepts is low, teachers offer limited and unbalanced opportunities to students for learning science and
technology (Holroyd & Harlen, 1996) and do not fully engage students in science (Symington, 1980).
As far as we know, teachers’ confidence in drawing has not been addressed in science teaching specifically.
However, several studies in other disciplines such as art have shown that teachers lack both drawing skills and con-
fidence in drawing, which may detract from their effectiveness as teachers and from their students’ achievements.
For instance, when the experience and readiness of the primary school teachers to teach the national curriculum
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in art has been assessed in England and Wales, very few have expressed that they felt confident in teaching; most
of them referred to the importance of developing greater knowledge, skills, and confidence in teaching art (Clem-
ent, 1994). Actually, teachers acknowledge limiting themselves to only encouraging children to draw, rather than
evaluating their drawings, because they do not feel able either to do such assessment (Rose et al., 2006) or to teach
specific drawing skills (Richards, 2003). This could be due to the limitations of their own drawing ability, which has
been described as the most frequently cited obstacle for teachers when it comes to helping children draw (Burkitt
et al., 2010). In fact, in Great Britain, the Office for Standards in Education, Children’s Services and Skills (Ofsted,
2009) has made a report that points out that the teacher’s own artistic competence is an important success factor,
and that teachers who use their own materials teach more effectively. However, many primary school teachers
lack confidence in drawing, which influences their effectiveness as teachers as well as their students’ achievements
(Ofsted, 2009). Concerning the digestive system (DS), a previous study has shown that teachers’ drawings of the DS
(when asked to draw what they thought was inside the human body) were similar to those made by school and
university students (Patrick & Tunnicliffe, 2010). These researchers have pointed out that it is necessary to check
the level of the teachers´ content knowledge; however, it is also possible that the low level of their drawings could
be attributed to a lack of drawing tools and strategies.
Research Aim and Research Questions
Reviewed literature shows a lack of studies that explore teachers’ readiness for using drawing as a science
teaching strategy in early childhood education. This study therefore aimed to address this issue with a sample of
preservice teachers (PSTs), paying particular attention to various chosen elements: knowledge, self-perceived con-
fidence and awareness about the importance and usefulness of drawing. Moreover, this study examined whether
the study population is homogeneous or heterogeneous according to their responses. The research question
was the following: To what extent are the PSTs ready to use drawing as a strategy for teaching science in the early
childhood classroom according to certain dimensions (knowledge, confidence, and awareness of the importance
and of the usefulness of drawing)? This research question was addressed by exploring each of the dimensions
individually, for the one hand, and in combination, for the other.
Research Methodology
General Background
This qualitative study explored and described the readiness to use drawings as a science teaching strategy for
PSTs at the Faculty of Education of Bilbao (Spain) after participating in activities in which PSTs used drawing as a way
to represent scientific knowledge –in this case, the DS- in 2019. In qualitative inquiry, the purpose is not to generalize
to a population, but to make an in-depth exploration of the phenomenon addressed in the study (Creswell, 2012).
Readiness was analysed according to four dimensions: knowledge, confidence, awareness of the importance
of drawing and awareness of the usefulness of drawing. These were selected following the literature review in the
section Teachers’ Readiness to Use Drawings as a Science Teaching Strategy. Knowledge data were gathered from
drawings, and beliefs (confidence and awareness of importance and usefulness) from open-ended responses to a
questionnaire. Levels for each dimension were established and qualitative data were quantitatively coded. Descrip-
tive statistics and cluster analysis were undertaken to better understand the results.
Participants
To explore the phenomenon of teachers’ readiness using drawings as a science teaching strategy in early child-
hood education, purposeful sampling was undertaken. That is, researchers intentionally selected the participants
that could help them to understand the phenomenon (Creswell, 2012). For selecting participants, convenience
(participants willing and available to be studied) was also taken into account. Thus, the participants consisted of
120 PSTs (in four classes) studying a Degree in Childhood Education (third year), taught by two of the research-
ers (each in two classes) at the Faculty of Education of Bilbao (Spain). All participants gave informed consent to
participate in the research. It was clearly stated that participation was voluntary and anonymous. PSTs in the data
collection process were coded as “PST1, PST2, ... , PST120”.
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Teaching Sequence
The sequence was structured in several stages as described before by the researchers (Uskola et al., 2022).
First, participants were asked to write and draw on an image of a human body silhouette of about 15 cm tall, the
elements and processes involved in the case of milk intolerance. PSTs then searched for information in groups (3–5
people) and, guided by the teacher, reviewed and reconstructed their original model. The groups then represented
their consensus model in a three-dimensional and dynamic physical model, which was then presented to the rest
of the groups. After that, the groups made drawings of the DS. Next, participants reflected on the importance and
usefulness of the drawings for the representation of mental models through the reading of two scientific articles
given by the teacher. The most common errors when drawing the DS were also discussed. Finally, each PST was
asked to write and draw again the elements and processes involved in the case of milk intolerance.
Data Collection and Analysis
In order to address participants’ knowledge, the final individual drawings were analysed. To assess the
ability to draw the different dimensions related to the functioning of the DS from a systemic perspective, the CMP
(Components-Mechanisms-Phenomena) framework and the levels of systems thinking proposed by Hmelo-Silver
et al. (2017) was adapted. For this purpose, an analysis of the drawings was first carried out, evaluating each draw-
ing for each of the established dimensions. 0-3 levels for Components (C) were adapted from Reiss and Tunnicliffe
(2001), based on the number of organs drawn and whether the drawings represented the system. Thus, level 0
corresponded to drawings that did not illustrate any internal organs, whereas drawings illustrating 1-3, or more
than 3 internal organs corresponded to levels 1 and 2 respectively. As with Reiss and Tunnicliffe (2001), the idea of
system (level 3) was considered to be present only if there was an uninterrupted connection between the mouth
and the anus, and if there were more than three organs represented. Mechanisms (M) were scored according to
the number of digestive processes (Snapir et al., 2017) in the context to which they referred (e.g., digestion of
food, absorption of nutrients, and fermentation in the large intestine). Drawings were scored on the Phenomena
(P) dimension based on the presence of the outcomes of the mechanisms (Snapir et al., 2017), i.e., the regulatory,
plastic, energetic functions performed by the absorbed nutrients, as well as the symptoms in the case of intoler-
ance.
A second step was to assign to each drawing a level (Table 1) in a category that reflected the representation
of the system as a whole, for which the proposal by Hmelo-Silver et al. (2017) was adapted through the constant
comparative method (Lincoln & Guba, 1985) with the data. Thus, for evaluating knowledge, these levels were set:
level 0 corresponded to blank or erroneous answers. Level 1 indicated that Components were identified in the
drawing but not interconnected. Level 2 was set for PSTs with level 3 in Components, but who had not related them
to Mechanisms or Phenomena. Level 3 and 4 corresponded to establishing relationships between Components
and Mechanisms, level 4 being for those who drew the organ system. Level 5 matched the highest level of Hmelo-
Silver et al. (2017) and included the drawings that represented all the interrelated dimensions of systems thinking.
Table 1
Levels Established for the Analysis of the DS in the Drawings Made by the PSTs From a Systemic Perspective
Level CMP relation Explanation
5 C:M:P Draws interrelated organs in relation to mechanisms and phenomena

4 (C:C):M Draws interrelated organs in relation to mechanisms
3 C:M Draws organs in relation to mechanisms
2 C:C Draws the organs in an organ-system
1 C Draws organs without connecting to other organs or mechanism
0 No answer or erroneous answer
Note: Adapted from Hmelo-Silver et al. (2017).
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The following example (PST71) (Figure 1) shows a drawing in level 4, with a system of interconnected organs
and the representation of two processes: the “non-digestion” of lactose in the case of intolerance (represented
as a molecule with two parts connected and a label describing it) and the fermentation (represented as a colour
change in the molecule that appears surrounded by bacteria).
Figure 1
Example of Drawing in Level 4 (PST71)
Regarding the teachers´ beliefs, their written responses to a questionnaire (Table 2) were taken into account.
The PSTs were asked about their beliefs (confidence, importance, and usefulness) for using drawings as a science
teaching strategy.
Table 2
Questionnaire Filled by the Students in the Beginning and at the End of the Sequence
Element Question
Confidence In your opinion, what is your ability to draw scientific content? Explain what you are capable of, what you are not
capable of and what your needs are.
Importance In your opinion, what is the importance of being able to draw for teaching natural sciences in early childhood
education? Justify your answer explaining what an early childhood education teacher should be able to draw in
relation to scientific content.
Usefulness In your experience, did you find drawings useful for learning?
Note: The question about usefulness was only answered once (at the initial questionnaire).
Three levels (0-2) were established based on how categorical PSTs were in their answers. Thus, level 2 in con-
fidence, importance and usefulness corresponded to PSTs that were sure of being confident in drawing science
content, or PSTs that said that it is important for teachers to be able to draw, or PSTs that stated that drawing is
useful for science learning, respectively. Level 0 for the three constructs was for PSTs that answered “no” categori-
cally. Level 1 was given to intermediate answers (in the case of confidence, level 1 was given when PSTs set condi-
tions to achieve it).
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Most of the answers were the same at the beginning and at the end of the sequence, but when the answer
was not exactly the same, the responses were individually examined by the researchers. For example, after partici-
pating in the sequence, some PSTs changed their perception of their own confidence because they had become
aware of their difficulties; in regard to the importance, some PSTs gave more importance to the strategy. In those
cases, the final answer was taken into account. For example:
PST3. Before: ‘I think I am capable of drawing scientific content. For example, I am able to draw various parts of
the human body as well as other living beings and elements of nature’ (level 2). After: ‘I have difficulty drawing
scientific concepts, especially when I do not properly identify the elements necessary for the explanation’ (level 1).
In the cases of PSTs that justified or explained one answer better than the other, the better explained answer
was chosen. For example:
PST37. Before: ‘In my opinion, I am able to draw animals, plants, trees or the solar system, that is, I think I am able
to draw scientific content. However, I think that in early childhood education more importance should be given
to drawing, in order to better develop this competence’ (level 2). After: ‘I think I draw animals and plants better
than the body’ (level 1).
In this case, researchers considered the confidence assessment to be level 2.
Descriptive Statistics and Cluster Analysis
Measures of central tendency (mean, median and mode), variability (standard deviation, minimum and maxi-
mum) and frequency distribution were calculated for the four variables: knowledge, confidence and awareness of
the importance and usefulness of drawing.
Cluster analysis was conducted to find groups of similar students based on their knowledge, confidence, aware-
ness of importance and awareness of usefulness. Before computing the results, several analyses were performed.
First, outliers were detected, which led to the exclusion of one student. Then, association between variables was
determined by means of the Spearman correlation analysis; no correlation was found, indicating that selected
variables may well reflect different underlying constructs. Then, the clustering variables were reduced from four to
three (knowledge, confidence, and awareness of importance), as all students scored 2 in awareness of usefulness.
Finally, all scores were transformed into standardised z-scores to ensure that different scales in variables did not
influence the K-means cluster results.
The K-means clustering method was used because of its simplicity and efficiency in application (Han & Kamber,
2006). The clustering algorithm was performed iteratively from 2 to a maximum number of 8 clusters. The optimal
number of clusters was selected in accordance with the number of iterations needed until convergence, final cluster
centre values and high and significant F values. That led to the conclusion that 3 clusters were the optimal solution.
After the cluster analysis, separate Kruskal Wallis tests were conducted to identify differences across the three
clusters (non-parametric analyses were selected due to the small size of the samples in one of the clusters). All
analyses were performed in SPSS 27.
Research Results
PSTs’ Readiness for Using Drawings as a Science Teaching Strategy
In order to provide basic information about the variables in the dataset, Table 3 presents measurements of
central tendency (mean and median), variability (standard deviation, minimum and maximum) and frequency
distribution.
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Table 3
Results From Descriptive Statistics (Mean, Median, Standard Deviation, Minimum and Maximum and Frequency Distribution)
for Knowledge, Confidence, Importance and Usefulness
Knowledge Confidence Importance Usefulness
Values 0,1,2,3,4,5 0,1,2 0,1,2 0,1,2

N 120 120 120 120
M 1.50 1.08 1.92 1.98
Mdn 1.00 1.00 2.00 2.00
SD 0.95 0.69 0.33 0.18
min 0 0 0 0
max 5 2 2 2
f
0 3 24 2 1
1 80 63 6 0
2 21 33 112 119
3 6
4 10
5 0
Figure 2
Frequency of PSTs’ Drawings in Each Level of Knowledge
As can be seen in Table 3 and Figure 2, the majority of PSTs (67%) were at knowledge level 1, i.e., they drew
only components, and these were not interrelated as a system. Only 13% reached levels 3 and 4, i.e., they drew, in
addition to components, how components participate in the mechanisms of the system. Since the fact of situat-
ing the interrelated components as a system defines levels 2 and 4 (compared to levels 1 and 3), it is noteworthy
that while there were more PSTs in level 1 than in level 2, there were more in level 4 than in level 3; this indicates
a certain relationship between representing the system interrelated and representing its mechanisms. Indeed,
among those PSTs that drew unrelated components, only 7% represented mechanisms; and among those PSTs
that drew the organ system, 32% did represent mechanisms.
In regard to confidence, 27.5% of the PSTs were fully confident in drawing scientific content; more than half
of the PSTs (52.5%) were confident in drawing but specifically indicated that this was only true as long as they
were simple contents that had been previously studied; 20% of the PSTs indicated that they were not confident
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in drawing scientific contents (levels 2, 1 and 0 in confidence, respectively). Figure 3a shows the dispersion plot
for knowledge and confidence. It is interesting to note that PSTs that reached levels 3 and 4 in knowledge, always
reached at least level 1 in confidence, indicating that, although no correlation was obtained, higher levels of
knowledge may be associated with a certain degree of confidence. In the same way, no PST at level 0 of knowledge
reached level 2 of confidence.
Concerning the importance of drawing in the early childhood education classroom, the majority of the PSTs
had no doubts that drawing is important, and very few thought that it was only important in certain cases or that
it was not important at all (93.3%, level 2; 5%, level 1; 1.7%, level 0). However, as can be seen in Figure 3b, in the few
cases in which importance was level 0 or 1, the level of knowledge was never high. Finally, when PSTs were asked
whether they found drawings useful for learning, 99% stated that they did. The sample was therefore heterogeneous
in terms of knowledge and confidence, and homogeneous in terms of awareness of importance and usefulness.
Figure 3
Dispersion Plot for (a) Knowledge and Confidence of PSTs; and (b) Knowledge and Awareness of Importance of PSTs
Description of Clusters According to PSTs’ Readiness for Using Drawings as a Science Teaching Strategy
PSTs were classified into three clusters. Table 4 shows the results from the descriptive statistics of the clusters,
Figure 4 shows a 3D representation of the clusters and Figure 5 shows the distance for each PST from its cluster
centroid derived from the cluster analysis. Below, descriptions of the clusters are given with reference to the input
variables: knowledge, confidence and awareness of importance and usefulness.
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Table 4
Results from Descriptive Statistics of the Three Clusters
Cluster 1 Cluster 2 Cluster 3

Variable
N= 34 N= 8 N= 77
M z SD R M z SD R M z SD R
Knowledge 2.76 1.32 0.89 2-4 1.13 -0.40 0.35 1-2 0.99 -0.54 0.26 0-2
Confidence 1.29 0.31 0.46 1-2 0.88 -0.31 0.84 0-2 1.01 -0.10 0.73 0-2
Importance 2 0.25 0 2-2 0.75 -3.49 0.46 0-1 2 0.25 0 2-2
Usefulness 2 0 2 0 2 0
Note: Standardised z scores (M = 0; SD = 1) are also given.
Figure 4
3D Representation of the Three Clusters (Mean Values) According to the PSTs’ Knowledge, Confidence and Awareness of
Importance
Note: Awareness of usefulness was not included as all participants scored the maximum value. Volume of the bubbles represents
the relative size of the clusters. A video showing the figure from all sides is available in
https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.20338698
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Figure 5
Boxplot of Distances for PSTs from their Cluster Centroids
Note: Horizontal line = median, box = 25th and 75th quartiles, whiskers = the highest and lowest values, excluding outliers.
Outliers were absent and thus, they were not represented.
Cluster1: The Most Ready PSTs for Drawing
Cluster 1 (N = 34) is characterised by moderate-to-high drawing knowledge and confidence, and high aware-
ness of importance and usefulness (Table 4, Figure 4). The PSTs with the highest scores in knowledge are included
in this cluster. All PSTs scored the maximum value (2) in awareness of importance and usefulness. This is the most
homogeneous cluster, as shown by the distances of the PSTs from the cluster’s centroid (Figure 5). The following
table (Table 5) shows examples of PSTs from cluster 1.
Table 5
Representative Examples of PSTs Profiles From Cluster 1
PST Knowledge Confidence Importance Usefulness
I think I am good at drawing Drawing is very important Yes, drawings have

although I have to improve to teach natural sciences been useful, espe-
certain aspects such as […]. cially to understand
knowing what I want to draw. certain processes
I see myself able of drawing […].
although I lack content.
PST114
Level 4 Level 2 Level 2 Level 2
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I see myself able to draw In my opinion, knowing Yes, I find drawing
simple shapes. […] I am aware how to draw moderately useful […].
that I am more able of drawing well is of great importance
scientific […]. in early childhood educa-
tion to explain science,
since it facilitates explana-
PST109 tions. […].
Cluster 2: Being Able to Draw is Not Important
Cluster 2 is a small (N = 8) and more heterogeneous group (Figure 5), including all the PSTs that scored 0
and 1 in awareness of importance, where the internet was cited by some PSTs as a source of drawings to be used
to teach science (Table 4, Figure 4). The variability comes mostly from confidence, as these PSTs scored from 0 to
2 (the whole range). Regarding knowledge, the score was low, but this cluster did not include the PSTs with the
lowest knowledge. Awareness of usefulness was scored 2 by all PSTs.
Answers such as ‘drawing is important to teach natural sciences, but nowadays, as there are lots of photos on
the internet, they fulfil the same function’ (PST43) or ‘drawing is not important to teach natural sciences because,
in the end, different methods can be used’ (PST49) are what define the PSTs from these clusters.
Cluster 3: Lacking Knowledge of How to Draw but With Positive Beliefs
Cluster 3 is the biggest in terms of the number of individuals (N = 77), which may explain its heterogeneity
(Figure 5). PSTs in this cluster have low values in knowledge. Note that it includes the PSTs with the lowest knowl-
edge (0 value). As in cluster 2, confidence values (R = 0-2) show high variability. However, as in cluster 1, PSTs scored
the maximum value (2) in awareness of importance and usefulness (Table 4, Figure 4). The following table (Table
6) shows examples of PSTs from cluster 3.
Table 6
Representative Examples of PSTs Profiles from Cluster 3
I am very bad at Knowing how to draw is Yes, drawings have been useful
drawing pictures, important to respond to to understand better the basic
and I am not able children’s questions and concepts […].
to do practically needs […].
anything.
PST78
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I have small capac- It is very important Yes, studying the theory through
ity. I am not very because seeing things drawings is easier for me […].
skilled at drawing, visually makes it easier
but if I have a to internalize them.
model, I am able to
copy it.
PST48
At the moment, I I think that knowing how It is very useful. Many times, we
don’t like drawing, to draw or at least know- have our mental models, but
and I think I draw ing how to draw what is they are not realistic and through
badly […] going to be explained is drawings and physical models, we
important […] improve those mental models.
PST51
To validate the clusters, differences between them were examined by means of the Kruskal Wallis test. Signifi-
cant differences were found in knowledge (H(2) = 99.590, p < .001) and awareness of importance (H(2) = 117.893, p
< .001). Pairwise comparisons after Bonferroni correction showed significant differences between clusters 1 and 2
(knowledge, p < .001; importance, p < .001); between clusters 1 and 3 (knowledge, p < .001); and between clusters
2 and 3 (importance, p < .001).
Discussion
This study aimed to address the readiness of a group of PSTs for using drawing as a science teaching strategy
in their future professional life, with a focus on their knowledge, confidence and awareness of usefulness and
importance of the strategy.
One of the contributions of this work is the way knowledge was assessed. Previous studies on teachers’ readi-
ness have usually evaluated knowledge as a self-perceived factor in a broader sample of beliefs (e.g., Park et al.,
2017). However, knowledge data in this work were not obtained from PSTs’ self-perception but through the analysis
of their drawings (following criteria described in the literature). Methodologically, the fact of analysing drawings
instead of self perceptions of knowledge improves the validity of the research methods. Furthermore, regarding
the DS, it is well known that several misconceptions are persistent (Reiss et al., 2002). In fact, the drawings from
the PST population in this study still presented misconceptions (e.g., a non-continuous tube). Consequently, it
was assumed that self-perceived knowledge would be overrated. In that sense, our methodological approach is a
proposal for teachers and researchers to avoid under- and overrated self-perceptions when measuring knowledge
as one of the dimensions of readiness, specially in the case of topics for which persistent misconceptions have
been described in the literature.
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PSTs’ Readiness for Using Drawings as a Science Teaching Strategy
The results show that PSTs´ drawing knowledge was indeed quite low, and that most PSTs limited them-
selves to drawing a few loose organs and only a few PSTs drew mechanisms. These results are consistent with
previous studies (Oren & Ormanci, 2014; Prokop & Fanèovièováp, 2006) where preservice students showed
problems when drawing functions and connections between DS organs. This fact could be attributed to the
low knowledge about the DS on the one hand, and to low drawing skills on the other. In fact, looking at the
written explanations offered by these PSTs, they denoted a lack of knowledge about the mechanisms and the
processes that the organs perform (Uskola et al., 2022), which points to the hypothesis of low knowledge on
the DS. However, the PSTs scored higher in the written explanations than in the drawings (Uskola et al., 2022),
which is in accordance with the low drawing skills hypothesis. Similarly, Havu-Nuutinen and Keinonen (2010)
have found that Finnish students from primary school demonstrated higher knowledge about human anatomy
in interviews than in drawings; thus, it was concluded that they did not draw all they knew.
With respect to the other dimensions, all PSTs were aware of the usefulness of drawing as a teaching strategy
and almost all of them were aware of its importance. These overall positive beliefs could have a beneficial effect
on teachers’ practice (Areljung et al., 2021a; Vartuli, 2005). Regarding confidence, in contrast, only one quarter
of the PSTs showed a high level of confidence. According to Ofsted (2009), this can have a negative impact on
their effectiveness when using the strategy in their future teaching practice.
PSTs with the highest knowledge on drawing science content and low confidence were not found in our
sample. That is, all the PSTs with the highest knowledge score were moderate to highly confident in their science
drawing skills. That may well point to an association between knowledge and confidence in the sense that a high
level of knowledge brings confidence. One may think that if the PST is able to draw science content for teaching,
then the PST will have the confidence to do so. Moreover, PSTs with the lowest knowledge and high confidence
were not found in our sample. In this sense, it has previously been suggested that weakness in science content
can negatively affect the confidence of the teacher, causing him or her to avoid teaching science or to teach it
strictly from the textbook (Grossman et al., 1989). The same occurs in the opposite case, when asked to describe
their knowledge levels about the DS, and to state their perceptions of the adequacy of their knowledge levels
and of their ability to teach the subject, PSTs who defined themselves as successful scored better values than
those who defined themselves as unsuccessful (Ormancı & Ören, 2011). Therefore, to improve the readiness
of these PSTs to draw in science teaching, reinforcing their knowledge could influence and also improve their
confidence, making them more ready PSTs.
On the other hand, in the present study some PSTs with low knowledge have intermediate or high confi-
dence. This profile of “not being able to” but being confident has emerged previously in the literature in teaching
science, where teachers who show high confidence present low-level conceptual understanding in the subject
itself (Holroyd & Harlen, 1996; Stevens & Wenner, 1996; Tekkaya et al., 2004); thus, they are optimistic and believe
they will be good science teachers in the future even though they misunderstand certain concepts of science.
However, it has also been described that there are teachers whose confidence is somewhat misplaced, that is,
their confidence is low although their understanding of science is good (Holroyd & Harlen, 1996). This is not the
case, because, as described before, there were no PSTs with high knowledge and low confidence.
Finally, related to the importance of the ability to do drawings to use in teaching, it is interesting to note
that there were no PSTs with high knowledge that gave little importance to drawing skills. That is, all of them
were aware of the importance of drawing.
PSTs´ Clusters and Educational Implications
The results revealed that the PSTs fell into three clusters. This heterogeneity in PSTs’ knowledge and beliefs
indicates that it would be misleading to define a general pattern for readiness.
The clusters found in the sample are specific to this case study. However, the conclusions and reflections
on their educational implications may be of interest to the educational community. Thus, Cluster 1 represents
a group of the trainee teachers who are quite well prepared, having scored high on the dimensions analysed.
However, there is still room for improvement in the drawing knowledge of this cluster, as well as in the confi-
dence of some of them. This cluster could respond well to the strategy of increasing their drawing knowledge
and, as a consequence, also increase their confidence to draw. In terms of improving their knowledge of the
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DS, participating in modelling activities using different modes of representation has been found to be effective
(Uskola et al., 2022). To improve their drawing skills, specifically with regard to drawing mechanisms, PSTs should
be scaffolded so that they internalise the accepted conventions and symbolic tools for representing actions
in drawings, such as arrows (Prain & Tytler, 2012; Wilson & Bradbury, 2016). The same could be applied to part
of the numerous and heterogeneous Cluster 3, specifically to those with low knowledge and low confidence.
Nevertheless, with those PSTs in Cluster 3 who have low drawing knowledge and high confidence, the aim
and approach should be different. In this case, in addition to the need to improve their knowledge, they need
to be made aware of their limitations in drawing. This could be addressed by making them auto-evaluate and
co-evaluate their drawings. Cluster 2 represents a minority of PSTs that are not aware of the importance of the
ability for doing their own drawings for teaching purposes. They think that images are available in textbooks,
on the internet… and they are not aware of the different educational role that an image can play in the science
classroom. For example, many images and physical models representing the DS show it just from an external
view, and, although these images can be realistic, they do not allow the learner to see the system as a tube, in
the way that self-made drawings or physical models can (Uskola et al., 2022). Although this cluster was a minor-
ity, the importance of purposefully doing their own drawings in science teaching should be addressed in the
training of future teachers, as the importance they give to the strategy could determine their use in science
classes (Areljung et al., 2021b).
Limitations of the Study
The sample was limited to a concrete number of participants in a specific context. Regarding the items
analysed, confidence and awareness of the importance and usefulness were measured as believes; and what
participants believe may align or not with the actual practice. One should also notice that there could be a ceil-
ing effect when it comes to measure the awareness of the usefulness of the strategy, as all participants scored
the maximum value.
Conclusions and Implications
This study explored the readiness of 120 PSTs for using drawing as a strategy in science teaching, aiming to
fill the research gap on teacher readiness for this specific strategy. Four items were considered: PSTs’ knowledge,
confidence, awareness of the importance and awareness of the usefulness. 69% of PSTs scored low in knowledge,
drawing no organs or only separate ones. The scores in awareness of the importance and usefulness of drawing
were high for 93% and 99% of the PSTs, respectively. Only 28% of the PSTs showed high confidence in drawing sci-
entific issues. No PSTs with high knowledge and low confidence were found. All PSTs with high knowledge showed
high awareness of the importance of drawing. Three clusters emerged: PSTs in Cluster 1 (N = 34) had the highest
scores in the evaluated items (they are the most prepared ones in the sample); eight students were in Cluster 2,
who thought that drawing is not important and that they could use images from other sources; the majority of
students were in Cluster 3 (N = 77) and scored low in knowledge but high in beliefs.
As far as we know, this is the first study exploring the readiness for using drawing as a science teaching
strategy in PSTs. Results indicate that PSTs need to improve their readiness, specifically in terms of representing
their knowledge through drawing (where the main difficulty is related to drawing processes and phenomena).
Results also point to the fact that improving knowledge in drawing may enhance both confidence and awareness
of drawing importance and therefore, readiness. Nevertheless, more studies are needed to better understand the
underlying factors in readiness.
It is relevant for everyone involved in teaching science to know to what extent pre- and in-service teachers
are ready for using drawing as a teaching strategy in science. In this sense, it is important to identify the main dif-
ficulties that teachers present. Consequently, in order to prepare teachers for using drawings in science teaching,
teacher education programs should develop the drawing knowledge of the pre- and in-service teachers. Given
that difficulties are usually related to drawing functions, processes, relationships or phenomena, the focus should
be placed on developing the capacity to use science-specific symbolic tools to represent actions.
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Acknowledgements
The authors acknowledge financial support from the University of the Basque Country UPV/EHU (GIU21/31).
Declaration of Interest
The authors declare no competing interest.
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Cite as: Achurra, A., Zamalloa, T., & Uskola, A. (2022). Early childhood pre-service teachers’ readiness for using drawing as a
science teaching strategy. Journal of Baltic Science Education, 21(6), 911-927. https://doi.org/10.33225/jbse/22.21.911
Ainara Achurra PhD, Professor, Faculty of Education and Sports, University of the
(Corresponding author) Basque Country UPV/EHU, Vitoria-Gasteiz, Spain.
E-mail: ainara.achurra@ehu.eus
ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8055-6057
Teresa Zamalloa PhD, Professor, Faculty of Education of Bilbao, University of the
Basque Country UPV/EHU, Leioa, Spain.
E-mail: teresa.zamalloa@ehu.eus
ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8050-496X
Araitz Uskola PhD, Professor, Faculty of Education of Bilbao, University of the
Basque Country UPV/EHU, Leioa, Spain.
E-mail: araitz.uskola@ehu.eus
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SIMPLIFYING SOME PHYSICS
CONCEPTS AS ACTIVITIES
ISSN 2538-7138 /Online/
AND LABORATORY TOOLS FOR
KINDERGARTEN CHILDREN
Abstract. There is a severe shortcoming Nadia Ahmed A AL Jadidi,

in science programs in kindergartens Dalia Abdelwahed Mohamed,
in Saudi Arabia. Therefore, this paper
Enas Mahmoud Elrefee
presents a conceptual framework for
teaching physics concepts to kindergartens
to contribute to the consolidation of
scientific knowledge by stimulating the
skills of inquiry, problem-solving and
Introduction
scientific thinking among children. The
research aimed to study the effect of
Science is an extension of children’s everyday world. Science has always
a program based on simplifying some
been an interesting world for them if presented in the right way. Therefore,
physics concepts on kindergarten children’s
it is very important to present scientific concepts following the abilities of
knowledge. Data were collected through
children and in an attractive manner, which encourages scientific thinking
semi-structured interviews, observation,
and nurtures the habits of the scientific mind at an early age. This makes
video recordings of simple lab instruments
them realize how things work around them. Simplifying physics concepts
for physics concepts, and children’s in-app
such as shadow, blowing, rolling, magnetism, electricity, pulleys, etc., and
interactions and children’s photographs.
transforming them into simple laboratory experiments will give children
The sample consisted of (8) children of the
knowledge and experience. These experiences and knowledge contribute
age groups (5: 6 years) at the third level in
to the development of scientific thinking and make science an unforgettable
kindergarten. The results indicated that
educational experience that can inspire and motivate children and make
children can be taught some scientific
learning more exciting and fun.
thinking skills. Children who practiced
When it comes to science education, early childhood educators have
the planned activities developed their
a tremendous influence in shaping children’s ideas and opinions. Research
knowledge more orderly. Accordingly, it is
indicated that by the age of seven, most children have a positive or nega-
concluded that the program can indicate
tive attitude toward science education that remains well established (Shah
the success of introducing natural sciences
et al., 2013). Hence, their natural inclinations can be of an advantage early
to the kindergarten stage. The current
on. During this key developmental stage, a positive approach to science
research recommends studies that show
can be nurtured and created to stay with them in the future. In turn, this
the quality and specifications of programs
places an enormous amount of responsibility on early childhood profes-
that suit the child’s characteristics at this
sionals, especially with the global focus on early STEM education (Eshach,
stage and the nature of education.
2011; Simoncini & Lasen, 2018). In the current era, science education is not
Keywords: Natural sciences, teaching an option for an early childhood teacher. Rather, it is inevitable. The teacher
physics concepts, laboratory tools, the has the opportunity to create exciting experiences that will lastingly affect
focus group method, kindergarten children throughout their entire educational experience.
To introduce knowledge on physics phenomena to young children, early
years learning environments must be supportive of discovery and foster sci-
Nadia Ahmed A AL Jadidi,
Dalia Abdelwahed Mohamed, entific thinking skills. The current research attempts to present a proposal for
Enas Mahmoud Elrefee simple activities on physics concepts that contribute to building foundations
King Faisal University, Saudi Arabia for scientific thinking and support the development of children’s skills. It has
been observed that science activities in educational curricula are very weak.
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AND LABORATORY TOOLS FOR KINDERGARTEN CHILDREN
ISSN 2538–7138 /Online/ (pp. 928-945)
Also, the Discovery Corner (science) is just a small table, on which some tools are not employed in real science activi-
ties for young people. The time a child spends in this corner is wasted time. With a deep analysis of the educational
units in the self-learning curriculum for kindergartens in the Ministry of Education (2016) to find out the percent-
age of science activities offered to children and the extent of their balance and comprehensiveness of the fields of
science mentioned in the Saudi developmental learning standards, it was found that the field of science is weak.
The content of (6) educational units was analyzed, each unit containing (15) lessons, in addition to the textbook
of brief educational units, which includes (5) sub-units. It was found that the learning units and the summary units
did not include any real science activities, and that the activities dealing with science subjects were very few and
superficial; they are just titles without real scientific content. Hence, the problem of the current research, which
aimed to develop the curriculum presented to children in line with the requirements of the current era, focus on
science activities, and try to present them in a simplified form that corresponds to the characteristics of children.
Also, a set of facts collectively formed the problem of the current research. The most important is the kinder-
garten child’s lack of scientific education and opportunities to practice scientific experiences and activities derived
from the facts of natural sciences. The current content is focused on language and kinesthetic and art education
activities. There is no real interest in science despite the close link between scientific activities and the education
of the mind. The content is limited to simple activities such as house sounds, house smells, water and hands, rain,
and displaying pictures of some animals and plants. Also, the program does not include any planned scientific
activity. They are all activities about using the pen to connect the pictures and find the similarity, and the pictures
form only 10% of the content of the educational units.
Given the importance of introducing science early and children’s ability to understand it, kindergarten children
are evolutionarily able to envision the nature of science when it is taught to them. Researchers recommended the
importance of teaching science to children early and explained that children under the age of five can begin to
develop appropriate scientific concepts, provided that these ideas are taught through scientific inquiry (Akerson
et al., 2011; Jane, 2017). Natural sciences are among the topics that should be introduced early to young children
within the school curricula because of their power to develop scientific thinking skills. Given that many studies
in this field focus on the stages of introducing concepts, or methods of teaching science teachers, they are rarely
directed to kindergarten. Therefore, the current research tried to find a mechanism to simplify scientific concepts
in form of simple laboratory activities and tools that correspond to children’s cognitive levels. This mechanism may
be found acceptable to work with young children. Therefore, the research was keen to describe the methods of
simplification in detail and to put links that show a detailed explanation of what the tools and activities should be
and were translated into English for teachers to benefit from on an international level.
Research Problem
Teaching physics concepts is of great importance to kindergarten children. They can assimilate them early
if presented according to progressive levels of knowledge in the form of tangible activities and tools that they
can deal with and engage in field experimentation. Akerson et al. (2011) suggest that kindergarten children are
evolutionarily capable of envisioning the nature of science. The researchers made recommendations on the im-
portance of teaching science to young children. The research also showed that children under the age of five can
begin to develop appropriate science concepts provided that children are taught these ideas through scientific
investigation. This method confirms that these ideas link them to the content taught at those grade levels. Eick
and Stewart (2010) indicated that those who trace kindergarten programs will find less interest in basic science
experiences. Also, there is a severe shortcoming in science programs in kindergartens in Saudi Arabia. There are
neither science books for children nor a guide for the teacher that provides him with a systematic framework to the
extent that qualifies him to play the role of an effective and influential mediator in the process of education. The
weak presentation of scientific concepts in general and physics in particular in the current kindergarten program
led to addressing this problem and presenting a program based on simplifying some physics concepts; a planned
program that integrates the cognitive hierarchy of those selected concepts and the children’s cognitive levels. Three
physics concepts (blowing, rolling, shadow) were simplified as a model for the simplification process according to
specific steps: selection and analysis of concepts, concept analysis, the design of simplified laboratory tools, and
the construction of gradual-level activities.
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Research Objectives
The current research aimed to

•• Examine the current scientific thinking skills of the research sample children.
•• Simplify some concepts of physics (blowing, rolling, shadow) in form of cognitively gradual laboratory
activities and tools.
•• Teach children some scientific concepts of physics (blowing - rolling - shadow) through simplified
laboratory activities and tools compatible with their cognitive levels.
Research Questions
The statement of the problem was represented in the following research questions:
1. What are the current scientific thinking skills of children according to each concept?
2. Does children’s knowledge of specific scientific concepts change if introduced during a planned pro-
gram?
Theoretical Background
Natural Sciences and their Learning in Early Childhood Classrooms
Teaching natural sciences requires an educational system that allows children to explore, investigate, observe,
question, and inquire about facts and information about all phenomena on the one hand. Also, it requires opportu-
nities to form and use the concept in different situations, enabling them to test the concept and make appropriate
modifications to it on the other hand. Teaching science in exploratory ways makes the knowledge acquired by
children last longer. When a child faces a situation that challenges his thinking, he seeks to use the skills of science
and reorganizes his knowledge to enable him to discover the concept. In turn, this will increase his motivation to
learn and reinforce the concepts he has previously learned.
The natural sciences, including physics, are a prerequisite for knowledge (Azuma & Nagao, 2008). Physics is
an important subject that everyone should learn. Parents and teachers are responsible for children’s learning of
physics. Therefore, early learning of physics is essential (Nasrudin et al., 2021). Most things and technology in our
daily lives are governed by basic physics principles. When these principles are understood, the world can be under-
stood (Bloomfield, 2015). According to Piaget, a child knows his world by coming into contact with objects in his
environment. Then, he begins to form complex ways of thinking about the elements of the world. Here, the child
himself interacts with the things, people, and events around him. At every moment, he acquires information and
tests and corrects his ideas. Physics experiments will nurture mental development through exciting exploratory
situations (Kandil & Donia, 2000).
Physics knowledge activities are those in which children experience and discover how things work in the
physics world. In these activities, children work on objects to produce desired effects and observe reactions to
objects (Kamii & DeVries, 1993). According to Qandil and Donia (2003), the experiment is one of the best methods
of research. The child, under the guidance of the teacher, can crystallize and form hypotheses and suggest ways and
solutions to examine these hypotheses without realizing that these assumptions in the strict sense are only guesses.
According to Badawi (2016), project-based learning is effective in imparting scientific concepts. It is recommended
the necessity of training kindergarten teachers on how to develop scientific inquiry skills, form scientific concepts
for children through project-based learning, and take into account integration when planning and implementing
kindergarten programs. However, most teachers in kindergarten still use less effective methods, and the reason
behind this is that teachers feel that they are not well educated in the field of science (Ahmed, 2017).
The idea of physics knowledge activities is rooted in Piaget’s constructivist theory. Research by Piaget and
colleagues shows that developing the ability to think is essential to building knowledge in young children. They
distinguished between three types of knowledge: social, physics, and logical-mathematical. Physics knowledge
refers to the properties of objects, such as color or texture (Kamii, 2000). According to Kato and Meeteren (2008),
physics activities are appropriate for young children because they can come up with their ideas about things and test
these ideas in the real world. The most important aspect of physics knowledge activities is the possibility of failure
rather than success by trying to discern the discrepancy between the expected and actual results. As emphasized
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by Piaget (1973), children need to make mistakes to reach the truth. Allowing children to develop problem-solving
strategies based on their mistakes empowers them as learners. Mistakes are not viewed as a negative experience.
Rather, they are a sign that something is not quite right, revealing an exciting challenge to overcome. When a
problem contradicts a child’s belief about how the world works, he has an inner need to understand and change
what is going on. Children think carefully about what they already know, reconsider their understanding of how
the world works, and use many strategies to solve the problem (Kato & Meeteren, 2008).
Nasrudin et al. (2021) confirmed that with the right approaches, methods, and media, the learning provided
by the teacher will make children more familiar with physics. The research concludes that physics can be taught
in early childhood. Therefore, it is recommended that early childhood teachers collaborate with physics teachers
in planning, implementing, and evaluating physics learning.
Concepts not only efficiently organize information in memory but also support other cognitive functions. These
functions include identifying objects in their world, forming analogies, making inferences that extend knowledge
beyond what is known, and finding connections between the central elements of theory. These pivotal tasks ap-
pear in later stages. However, the structural foundations for it must be available in the early stages of life. Hence,
the value of the interest in introducing concepts in early childhood has emerged. Some recent studies pointed
out the importance of forming the scientific concept in the learner’s mental structure because the concept often
settles in the learner’s long-term memory, which earns him long retention of the scientific material (Al-Muhaisin,
2007; Kandil & Donia, 2000). Scientific concepts are one of the most important aspects of science learning because
of their importance in organizing experience, remembering knowledge, following up on perceptions, linking them
to their sources, and facilitating access to them (Khataiba, 2005).
Design
The current research adopted an explanatory perspective and a qualitative approach to simplify some physics
concepts in the form of laboratory activities and tools to teach children about physics within the ability of their
cognitive levels. The qualitative approach is a flexible scientific approach that relies on multiple methods of collect-
ing non-numerical data. All of which are suitable for working with children. Therefore, the study adopted the focus
group method, one of the common qualitative research methods used in data collection. It was chosen to answer
questions such as “How, what, why, and what would happen if....”. According to Krueger (2014), a focus group is
used to explore perceptions, ideas, problem solutions, and interpretations concerning knowledge, understanding,
and mitigation of physics. Semi-structured interviews were also used to ensure a spontaneous interaction between
the researcher and the participants. It includes a set of closed and open questions structured, so it is also suitable
for youngsters (Tenenbaum & Driscoll, 2005). The interview was semi-structured, characterized by deep or open
questions and relies on dialogue to understand the participants’ behaviors and way of thinking, without putting
any projections to limit the answers given by the respondents (Al-Dhahyan, 2012).
Population and Sample
The study population consisted of third-level children in kindergarten schools in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.
The study sample was selected using the purposeful sampling technique that suits the qualitative research. It was
conducted at Third Early Childhood School in Al-Hofuf, Saudi Arabia from February 2022 to May 2022. Eight children
(3 females, 5 males) were selected from one grade of the third-level Kindergarten which included children from the
age groups (5:6) years. Those children who attended permanently and whose parents agreed to allow sitting with
the children for long periods, even after the official working hours, were selected. Also, the research followed the
qualitative method based on small samples. Samples in qualitative research are usually smaller compared to those
in quantitative research. In addition, it is worth noting that samples of small size may be of great benefit than those
of large size in some studies, especially those studies requiring observations and interviews (Ghobari et al., 2015).
Several steps were taken since the beginning of the research idea:
•• It was confirmed that the research idea is not a duplicate of previous studies, but an addition.
•• The tools were designed from safe materials for children (cardboard).
•• The data were collected following the qualitative approach (semi-structured interviews, observation,
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video recording, and analysis of children’s responses). The researchers reviewed the data separately,
then matched, discussed, calculated agreement among them, and excluded the points of difference
while maintaining the data confidentiality.
•• The approval of the school in which the application was carried out was obtained. Children were
photographed in a way that does not show their faces, and the children’s data were kept confidential.
•• The parents of the children were contacted to obtain approvals on the application, allow them to spend
more time with the children, and explain what is required of them accurately.
•• This research is funded by King Faisal University in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia; therefore, all research
steps are subject to supervision by the Deanship.
Instruments
1.Diagnostic Tests
Three tests were designed to diagnose the cognitive output and the ability to employ some science operations
for each concept (blowing, shadow, rolling). These tests aimed to diagnose children’s knowledge of the presented
concepts and their ability to practice some science operations. The test items were built by developing questions
related to each concept and determining the skill related to the practice of science operations related to it.
Table 1
Science Processes and the Nature of the Questions Presented
Process Questions
Awareness: Recognizing the properties of objects, attention, recall Describe what you see, what you notice, what happens first? Have you seen
and perception. this before? Where?
Exploration: understanding the elements of the situation, gaining What are you doing for you...? Why does it happen...? What is the difference
more information, collecting data, and knowing the relationship between...? Questions on length, shape, volume, weight, and degree of
between the elements of the situation. friction.
Inquiry: deepening understanding, attention, and understanding of Questions that require more understanding and attention to be answered:
experience. What happens if..? If it happens...? Does it happen...? What are you thinking
about...? What is the difference between...? It includes conducting experi-
ments.
Performance: Employing knowledge in new situations and using it to Why? Is it possible? How can it work...? What can be done with...?
solve simple problems.
2. Designing the Physics Program According to the Following Steps:
a) The stage of selecting and analyzing physics concepts: Three physics concepts were identified (blow-
ing, rolling, and shadow), and they were selected according to several criteria:
•• Topics related to the environment and daily life that fall within the interests and questions of
the child.
b) The possibility of converting them from the abstract image to the physical image: These criteria were
derived from previous studies and developmental learning standards in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
(Ministry of Education, 2015). Each scientific concept was analyzed into five levels, each of which
carried a scientific idea on which the following idea was built. Then, it was transformed into gradual
level scientific activities, commensurate with the characteristics and capabilities of the child. Finally,
performance was assessed during practical situations that the child performed during the activities.
3. Steps to Analyze the Physics Concepts (the Topic of Research):
The analysis of physics concepts and the construction of their activities relied on several sources (American
Association for the Advancement of Science, 1993; Kandil & Donia, 2000, 2003, 2006). The program was designed
according to specific steps:
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a) Scientific principles related to each concept.

b) An introduction to learning each concept for children.
c) Some diagnostic procedures for each concept (Appendix A).
d) Designing five activities for each concept (blowing, rolling, shadow) gradually and include: the name
of the activity, the practical idea involved in the activity, the procedural objectives of the activity, the
tools used, the activity procedures with children, suggested questions about the concept, and the
experimental situation controls. A sample activity for one of each concept was presented (Appendix A).
e) Photographing the design steps and the method of presenting activities and interacting with children.
Links were attached showing the design steps to serve as a guide for those dealing with children (Ap-
pendix A).
4. Links to Simplified Tools:
•• -Blowing (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2Q2h0sNgMII&t=1s)
•• -Rolling (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BriHvmAg9TM
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jjgLjCwvGO0
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fNHw50iBzl0
•• Shadow (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tBJ11O6Dvfs)
5. Simplified Laboratory Tools for physics concepts:
Figure 1
Simple Lab Tools for the Concept of Blowing
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Figure 2
Simple Lab Tools for Rolling Concept
Figure 3
Simple Lab Tools for Shadow Concept
a) Scientific principles related to each concept
-Blowing
1. Air movement is a force that has magnitude and direction and can be employed.
2. The distance that the body leaves under the influence of a force depends on the amount of that force
acting, and the amount of friction or impediment to the movement that the body encounters during
its movement.
3. Objects with large masses are weakly affected by the force of air in relation to objects with less mass.
4. A n object moving on a rough surface moves with more difficulty than it does on a smooth surface.
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5. Energy can be converted from one form to another.
-Rolling
•• Energy of motion: the amount of work done during the movement of the body, that is, if a body moves,
it does work to overcome the resistance that it encounters until it rests.
•• Potential energy: depends on the relative position of the body, when work is done on it, it is converted
into kinetic energy.
-Shadow
- Light travels through wave motion. It propagates in spherical waves, the center of which is the light
source, which propagates in all directions. The direction of light waves can be represented by a line
called the light ray, which is a line that represents the direction of light travel.
- Light is scattered in the center in straight directions. The path of light from its source to a point in the
center surrounding a straight line can be represented by a straight line called the light ray.
- The spread of light in straight lines creates shadow. If a dark obstacle is placed in the path of the light
emitted by a light source, this obstacle will form a shadow.
b) An introduction to learning each concept for children
Before presenting any scientific concept, the teacher should read carefully about the concept to be presented
to the children, so that she can present it in a simple way to the children and answer their questions in a scientifi-
cally correct manner in line with their mental abilities. The current research tried to provide scientific information
for each concept to form a scientific base for the teacher from which to start.
-Blowing
1- Blowing air through the mouth is only a simple embodiment of the force of the air to realize its effect
on the movement of mass and the movement of things.
2- Most children make mistakes for reasons related to breathing habits (inhale and exhale) or for health
reasons. Therefore, first, we have to train the kids how to breathe properly.
3- Put this tube in your mouth. Can you try what we did before and get the air out of your mouth through
the tube? You can try now.
4- The child can, through a set of activities related to blowing air, know the effect of wind on things in
different situations, and how to use it as a force that has an amount and direction, and how this force
can be controlled, utilized, and used in a set of gradual level experiments in a sequence that increases
realization of the concept.
-Rolling
- The higher the mass and the velocity, the higher the kinetic energy.
- The effect of gravity on the movement of the body: If the body rolls on a sloping / inclined surface, the
degree of inclination affects the amount of movement. As well as the direction of movement of the
body with / against gravity.
- When one body slides over another, the force of friction between them is equal to the vertical reaction
between the two bodies, when the amount of friction is minimal.
- The effect of gravity on the movement of the body is not absolute. If the body rolls, we have to calculate
the slope of the surface on which the rolling motion takes place, if any.
- Stored energy that is transmitted in the form of movement (that is, energy begins as potential energy
and then turns into kinetic energy).
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-Shadow
- The child, from an early age, follows the path of light by means of dust particles that are in the path
of a beam of light rays. The sunlight he sees every day, which embodies the fact that light travels in
straight lines, passes through a hole in the window of a darkened room. It comes as a non-dispersive
beam of light that travels in straight lines to paint a spot on the floor of the room.
- The child recognizes light and shadow on their own. He sees things when light falls on them and is
reflected from things to his eye. Step by step, he gets to know the luminous things, the sun, the candles,
the lamp... and other things that are called self-lighting, that is, they emit light because they emit light
in themselves. As for the things that he sees because the light falls on them and then is reflected from
them to his eye, they are called non-self-lighting.
- Through experiments and activities, children will learn about the permeability of light, permeable,
semi-permeable and opaque, given that the opaque body is the shadow.
- The objects permeable to light, they are not shadow. This is evident in scientific experiments to clarify
the conditions for the formation of shadow.
- Children will learn about the effect of light on the size of the shadow, by approaching or moving away
from the light source.
Data Collection and Analysis
To achieve the research objectives and answer the research questions, data were collected from different
types of tools:
- Semi-structured interviews: The semi-structured interviews were relied upon to reveal the teachers’
methods in implementing scientific activities with children in the activity halls and their opinion on
the curriculum presented to the children.
- Audio recordings, videos, and photographs during the application of the tests and activities.
- Activity record for each child, researchers’ notes during the activity, conversational learning experi-
ences, and sample work. These data helped the qualitative analysis through the children’s coexistence
following the participatory observation.
- Diagnostic tests: based on which the desired objectives are achieved before and after the activities are
determined.
Action procedures
To verify the credibility and effectiveness of educational activities, seven teachers who agreed to participate
in the semi-structured interview were interviewed, and they were presented with tools and their steps for design-
ing, and ways to present them to children through electronic links, and then their effectiveness was discussed. The
teachers agreed that the tools were attractive to children and easy to design and presented as simple laboratory
tools in the Discovery Corner. To ensure that children learned knowledge and skills related to the three physics
concepts and to verify the effectiveness of the program in improving the learning process:
1. The children were introduced to the tasks required according to each activity.
2. Preliminary diagnostic procedures were carried out for each concept separately to ascertain the cognitive
background of the children regarding the physics concepts in question using their specified tools and questions.
For example, to identify the children’s past experiences with the concept of the shadow, use the diagnostic proce-
dures (Appendix A). Then, all observations about previous performances were recorded.
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Research Results
Children’s Scientific Thinking Skills
To answer the first research question, children’s performance on diagnostic tests related to the three concepts
of blowing, rolling, and shadow was discussed. The results were interpreted according to the children’s practices of
the scientific activities in question, knowing that the children had no idea about the activities and tools provided
to them. The children were given ample opportunity to explore the tools of each concept. Then, the test ques-
tions were asked for the three concepts according to the scientific processes and the questions shown in Table 2.
After that, the children’s responses to the three tests were collected and analyzed. The responses were recorded
depending on the verbal and performance expression during the activities.
Table 2
Children’s Responses to the Pre-Test of the Three Concepts
%
Specific Qualitative analysis of
science operations children’s responses
Researchers’ analysis
Awareness 8/8 agreed that they did not see such tools. They did not understand what 0
they were used for, and they were not able to determine the purpose of
them.
Exploration 8/8 could not understand the elements of the situation, but they had poor 40
information about the size and weight of some objects. Two of them pro-
nounced light, heavy, and they had no knowledge of the degree of friction.
Investigation 8/8 random responses are not based on understanding. 0
Performance 8/8 random responses are not based on understanding. 0
By analyzing the children’s responses, it is shown that the children were able to describe the tools in front of him,
but they could not understand their use and relationship to the concept. They had never seen these tools before.
Excerpt (1) Children’s conversations about the concept of rolling:
S1: I have a paper box, colored paper plates, lots of colored balls and other things.
S2: I will play tennis with it.
S3: The balls are large and small, and some of them are heavy.
S4: I have not seen these things before, but their colors are beautiful.
Excerpt (2) Children’s conversations about the concept of blowing:
S1: I have little pebbles, paper boxes, little balls, juice tubes, and lots of colored paper.
S5: I don’t know what to do with it. I can play ball.
S4: Can we blow all these things, they can all fly? Yes.
Excerpt (3) Children’s conversations about the concept of shadow:
S2: I have an electric flashlight, and I have one like it at home, colored paper, and little paper dolls.
S3: I can color on paper.
S5: Things are hidden inside the box, I can light the lamp to see them.
Children’s Knowledge of Specific Scientific Concepts
To answer the second research question, the activities of the program described above were designed in
detail, and diagnostic tests were applied afterwards. The responses of the children were as follows:
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Table 3
Children’s Responses to the Post-Test of the Three Concepts
%
Specific science Qualitative analysis of
operations children’s responses Researchers’
Pre and post-test
analysis
Awareness 8/8 Correct responses about the tools, answer what you notice, 100 100
and what happens first.
Exploration 7 / 8 correct responses about: What would happen if, and identify 88 48
the properties of objects shape, size, texture, friction
Investigation 8/8 Correct responses related to the ability to understand and pay 100 100
attention to what is happening and explain it, and the ability to
experiment and test things.
Performance 6/8 Correct responses related to the ability to apply knowledge in 75 75

new situations and use it to solve simple problems.
By analyzing the responses of children, Table 3 shows the children could understand their use of tools ac-
cording to each concept, experiment and link them with models found in daily life, and thus answer based on
understanding to the questions directed to them. This is evident from their responses.
Excerpt (4) Children’s responses during rolling activities.
S1: If you hit the ball hard from bottom to top, it will go up the slope, but you can come back, but if you hit the ball on
the ground, it will run forward.
S2: The ball drops quickly from the top of the slope like my father’s car over the top.
S4: The box has difficulty falling down the slope, not like a fast ball.
S6: The ball and the cylinder are like some rolling quickly. “The child used his hands to represent the movement.”
S1: Objects move with difficulty on course surfaces.
Excerpt (5) children’s responses during blowing activities.
S1: I can move small things by blowing on them.

S2: The paper roller moves and moves the basket to the right and to the left when I blow with a force that rotates.
S3: It is difficult to move the basket, as it is heavy. We must reduce the grain inside it so that it can move up.
Excerpt (6) Children’s responses during shadow activities.
S1: There are colored cards, but they are thick and do not let light through. Transparent cards only let light through.
S3: I can make a shade if I stand in the sun by the wall.
S3: Pictures get bigger when I move near the searchlight.
S2: We can make shadow for us in the dark using a torch.
S5: The circle becomes small or large when I move the light.
S5: I can make a bird’s shadow with my own hands. Look.
S6: Cards with holes pass through the light, but little of it.
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Discussion
It is evident from the results that the children’s understanding of the concepts of blowing, rolling and shadow
has developed. It is also noted that the children’s knowledge and experiences according to the pre and post-test
differ in terms of the concept nature, the amount of knowledge, and their previous experiences. Children’s past
experiences influence efforts to impart scientific knowledge (Ravanis, 2021). One of the concepts that most attracted
children’s attention is the concept of shadow. This may be due to the playful nature of the subject of shadow as it
took the form of playing with shadow rather than experimenting. It was a very interesting topic for them. As for
the subject of blowing and rolling, they were topics of great familiarity to them. This made it easier to represent
them with real things in their daily lives and is consistent with the established standards.
Referring to the descriptive responses of children, it was found that children practiced many science opera-
tions. By observing the child’s interaction with scientific experiences, their interaction with tools and their behavior
during the application, it was found that children mastered description, which is one of the science processes.
Children at this stage have verbal mastery and the ability to verbally express. This result is in line with that of
Kato and Meeteren (2008), who concluded that the scientific thinking of children developed in all the fields they
practiced. They developed a sense of confidence and perseverance during the activities. The process of inference
and experimentation also recorded high rates during the children’s dealing with the tools, which indicates their
exploration behavior. This includes their understanding of the elements associated with things, people, and phe-
nomena. It also includes their ability to observe, measure, classify, gather information, and experiment, which led
them to inference. This indicates their adequate exploration practice.
This finding is consistent with the growth characteristics of children at this stage and their craving for
learning about things around them. The children also practiced investigation, which included deepening their
understanding of things, focusing attention, making hypotheses, making comparisons, interpreting, and the
ability to predict but with a lesser degree of description and experimentation. This result may be due to the
fact that it is a mental process that needs to perform many other mental operations. It requires a great deal of
thought and concentration. According to Ravanis (2021), children are given opportunities to internalize phys-
ics knowledge through experimentation and manipulation of specially constructed, selected, and organized
learning materials and environments.
Finally, the children who were directed to the planned activities achieved a clear superiority. In general,
children’s previous physics experiences are an important indicative factor in predicting their performance. Accord-
ingly, it can be concluded that the competent educational content can contribute to the achievement of the basic
competencies required to be achieved and the achievement of educational and training purposes at the same
time. It may turn out that the issue of the children’s past experiences is very important, and that this lacks a deeper
understanding of those dealing with the child. The natural environment of the child has endowed him with all
the means and ways to enhance his physics knowledge, and parents and teachers must develop that knowledge
artistically and skillfully based on a culture of the nature of scientific knowledge in the first place.
As Fragkiadaki and Ravanis (2015) state, children are in dire need of their speech-language, and they lack
clarity of vision in terms of ways of presenting topics, rate of speed in presentation, familiarity with the details of
the topic, and the use of words in appropriate context diversity in the use of formal and informal methods, and
lively discussions. These and other things drive young learners to participate and interact. This can be achieved if
we find what we offer the young people of knowledge planned consciously.
Finally, most studies on science education agree on the importance of introducing science early, but the focus
is on the teacher’s role more than the learner’s. These studies are more concerned with theorizing than putting
steps into practice. Nasrudin et al. (2021) confirmed that physics is an important topic and introducing physics from
an early age is essential. The study revealed various ideas about efforts to introduce physics to early childhood. It
followed the qualitative approach and used semi-structured interviews and focus group discussions with experts
in physics education, linguists, administration, and early education. It concluded that physics should be simpler to
understand. Feng’s (1987) study also emphasized the nature of science and children, and how this nature affects
preschool science education where children learn best through active hands-on activities. In addition, it emphasized
the role of the teacher. Here, theoretical interest in the content and the teacher is found in both studies; however,
these studies lack how those activities were implemented. Hence, the current research is unique in developing a
mechanism to simplify physics concepts according to levels that correspond to children’s abilities and to clarify
how physics concepts can be converted into simple laboratory tools that children can deal with. It also explained
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the steps for actually implementing the activities with the children, and how dialogue and discussion took place
during the work. This makes it a real pleasure that ultimately leads to authentic learning.
In this research, it was found that simplifying physics concepts according to cognitive levels could develop
children’s knowledge about those concepts in a more organized manner. Thus, simplified activities according to
levels of knowledge are commensurate with kindergarten children. They could indicate the success of introducing
physics to them. However, the current research has limitations. First, the sample was selected following the pur-
poseful sampling technique rather than the random sampling technique. Also, only third-level children of the age
groups (5-6 years) participated in the research. Children of levels (1, 2) of different ages may give different results.
In addition, only three concepts were presented. It was possible to expand on simplified concepts but might take
a long time to build and implement the physics tools. Furthermore, the diagnostic tests were used to determine
children’s physics knowledge before and after introducing the simplified activities. Finally, the study relied on
semi-structured interviews to ask open-ended questions and film the children while working on the experiments
to get the best results without bias as much as possible.
Previous studies focused on the theoretical aspect that illustrates the relationship between science and chil-
dren, the importance of introducing science early, and the role and teaching competencies of the teacher. However,
none of the previous studies provided a mechanism for implementing this. This is what is unique to the current
research, whose results focused on the steps to simplify the natural sciences, and how they could be presented in
a simplified manner. The simplified physics concepts activities introduced to children also provided a good insight
into the natural sciences in the early childhood classroom. They are not static activities, which are not popular with
children. The current research has proven the extent to which children accepted group work and discussions among
themselves, and their acceptance of the scientific idea that corresponds to their cognitive levels. This work may pay
off, and a science club outside the routine of the children’s day can be set, as this is what they need.
Recommendations and Suggestions
The current research recommends the availability of studies showing the quality and specifications of programs
that fit the nature of the early childhood education process. Also, the scientific topics presented in the subjective
curriculum of kindergarten children in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia must be reviewed so that it is central and ef-
fective. In addition, attention should also be paid to simplifying science in its various fields of life and living organ-
isms, physics, chemistry, earth, and space sciences, and presenting them to children in the form of early sensory
activities. These themes are already available in the developmental learning standards in the Kingdom of Saudi
Arabia (Ministry of Education, 2015).
Acknowledgment
This work was supported by the Deanship of Scientific Research, Vice Presidency for Graduate Studies and
Scientific Research, King Faisal University, Saudi Arabia [Project No. GRANT1, 611]

.
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childhood education? International Journal of Early Childhood, 50(3), 353-369. http://doi.org/10.1007/s13158-018-0229-5
Tenenbaum, G., & Driscoll, M. P. (2005). Methods of research in sport sciences: Quantitative and qualitative approaches. Meyer &
Meyer Verlag.
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Appendix A: Program Implementation
1. Some Diagnostic Procedures for Each Concept

The teacher can do some diagnostic procedures with the children for each concept according to the following:
(a) Diagnostic Procedures for the Concept of Blowing
•• She gives the children balloons to inflate, some are big, and some are small.
•• She gives them a bicycle pump to fill a rubber space with air (a swimming collar for example).
•• She asks them to sit near a fan and talk about how they feel.
•• She asks them to make a paper fan and use it to move the air. Is there a difference between it
and an electric fan? The children describe how they feel.
•• She asks them to look at trees and observe them on a day when the air is moving, noticing
things move by the air, and talk about what they notice.
•• She asks them what the air does to their clothes, trees, balloons, swimming pool, hair, leaves
and things around them. If they answer that it is moving, she asks again, does the air move
things with the same force? And why?
(b) Diagnostic Procedures for the Concept of Rolling
- Rolling on the ground: The teacher asks the children to roll or rotate the body, using pushes with the
hands and feet, so that the movement moves from the palms to the torso to the rest of the body. Thus,
the movement can be represented physically, and this explains (the idea that the potential energy is
already inside the stationary body, and the potential energy is transformed into kinetic energy, and is
transmitted in the moving body from one part to another).
- Rolling forward or backward: The teacher discusses with the children the following: When you are roll-
ing backwards, how did the movement move, from what part of the body did the movement begin,
where did it move, and why?
- Rolling in other ways: The teacher asks the children, can you roll with your body in another way? Things
that can roll: The teacher asks the children about things they know, that can roll, similar to what they
acted out. Then, the teacher offers the child things and asks them to roll them such as a ball or a cylinder.
(c) Diagnostic Procedures for the Concept of Shadow
- The teacher chooses a sunny place in the garden next to a wall and asks the children to stand in the
sun and do several actions, including hand movements, following their shadow on the wall, moving
and following the shadow on the ground, and trying to catch the shadow. The teacher asks one of the
children to stand in the sun to make a shadow and asks another child to follow the shadow of the first
child and to try to draw the shadow on the ground.
- Then, the teacher asks the children: What color is the shadow? Did the color of the shadow change by
changing the shape? Is the shade always black? What happens to your shadow when you run? Can you
hold your shadow?
- The teacher asks the child to match his shadow to the shadow marks on the ground marked with chalk.
The child moves away from and close to the shadow on the ground and tries to match his body to the
shadow on the ground.
2. Designing five activities for each concept:
• Blowing activities include the following:
The blowing concept is presented in five gradient activities: blowing through a path, blowing through tinted
windows, blowing a bird’s feather to its nest, obstacles, and a fan.
- Activity: Blowing through a path: The scientific idea of the activity: The teacher should know:
• Air has a force of magnitude.
• The response of objects moving by the force of the air depends on the size of those objects, their shape,
the nature of their smooth/rough surface, and heavy/light weight.
• Spherical objects are easier to blow and move under the influence of air force than flat objects.
Procedural objectives
- The child describes the movement of objects of different shapes and sizes on the path in front of him.
- The child tries to move objects along the track with his mouth/tube.
- The child explains which is easier to move objects through the mouth or the tube.
Used equipment:
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•• A thin tube for each child to use to blow air (avoid flexible tubes).
•• A group of things of different shapes and sizes, and the outer surface. Some are also spherical or flat.
•• Container for keeping things.
•• Two paper tags, one of which bears a true mark and the other a false mark.
•• Two tracks of paper as surfaces on which objects move.
•• Colorful bar on each track as a target for the child.
•• Air Blowing Activities Link https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2Q2h0sNgMII&t=1s
•• Activity Procedures
•• The teacher shows the children things to check and know them.
•• The teacher asks one of the children to use the tube to blow objects over the track and try to reach
the specified goal.
•• The teacher asks the child to place objects that are easy to move due to the force of the blowing using
the sign (√) and the things that are difficult to move using the sign (X).
•• The teacher gives the child a chance to experience the effect of the force of blowing on the objects in
the room or the objects that he wants to test to be affected by the force of air blowing.
Suggested questions about the concept of blowing through the path:
1- How do you move the ball through the inflatable tube without touching it, so that it reaches the specified
goal?
2- Does a wooden cube need as much blowing force as a table tennis ball to reach the goal?
3- Which is heavier, the things that can be blown easily or the things that cannot be blown easily?
Demo situation controls:
•• Introducing children to tools before working.
•• The objects used are the same size but different in shape and weight.
•• The things used varied between light and heavy, soft and coarse.
•• Avoid flexible inflatable tubes because they affect and reduce the force of the air rushing out of them.
•• Each child has his tube throughout the activities (health precautions).
•• The child manipulates freely using the tube to inflate anything he feels he needs to test the effect of
the force of air on him, even things that you think will not respond to the force of blowing.
•• The child categorizes objects into two categories according to their response and non-response (things
that can move due to the force of blowing and things that do not move due to the force of blowing).
•• Rolling activities
They include the following procedures:
The rolling concept is introduced into five level gradient activities: rolling down the slope, hitting targets
up the slope with the tennis ball, rolling up the slope, rolling tilting trails, and long-distance rolling.
Activity: Roll the ball across the slope.
Scientific idea of the activity:
The idea is based on controlling and directing together by rolling the child a number of balls on a tilt-
ing surface. It also revolves around recognizing the speed of the balls in hitting the targets, taking into
account the amount of movement, the proximity and distance from the targets, and the degree of the
tilting surface, noting that the movement is in the direction of gravity.
During the experiment, discussion, and dialogue, the teacher is supposed to explain to the children the fol-
lowing ideas:
• The movement of a rolling object on the tilting surface gives it a great speed when the surface slope
is large.
• Large balls, the amount of movement is large, so they hit and drop targets.
Procedural Objectives:
- The child describes the movement of balls of different sizes and weights on the tilting slope.
- The child tries to move the balls on the tilting slope.
- The child explains which is easier to move on the slope, heavy or light balls.
Used equipment:
- Large triangular prism, made of cardboard or wood, is used on the tilting surface for rolling balls (the
wide side of the prism is used for rolling).
- Rubber balls of different sizes (large, medium, small).
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- A set of objects to be used as targets such as boxes, cubes, and cylinders.

• Links to the rolling activities:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BriHvmAg9TM
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jjgLjCwvGO0
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fNHw50iBzl0
Activities with children:
1. The teacher allows exploring the tools.
2. Identifying the surface of the prism used as a tilting surface to make a rolling motion on it using the
available rubber balls (large, medium, small).
3. The teacher asks one of the children to put targets in front of the prism, then another child uses the
big ball to hit the targets that are placed in front of the prism.
4. A child tries to hit the targets by rolling the big ball over the prism.
5. The child classifies the targets according to their response to the fall, after the ball (large, medium,
small) collides with them and identifies the targets as light, medium, and heavy in weight.
6. The teacher helps the children by raising the sides of the prism used as a movement level and raising
them by placing a set of boards under it to increase the height of the prism and asks the child to try
rolling the ball on it.
7. Colorful strips can be placed on the ground, at different distances from the targets, used to determine
the starting point on which the prism is placed to determine the extent of proximity and distance from
the target and know the distance through which the child can hit the target.
Suggested questions about the concept of rolling the ball across the slope:
1. Which balls are easiest to hit the targets?
2. Does the highly tilting surface help the ball roll more, or is the sloping surface low?
3. Is it easy to hit the target when the inclined surface is close to or far from the target?
•• The surface used for rolling is smooth for easy movement and made of light wood.
•• Rolling balls of various sizes and weights to show the child the effect of the amount of movement
through the strength of its impact on the target.
•• Every two children cooperate in the experiment so that one of them rolls the ball. The other arranges
the targets, and the two observe the movement of the ball on the tilting surface.
•• Shadow concept activities
They include the following procedures. The concept of shadow is presented in five gradient activities: see the
light, play with the shadow, select the shadow, match the shadow, and holographic shadow.
Example of one of the activities presented: Playing with the shadow
Scientific idea of the activity:
- In order to make shadow, the shape must be between the light and the barrier.
- Shapes that make shadow of impermeable shapes.
- The light source can be above or behind the figure to create shadow.
- Shadow can be received on any white space in front of the object such as a shadow theater.
- The shadow always takes the shape and color of the body that permeates the light.
Procedural Objectives:
- The child tries to make shadow using the tools in front of him.
- The child explains the reasons for changing the size of the shadow near and far from the light source.
- The child explains the reasons for the emergence of colored and non-colored shadow.
Used equipment:
- A large cardboard box, open on one side, with a hole perforated on the upper side to accommodate a
light source (electric torch).
- Transparent shelf installed in the middle of the box.
- A set of different colored paper.
- Shadow activities link https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tBJ11O6Dvfs
Activities with children:
- The teacher allows exploring the tools and how to use them.
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- The child places the paper figures one by one on the shelf and highlights them from the hole designated
for him, and the teacher asks him to look under the shelf and describe what he sees.
- The teacher discusses with the child the shadow under the shelf.
- Different transparent forms of light are used (dark, semi-opaque, luminous), and each time the child is
asked to describe what he sees with the repeated use of the word shadow.
- Repeatedly, the teacher uses other opaque shapes in different colors and asks him to describe the
shadow that is formed for them.
Suggested questions about the concept of playing with shadow:
1- If we put the light on top of the box facing the opening and put a picture of a duck on the shelf, where
does the duck’s shadow form?
2- What happens if you turn off the light, does a shadow form? Why?
3- Does the color of the shade change with the change of the shape on the shelf?
4- What happens if you move the light around the hole?
5- Does the shadow move as the shape on the shelf?
The teacher must take into account the following points:
•• The work area is dark.
•• The shapes used are of different sizes, colors, and light transparency.
•• A powerful light source is installed in the upper opening.
Received: September 20, 2022 Revised: October 27, 2022 Accepted: November 30, 2022
Cite as: Al Jadidi, N. A., Mohamed, D. A., & Elrefee, E. M. (2022). Teaching natural sciences: Simplifying some physics
concepts as activities and laboratory tools for kindergarten children. Journal of Baltic Science Education, 21(6), 928-945.
Nadia Ahmed A AL Jadidi Assistant Professor, Department of Kindergarten, Faculty of

Education, King Faisal University, Saudi Arabia.
E-mail: naljadidi@kfu.edu.sa
Dalia Abdelwahed Mohamed Assistant Professor, Department of Kindergarten,
(Corresponding author) Faculty of Education, King Faisal University, Saudi Arabia.
E-mail: dmohamed@kfu.edu.sa
Enas Mahmoud Elrefee Assistant Professor, Department of Kindergarten,
Faculty of Education, King Faisal University, Saudi Arabia.
E-mail: ealreffy@kfu.edu.sa
945
ENHANCING THE LEARNING

OF NEWTON’S SECOND LAW
OF MOTION USING COMPUTER
SIMULATIONS
Abstract. This quasi-experimental study Khaleel AlArabi,

was conducted in two secondary schools
Hassan Tairab,
in a major city in the United Arab Emirates
(UAE) to examine the impact of Computer
Yousef Wardat,
Simulations (CSs) on students’ learning of Shashidhar Belbase,
Newton’s Second Law of Motion (NSLOM) in Suzan Alabidi,
grade 11 compared to traditional face-to-
face education. The study used Newton’s
Second Law of Motion Achievement test
(NSLMAT) as a pre and post-test to collect
the data. Altogether 90 students aged 16-
17 (grade 11) participated in this study. Two Introduction
grade 11 girls’ classes (40 students) and
two grade 11 boys’ classes (50 students) Physics has been viewed by many, including students, as a challenging
were chosen randomly to participate in this subject. This is likely due to the abstract nature of many of its concepts and
study. Descriptive and Inferential statistics the mental effort required to grasp them fully. Learning physics meaningfully
were used to analyze data. Results showed requires students to perform multiple representations that be completed and
that CSs, through visualization, aided in processed simultaneously, including experiments, formulas, computations,
establishing connections and brought charts, and conceptual explanations. The negative image of Physics has
attention to the concepts and details of been and continues to concern both students and teachers (Erinosho, 2013;
NSLOM. In addition, CSs yielded better Jimoyiannis & Komis, 2001). The problem comes from its perceptions among
results than those taught in face-to-face students and teachers as complex and difficult to comprehend (Alexanian,
education. The Results also suggest that 2013; Bajpai, 2013; Radlović-Čubrilo et al., 2014; Stern et al., 2017). Recent
CSs greatly impacted both female and trends in teaching and learning suggest that the solution to this negative
male students. CSs helped female and male image of physics relies on discovering new, efficient teaching strategies
students gain a better understanding of that preserve student achievement and improve student attitudes (Alarabi
NSLOM topics. The study recommended & Alwardat, 2021; Balfakih, 2003; Tairab et al., 2020). It was also noted that
that physics teachers integrate CSs into students could only enhance their understanding of fundamental physics
their teaching and use them as valuable concepts by implementing engaging educational techniques, such as visual
tools to improve student learning representations and models (Alsalhi et al., 2022; Hamad et al., 2022; Tawil &
outcomes. Dahlan, 2017; Wardat et al., 2022).
Keywords: computer simulations, United On the other hand, Sirait and Mursyid (2018) suggested that what
Arab Emirates, Newton’s Second Law of makes Newton’s laws and other physics concepts so difficult to grasp because
Motion, students’ performance they are tied to other fundamental concepts like velocity and acceleration,
which students must first understand before attempting to fathom Newton’s
Second Law of Motion (NSLOM). Furthermore, Obaidat and Malkawi (2009)
Khaleel AlArabi, Suzan Alabidi
Al Ain University 1, United Arab Emirates found that most students might have alternative and naïve models of basic
Hassan Tairab, Shashidhar Belbase concepts of kinematics and Newton’s laws of motion, which in turn might
United Arab Emirates University 2, United have led to difficulties in solving physics problems (Camarao & Nava, 2017;
Arab Emirates
Yousef Wardat Sirait & Mursyid, 2018; Tairab et al., 2020).
Higher Colleges of Technology 3, United In most UAE schools, face-to-face education is the primary mode of
Arab Emirates physics education (the method that relies on teacher-centered and guided
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approaches to learning such as lectures, recipe laboratory activities, and student-made observations outside of
the classroom with little or no interactive engagement). Previous studies have demonstrated that when using
Computer Simulations (CSs) as a teaching technique for investigating those concepts, students are likely to ac-
quire a more meaningful knowledge of abstract physics concepts (Zacharia & Anderson, 2003). To eliminate the
difficulties and misconceptions about students’ learning outcomes when teaching NSLOM, simulations in science
classrooms could potentially improve diverse students’ access to high-quality learning experiences (National
Research Council, 2011, p.67).
A computer simulation is a program that recreates the natural world in a digital setting by letting the user
alter the parameters of a scientific model of the natural or physical world (D’Angelo et al., 2014; Holec et al., 2004;
Wilson, 2016). CSs play a significant role in science education. For example, using CSs to teach physics concepts
can enhance students’ understanding by providing a level of reality that would not be possible with traditional
teaching methods (Mengistu & Kahsay, 2015). Podolefsky et al. (2010) found that CSs significantly improved stu-
dents’ understanding of basic concepts that are difficult to understand. Moreover, compared to non-simulated
education, CSs have also impacted the overall achievement in physics (D’Angelo et al., 2014; Jarrah et al., 2020;
Smetana & Bell, 2012).
Based on the evidence mentioned in previous research (Bagnoli et al., 2018; Camarao & Nava, 2017; Erinosho,
2013; Martin et al., 2015; OECD, 2015; Ornek et al., 2008; Sarı & Madlazim, 2015; Sari et al., 2019), it seems that there
is a need to improve student learning of physics by overcoming the difficulties students face in learning physics.
The Ministry of Education (MOE) of the United Arab Emirates (UAE) recommended that physics teachers improve
their educational methods to make physics more attractive and less abstract. It also proposed that teachers should
actively involve students in the teaching and learning to encourage meaningful learning (Aloufi et al., 2021; MOE,
2000; Sahoo, 2016, cited in Ridge et al., 2015).
Research Problem
Despite the importance of physics and physics education, a coherent and meaningful understanding of phys-
ics concepts such as (NSLOM) is still a problem for educators. Physics education resources utilized in classrooms
and laboratories are difficult to manipulate and unappealing to many students (Cairns & Areepattamannil, 2019;
Jarrah et al., 2022; MOE, 2000; Sahoo, 2016, cited in Ridge et al., 2015; Next Generation Science Standards, 2013;
Wardat et al., 2022; Wilson, 2016).
On the other hand, it has been documented that Emirati students are experiencing difficulties in physics which
are attributed to ineffective educational strategies and a lack of motivation (Tawil & Dahlan, 2017). In most UAE
schools, the primary mode of physics education is mostly of traditional focus in terms of educational strategies and
learning environment. It focuses on teaching content and formulas to solve common problems (Balfakih, 2003;
Hussein & Reid, 2009). A step towards comprehending physics better might be the integration of CSs in teaching
as an appropriate alternative to remedy this problem and improve students’ learning. This is because CSs have
shown great potential to stimulate knowledge and interest. They may enable learners to recognize and interact
with natural phenomena, promote learners’ challenges, and prompt reactions (National Research Council, 2011).
The present study is, therefore, a response to the call for researchers for further research on the effectiveness of CSs
in teaching physics (Hadzigeorgiou et al., 2017; Jimoyiannis & Komis, 2001; Radlovic-Cubrilo et al., 2014; Tashtoush
et al., 2022). Considering that the use of CSs as an educational tool is still in its infancy in UAE schools, the findings
of this study may contribute to our knowledge of the impact of CSs in the UAE context. Thus, it may attempt to
fill the research gap on the efficacy of CSs in teaching physics, specifically NSLOM, at the secondary school level
in the UAE context.
Research Aim and Research Questions
This study was designed to assess the possible impact of computer simulations on Emirati grade 11 learning
of NSLOM. Specifically, the study attempted to determine grade 11 physics students’ overall performance in NSLOM
when taught with CSs compared to traditional face-to-face education. Therefore, to explore the impact of CSs on
the Emirati students’ learning of NSLOM, this study addressed the following research questions:
•• What impact do computer simulations have on grade 11 students’ performance in Newton’s second
law of motion?
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•• Are there any statistically significant differences in performance in Newton’s second law of motion
between grade 11 students who learned through CSs and those who learned through traditional
face-to-face education?
•• Are there any statistically significant gender differences in performance in Newton’s second law of
motion between grade 11 students who learned through CSs and students who learned through
traditional face-to-face education?
Research Significance
The results of this study could be helpful and supportive to physics teachers and other stakeholders respon-
sible for adapting and modifying the curriculum. The results may provide physics teachers with opportunities to
address physics teaching more meaningfully by identifying difficulties students often encounter. It may also help
students develop a higher-order understanding because of the visualization perspectives CSs provide. Similarly,
CSs may also provide a shift toward effective student-centered pedagogy, which in turn may affect the role of
teachers to become more productive than being mere knowledge disseminator, to becoming a facilitator who
focuses on teaching students how to think critically and how to make effective use of educational resources to
learn new information. Kattayat et al. (2016) suggested that when teachers integrate CSs into classroom educa-
tion, students will likely develop a positive attitude towards physics. As an outcome of these positive attitudes,
students may probably achieve better results in physics. Finally, the study findings could also attract stakeholders’
and curriculum developers’ attention to the effects of technology integration in creating opportunities for active
science learning through infusing hands-on activities. This integration can be achieved by dedicating more learn-
ing activities through CSs when teaching general science and physics.
Literature Review
Theoretical Framework
The theoretical framework of this study is based on the constructivist approach (Figure 1).
Figure 1
The Theoretical Framework of this Study
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According to the constructivist approach, education must enable learners to actively participate in knowledge
construction and the learning processes (Hirshman & Bjork, 1988; Philips, 1997). The 5E learning cycle is a model
designed to promote inquiry-based learning. Each “E” is part of the process that helps students arrange learning
experiences to create a link between previous knowledge and new concepts (Sarı et al., 2017). 5E’s consist of five
stages (see Table 1). These are: Engage, Explore, Explain, Elaborate, and Evaluate.
Table 1
Summary of the 5E Instructional Model, Adapted from Lo (2017)
Phase Description
Engagement Teachers use learning activities to promote students’ curiosity and activate their prior knowledge required for
learning the new topic.
Exploration Students gain experiences related to the learning items through activities such as preliminary investigations.
Based on students’ experiences in the engagement.
Explanation Teachers introduce new knowledge and skills to their students.
Elaboration Teachers reinforce students’ understanding and improve their skills by offering additional activities. Students have
to apply what they learned to solve novel problems.
Evaluation Students assess their understanding and ability. Meanwhile, teachers evaluate students’ learning progress and
their learning outcomes.
Through visualization, CSs help establish contacts and attract attention, and this, in turn, enables students
to become active participants. The ability to interact with and manipulate variables or study context in general
and repeat situations can prove predictions consistently in parallel to classroom discussions (Konicek-Moran &
Keeley, 2015). furthermore, it provides various tools to support students in ways that allow them to construct their
knowledge, leading to efficient learning and meaningful learning outcomes (Husain, 2010).
CSs are an effective learning tool because they integrate graphics and animation, allowing students to ex-
perience nuanced processes and procedures (Husain, 2010; Stieff et al., 2005). In other words, CSs create a unique
way of visualizing phenomena and allow users to interact with the dynamics of the model system (Srisawasdi &
Panjaburee, 2015). This is due to the ability of the CSs to imitate reality as closely as possible in the tiny world and
contain genuine connections with many real-world events (Stieff et al., 2005).
Computer Simulations and Physics teaching
Previous research studies have shown that using CSs education as a teaching approach provides better results
than traditional education, particularly in students’ attitudes, scientific knowledge, and achievements (Bakaç et al.,
2011; Kattayat et al., 2016). Rutten et al. (2012) reviewed empirical studies on the effects of CSs on science educa-
tion in the past decade focusing on two issues: the use of CSs to enhance traditional education and how best to
use CSs to improve the learning process. Rutten et al. (2012) reported that CSs could improve traditional teaching,
especially in laboratory activities. These findings corroborate those of Bozkurt and Ilika (2010), who found that
students taught using the CSs approach outperformed those not taught via the CSs approach.
Many researchers have argued that there is ample evidence that CSs such as PhET interactive simulations can
be a powerful tool for students to learn science, as their design has an intuitive interface for students with minimal
text (Adams, 2010; Batuyong & Antonio, 2018; Keller et al., 2007). For example, in Indonesia, Eveline et al. (2019) found
that PhET simulation learning using the scaffolding method impacts students’ learning independence. These results
indicated that, in high school, the PhET simulation scaffolding method could be used to enhance student autonomy
in learning.
In summary, research studies on physics education have found that the use of CSs, encouraged not only active
learning of scientific content but also improved education, met the students’ learning styles and personal needs,
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improved achievement in the field of physics, and supported different types of students (such as visually oriented
students) (Kattayat et al., 2016; Mengistu & Kahsay, 2015). Moreover, researchers suggested that CSs can be used
as an accessory or alternative to other forms of teaching to enhance students’ understanding of physics concepts
(Rutten et al., 2012). According to Podolefsky et al. (2010), teachers found that CSs significantly improved students’
understanding of basic concepts that are usually difficult to understand.
Computer Simulations and Newton’s Second Law of Motion
NSLOM is the central and most important topic taught in classical mechanics (Itza-Ortiz et al., 2004; Mico et al.,
2010; Sirait & Mursyid, 2018). Understanding NSLOM is likely the key to understanding mechanics (Sari & Madlazim,
2015). According to the curriculum guidelines of the UAE Ministry of Education (MOE), before high school physics
is over, students should be able to explain NSLOM and describe the forces acting on objects in different states of
motion (Bauer & Westfall, 2011), and that for any given net force, there is a specific acceleration that the object
will experience (Itza-Ortiz et al., 2004). When a net force (Fnet) acts upon an object, the resulting acceleration (a)
is proportional to (Fnet) and inversely proportional to the mass of the object (m). Nevertheless, many textbooks
present NSLOM so abstractly that students cannot see the relationship between force and motion (Mico et al., 2010).
Several previous studies have highlighted the positive effect of using CSs and experiment animations in
improving NSLOM learning. For example, Sari and Madlazim (2015) found that Newton’s second law significantly
improved the conceptual ability of students who used CSs to learn compared to students who did not study with CSs.
Studies Related to the UAE Context
Although CSs are not familiar with the UAE context, virtual learning is one of the recent trends within schools
in the UAE. This is a significant trend in that the UAE will be looking forward to bringing in technologies in the form
of e-learning and other forms of technologies (Aoude, 2015).
There is a scarcity of studies related to the UAE concerning using CSs in physics teaching. However, there
are studies related to the impact of technology in general. Awan (2012) investigated how the use of computers/
laptops influences the dynamics of the classroom setting. Martin (2013) conducted a study to determine the level
of participation of Emirati higher education students in digital technologies, including the internet, and whether
this level of involvement is like an international model. Alneyadi (2019) conducted a study in the UAE to explore
the views of science teachers on the nature and frequency of the implementation of Virtual Laboratory (VL) by
students in the UAE and their contributions to the development of science education.
The review of previous research findings revealed that very little research had been carried out on the impact
of CSs on student learning in the UAE, particularly on the integration of CSs in the teaching of NSLOM. Furthermore,
previous research studies did not examine the effect of CSs on students’ performance, and only one study so far was
found to be related to the UAE context. Aoude (2015) investigated the role of CSs on the performance of physics,
focusing on conceptual and procedural knowledge of projectile motion. Therefore, the present study’s findings
are expected to assist in a better understanding of how CSs impact students when learning physics.
Research Design
The study employed a quasi-experimental pre-test-post-test experimental and control group design Table 2.
Creswell (2013) suggested that in a quasi-experimental design, causation is determined by applying a treatment
or condition to one group and using the results compared to a control group. This appropriate design provides an
environment for comparing the two groups based on the intervention.
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Table 2
The Experiment Design Pattern
Groups Pre-test Treatment Post-test
Experimental group Receiving treatment

Applied Applied
EG CSs teaching
Control group No treatment
Applied Applied
CG Face-to-face teaching
Data Collection Procedures
The study took place on October 30, 2019, in two schools. Each school chose two Grade 11 classes to par-
ticipate in the study. Then the classes are randomly assigned to an experimental group (EG) or a control group
(CG). Data collection took about one month and was collected in different stages. In the first stage, all students of
the EGs and the CGs took part in a pre-test, which took about 45 minutes. The students were informed that their
participation in the test was voluntary and that the result would not affect their grades. The second stage involved
teaching the unit of NSLOM. The students who participated in this study had already received approximately 20
lessons and had also completed 3-lessons labs covering various physics concepts in NSLOM. The NSLOM activities
sessions were administered in three separate sessions in a different week, with 45-60 minutes each. The control
group conducted experiments on NSLOM in a traditional laboratory where students followed written instructions
to conduct investigations and answered pre-defined and stated teacher’s questions on NSLOM. On the other hand,
the experimental group conducted similar experiments using CSs within an inquiry-based learning environment.
In CGs, the students engaged in a hands-on activity on ‘NSLOM. However, the students in EGs were expected to
discover mathematical relationships of NSLOM and explain phenomena in the NSLOM simulation. Finally, the stu-
dents took the same test at the end of this stage. The answers to the exam were approximately 45. The NSLMAT test
was conducted in an environment of integrity to prevent any cheating or support, and the researcher explained
to the students the importance of working independently.
Population and Sampling
Schools in the UAE follow the national curriculum; teaching physics begins in Grade 10 as a separate subject.
Students must choose the advanced science or general streams (Balfakih, 2003). Compared to the general stream,
students in the advanced stream will have more education in mathematics and science (UAEG, 2019).
In this study, the target population consisted of secondary school students aged 16-17 years (grade 11) in Al
Ain city in the UAE. All schools use the same curriculum in teaching physics. In this study, two schools (out of 14
schools) were selected as purposeful convenience sampling, one for boys (taught by male teachers) and the other
for girls (taught by female teachers). The criteria used to select these schools included: The grade 11 students in
these schools were familiar with the content of the PhET simulations, the students shared similar demographic
characteristics such as age, gender, and ethnicity, and both schools are located in one emirate in the UAE. The
socioeconomic status is mainly from the middle class. Both schools equipped each student with an individual
laptop and printed text in the teaching of physics. Physics lessons are taught by qualified teachers who are fluent
in English. Also, the two groups are in the advanced stream in the academic year of 2019-2020.
The sample of classes was obtained using the random sampling technique. The study included four classes
of students; In the girl’s school, there were three Grade 11 classes (each class has 20 students); one of these three
classes was randomly allocated to face-to-face education (CG), while another class was assigned to the CSs envi-
ronment treatment (EG). The second school for boys has four grade 11 classes (each class has 25 students); one
was chosen randomly to be a CG, whereas another class was selected to be the EG. Therefore, ninety (90) students
participated in this study, of whom 50 were males and 40 females were chosen from the advanced stream. Table
3 summarizes the characteristics of the study group’s participants.
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Table 3
Study Groups
Groups Gender Number (N) Total
Female 20
Control group (CG) 45
Male 25
Female 20
Experimental group (EG) 45
Male 25
Materials
•• Physics Education Technology (PhET) Simulations Package

Physics Education Technology (PhET) is a collection of interactive computer simulations based on research
that may be used to educate and learn physics, chemistry, math, and other sciences (Wilson, 2016). PhET is an open
educational resource that a non-profit organization runs. It was formed in 2002 to improve science education and
learning. PhET simulations are particularly beneficial for visualizing difficult-to-understand subjects in science and
math while also engaging students through manipulation (Wieman et al., 2008). According to Astutik and Prahani
(2018), PhET simulation is meant to present numerous charts and quantitative information windows simultaneously.
The great advantage of PhET is that it can model inaccessible conditions in a real laboratory so that the process can
be explored under various conditions, such as no air resistance, friction, and risk (Batuyong & Antonio, 2018; D’Angelo
et al., 2014). Interactive PhET simulation is now widely used in physics teaching (Wieman et al., 2010). Adams (2010)
claimed that there are several ways to use the PhET simulator in education; for example, the PhET simulations can
help: present new topics, build concepts or skills, and provide final review and reflection. It also provides a common
visualization between students and teachers to facilitate all communication (Perkins et al., 2014). Finally, the PhET
simulation can be played online or downloaded for free, is very research-based, has interactive animation, is easy to
use, and allows actions that are difficult or not to take in the real world (Batuyong & Antonio, 2018).
Research Instruments
This study used java-based NSLOM simulations available for download and installation on student comput-
ers from the website http://phet.colorado.edu., which is free to use. Students were given detailed instructions on
navigating the NSLOM simulations and encouraged to experiment with the various features. Each student then
performed a series of experiments using the pre-explanation provided in the NSLOM worksheet. Finally, students
were asked to determine the mathematical relationships of NSLOM from graphs and visual representations.
Newton’s Second Law of Motion Achievement Test (NSLMAT) included multiple choice questions that assessed
students’ performance in NSLOM (see Appendix A). An NSLMAT was used as a pre-test and a post-test to compare
differences in performance mean scores between students in the treatment group, who learned by CSs, and their
counterparts in the control group, who learned NSLOM using face-to-face education without CSs.
Validation of NSLMAT
Concerning the validity of the content, the test was presented to a group of educators, consisting of 10
experts specialized in physics and physics education, inspectors, high school teachers, and a group of university
professors. The experts were asked to ensure that the test was content valid in terms of formulation of phrases and
language, scientific accuracy, comprehensiveness of the measuring tool, and its suitability for the goal for which it
was developed. Additionally, the experts were asked to judge the paragraphs’ clarity and practicality for the study
participants. The researchers obtained opinions and suggestions from the judges. In light of the observations
received and after all the changes made, the final test consisted of 16 multiple-choice questions. The questions
included an introduction and four alternatives, one of which is correct. Therefore, students must choose an answer
from symbolic options A, B, C, and D.
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NSLMAT Reliability
NSLMAT was given to eleventh graders from the same schools. They were randomly assigned as pilot samples,
did not participate in the experiment, and provided feedback on their understanding of questions related to NS-
LOM. Their responses indicate that they understand these questions. Split-half reliability was calculated to assess
the internal consistency of this NSLMAT by comparing the odd numbers’ results with the even numbers’ results,
as illustrated in Table 4.
Because the two parts’ reliability and variances were not equal, researchers adopted the Guttman split-half
reliability coefficient, and it was found to be .758, which was deemed appropriate and acceptable for this research.
Table 4
Reliability Statistics for NSLMAT Exam
Value .741
Part 1
N of Items 16a
Cronbach’s Alpha Value .844

Part 2
N of Items 16b
Total N of Items 32
Correlation Between Forms .611
Equal Length .759

Spearman-Brown Coefficient
Unequal Length .759
Guttman Split-Half Coefficient .758
Data Analysis
In this study, the central assumptions were tested to ensure the accuracy of the statistical measures and
the correct interpretation of the results. Shapiro-Wilk statistic results were used to test the normal distribution of
the data, and for testing the homogeneity of variances, Leven’s test was calculated for the assumptions that the
variances of the two groups are equal. It was found that the premises have not been violated. Moreover, sample
sizes were calculated using an a priori power analysis performed on the data from this study that compared EGs
to CGs using G*Power version 3.1.9.7. Using the criteria proposed by Cohen (1988), the effect size was 1.34, which
is substantial. The minimum sample size with this effect size is N = 10 for a significance level of .05 and power of
.80. Therefore, the obtained sample size of N = 45 is more than sufficient for the purpose of the present study.
To answer research question one, three kinds of analysis were used. Firstly, mean scores and standard devia-
tions were used to compare the differences between the scores of the EGs and CGs before and after the treatment.
Secondly, the independent sample t-test was used to determine the initial comparison of the two groups before
the intervention. Hake’s normalized gain was calculated to evaluate the intervention’s impact. To answer research
question two, descriptive statistics of mean scores and standard deviation were used to compare NSLMAT scores
differences for both the EGs and the CGs. Mean gain scores and standard deviations were also used to calculate
Cohen’s d effect sizes. One-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was employed to assess whether there were any
statistically significant differences (p) between the two groups before the educational intervention. It was found
that pre-test scores at p < .05 were not significantly different between the experimental and control groups. A
paired t-test was done to determine any statistically significant difference between the two groups pre-and post-
test scores in NSLMAT.
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Research Results
Impact of CSs on Students’ Performance in NSLOM
NSLMAT mean scores (M) and standard deviations (SD) for the participant were calculated using SPSS 26. The
independent sample t-test revealed that the two groups’ pre-test scores at the p < .05 level were not statistically
different. For the EG (M = 18.00, SD = 3.24) and the CG (M = 17.51, SD = 2.84) conditions; t (88) = .093, p = .927. This
means that students in the two groups are comparable, as illustrated in Table 5.
Table 5
An Independent-Samples t-test of NSLMAT of the Two Groups
Groups N M SD t df p
Pre- CG 45 17.51 2.84

Pre- EG 45 18.00 3.24 0.093 88 .927
Table 6 displays the outcomes of the students’ performance scores before and following the intervention
(simulations) for each group independently. According to the mean differences, the EGs appeared to have fared
better on all test questions before receiving any treatment; on the pre-test and the post-test, the EG outperformed
the CG by 0.48 and 5.20 points, respectively.
Table 6
Performance Results of NSLMAT Stratified by Group
EG (N = 45) CG (N = 45)
M SD SEM M SD SEM
Pre-test 18.00 3.24 .48 17.51 2.84 .42

Post-test 25.51 3.62 .54 20.31 4.09 .61
The following formula was used to calculate the normalized gain factor.
�� %�� %
𝑔= ��%��
Hake (1998) categorized the average gain values as; high gain scores if (g ≥ 0.7) medium gain scores if
(0.3 ≤ g < 0.7), and low gain if (g < 0.3). As seen in Table 7, the results showed that EGs, which used the CSs to learn
the concepts with NSLOM, had medium gain scores, while the CGs who treated the same topic face-to-face as an
educational strategy had scored low gain score ranges.
Table 7
Mean Gain of the Two Groups
M M
Groups N Mean difference (%) Gain (g)
Pre-test (%) Post-test (%)
CG 45 56 63 7 .16
EG 45 56 80 24 .55
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Differences in Performance in NSLOM
Table 8 shows that the students in the CG (M =17.51, SD = 2.84) and in the EG (M = 18.00, SD = 3.24) have the
same performance in the pre-test. There was a higher mean in the post-test of the CG and EG, with (M = 20.31,
SD = 4.09) and (M = 25.51, SD = 3.62), respectively.
Using descriptive statistics, the intervention’s effect on the EG’s NSLOM performance was determined by
comparing their pre-and post-test scores on the NSLMAT. The EG has a higher mean score (M = 25.51, SD = 3.62)
than the CG (M = 20.31, SD = 4.09). Cohen (1992) described the degree of these effects, where d = 0.20 is small
effect size, d = 0.50 is medium effect size, and d = 0.80 is large effect size.
Table 8
Performance in NSLOM Gains Stratified by Group
Pre-test Post-test
Cohen’s
Group M SD Variance M SD Variance
d*
EG 18.00 3.24 10.500 25.51 3.62 13.119 2.56
CG 17.51 2.84 8.074 20.31 4.09 16.765 0.73

*: d = effect size
Overall, CSs-based education had the most significant effect on raising students’ understanding of NSLOM
topics compared to face-to-face teaching.
As illustrated in Table 9, a one-way ANOVA found that the post-test scores at p < .05 for the two groups were
significantly different [F (1,89) = 40.718, p < .05].
Table 9
One-Way ANOVA of the Post-test Scores
SS df SS F p
Between Groups 608.40 1 608.40 40.718 < .05

Within Groups 1314.88 88 14.94
Total 1923.28 89
The results of a paired-sample t-test, which was performed to determine whether there was a statistically sig-
nificant difference between the mean pre-test and post-test scores for the EG, are presented in Table 10. It showed
statistically significant differences between the pre-test and post-test scores in the EG, which can be reported as
t (44) = 11.133, p < .05.
Table 10
Paired-Sample t-test of Pre and Post-test of EG
Pre-test Post-test
M SD M SD t df p
18.0000 3.24037 25.51 3.62 11.133 44 p < .05
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Gender Differences in Performance in NSLOM
Table 11 demonstrates that there were no statistically significant differences in the performance of male
students in either the CGs (M = 17.76, SD = 3.03) or the EGs (M = 18.04, SD = 3.43); they had similar performance
as in the pre-test. This was similarly the case for the female students in the CG (M = 17.20, SD = 2.62) and in the EG
(M = 17.95, SD = 3.06). The EGs had a higher mean score than the other groups.
The independent t-test for the equality of means indicated that the difference in the means was not a signifi-
cant t-test (t (88) = 0.502 and p = .617), which suggests that there was no difference between the two groups of
male and female students before the teaching started in the section of NSLOM (Table 12).
Table 11
Descriptive Statistics for the Pre-Test Based on Gender
Gender Condition N M SD
Male 25 17.76 3.0315

CGs
Female 20 17.20 2.6278
Male 25 18.04 3.4337
EGs
Female 20 17.95 3.0689
Table 12
An Independent-Samples t-test of NSLMAT of the Two Gender
Groups N M SD t df p
Pre-test Male 50 17.90 3.20

Female 40 17.57 2.84 0.502 88 .617
There was a statistically significant difference between the mean scores of the male students in the EG on
the pre-test (M = 17.90, SD = 3.20) and the post-test (M = 22.42, SD = 4.68), as shown in Table 13. Both the pre-test
results (M = 17.57, SD = 2.84) and the post-test results (M = 23.52, SD = 4.59) for the female students were found to
be significantly different from one another. The findings presented above indicate that CSs significantly impacted
female students (d = 1.49) and male students (d = 2.44). These findings show that CSs assisted female and male
students in better comprehending NSLOM topics.
Table 13
Performance in NSLOM Gains Stratified by Gender
Pre-test Post-test
Gender M SD M SD Mean Difference d*
Male 17.90 3.21 22.42 4.68 4.52 1.13

Female 17.57 2.85 23.53 4.59 5.95 1.56
*: d = Cohen’s effect size
Discussion
Results of research question one showed that students in the EG performed better than students in the CG,
confirming that CSs, through visualization, helped to establish connections and draw attention to the concepts
and details of NSLOM. Due to this, students become active participants as they attempt to mimic the reality of the
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small world and include many examples and genuine relationships (Hirshman & Bjork, 1988; Stieff et al., 2005) in
ways that aid understanding of NSLOM. Furthermore, Husain (2010) argued that CSs encourage independence,
experiential, and discovery learning among learners and cognitive engagement, which might have contributed
to this better performance in NSLOM.
The findings of this study aligned with the theoretical framework that encourages the active construction
of knowledge. In the constructivist view, students learn by their potential and cognitive capacity, constructing
knowledge through collaboration and personal engagement with learning activities. According to Philips (1997),
constructivism allows students to participate in the learning process and develop their knowledge actively. In the
EG, students were provided and guided with more CSs embedded tasks, allowing them to use more reflective learn-
ing strategies in different lessons. Hence, CSs learning environment will enable students to learn by constructing
knowledge through active engagement and participation. The findings of this study were consistent with those of
earlier studies on CSs effect based on a constructivist approach to alleviating confusion in physics learning/teach-
ing, including those reported by Ghadiri et al. (2016) and Vick (2010). As CSs make visual modeling more realistic
and abstract systems become more concrete (Wibowo et al., 2016), it is well suited for reducing the complexity of
learning through tools such as slow-motion experimental observations, hypothesis formation, experimentation,
and data interpretation (Chang et al., 2008; Posner et al., 1982), as well as clarifying observations (Coştu et al., 2017;
Renken & Nunez, 2013). The results of this study were also similar to the study of Sarı et al. (2017), in which their
research showed that the 5E teaching model integrated into the CSs has the potential to help 11th-grade students
to improve their physics academic performance.
The results of research question two showed that students in the EG performed better than students in the
CG. That is, students were doing better using CSs. A possible explanation for these results is that students may be
motivated to understand the concepts better, which may have enabled the students to achieve better grades. CSs
can produce more positive results than those taught in face-to-face education, which may make students more
interested in extending their learning. Through these CSs related activities, students could gain a deeper under-
standing of the basic principles of each lesson (Mengistu & Kahsay, 2015; Podolefsky et al., 2010; Quellmalz et al.,
2012). These results encourage us to use CSs as an alternative educational tool to overcome difficulties encountered
by students when learning physics.
Another possibility is that the EG showed significantly better performance than CG due to increased student
participation. CSs provided tools that make physics education more effective. Efficiency is reflected in two aspects.
First, learning by CSs can save students’ time in complex calculations and manipulations (Widiyatmoko, 2018; Wilson,
2016). Second, CSs may enable students to be more organized and store and process data (Stern et al., 2017). This
gives students more opportunities to communicate and interact with each other. For example, students can talk to
each other and discuss possible solutions and methods. They can advance various assumptions, test these assump-
tions, and see the results of these tests instantly. In this way, CSs can allow students with opportunities to discuss
and interact with each other and with content. Such interaction may lead to a better understanding of physics.
The results of this study were in line with previous research on the effects of CSs, including those reported
by Bayrak (2008), Holec et al. (2004), Mengistu and Kahsay (2015), Çetin (2018), Sreelekha (2018), and Sarı et al.
(2017). Furthermore, the results of this study also supported the results of two meta-analysis studies. In the first
meta-analysis, 29 experimental studies concluded that CSs education was more effective than traditional classroom
education on students’ achievement (Liao & Chen, 2007). In another meta-analysis, Rutten et al. (2012), who reviewed
510 experimental studies involving CSs, concluded that CSs improved learning outcomes and facilitated students’
conceptual understanding. CSs can also enhance students’ satisfaction, participation, initiative, and perception of
the classroom environment.
With regard to research question three, Cohen’s effect size suggests that male and female students benefited
more from CSs in the NSLOM. This is because CSs provide learners with a realistic experience through which knowl-
edge can be acquired and manipulated to understand better the relationship between the concepts studied. The
results of this study also suggest that female students increased their understanding more than male students
who used CSs. While female students initially lagged far behind their male counterparts in performance, using CSs
helped them to improve and narrow the gap. These improvements may be related to students’ confidence (OECD,
2015). When students are more confident, they have greater leeway to make mistakes and engage in the process
of learning via trial-and-error fundamental to acquiring science/physics knowledge. Moreover, Next Generation
Science Standards (2013) claimed that engaging in scientific practice helps students understand the develop-
ment of scientific knowledge. This direct participation gives them an understanding of the many methods used
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to explore, model, and interpret the world.
The results of this study suggest that the application of CSs in classroom teaching offers secondary school
students other opportunities to improve their performance in physics. In this context, the results have been
summarized as follows. First, this study found that CSs improved students’ understanding of NSLOM. CSs classes
included various activities to help students acquire and integrate physical concepts. Second, the result of this study
challenges claims that gender differences are closely related to the science curriculum, favoring boys. In this study,
female students performed as well as their male counterparts. Therefore, it will be safe to say that gender differ-
ences are on their way to decline in the UAE context, considering these findings and other findings such as those
reported by trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) 2019. Finally, the results support the
constructivist view that knowledge is constructed gradually by students and not directly transmitted by teachers.
Students can manipulate parameters and use the effects of these manipulations in constructive methods to build
new meanings. Therefore, constructivist strategies should be given more attention, as they provide students with
opportunities to design, test, and evaluate their learning and a profound grasp of physical phenomena.
Furthermore, the CSs as a teaching approach should be integrated systematically into teaching physics to
improve their physics performance. As such, decision-makers and schools should gradually move toward CSs inte-
gration to enhance students’ understanding. Finally, this study shows how CSs can be helpful for teachers. Physics
teachers now have a tool to help students learn in the classroom and enhance students’ confidence in the classroom,
boost their attitudes toward physics, make physics more enjoyable for students, and enrich students’ knowledge,
which can be helpful for upper-level physics classes. Often teachers are challenged by unmotivated students in
classrooms who are demotivated by their dislike of physics and potentially poor skills. CSs may provide teachers
with the opportunity to provide students with a tool that allows them to enjoy physics and improves their physics
skills. Nevertheless, interactive CSs do not replace the role of teachers or traditional experimental laboratories.
Teachers should use CSs as a helpful reserve tool to further improve student learning outcomes.
Future Research Opportunities
Given several studies supporting the positive effects of CSs on learning, how CSs could influence the de-
velopment of these much-needed skills in schools should be the focus of future research. Although the findings
reported in this study may need to be treated with the appropriate caution, future research studies may replicate
this study to explore other variables such as student and teacher attitudes toward CSs, student background, and
home variables. Future research is also needed to provide a holistic view of the NSLOM topic by expanding the
sample to include other classes and other stages of education, including primary and higher education stages in
private and public schools.
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Appendix A
Appendix(A)
1. An object of mass 10 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 is accelerated downward at (2m/s2). If (g = 10 m/s2), what is the force of air
resistance?
A 20 𝑁𝑁 upward
B 80 𝑁𝑁 upward
C 120 𝑁𝑁 upward
D 200 𝑁𝑁 upward
2. The free-body diagram shows the forces on a balloon. In which direction will the balloon accelerate?
(Note: the length of the arrows doesn’t represent the amount of the force).
A Up
B Down
C Right
D Left
3. A boy pulls his sister by applying a force equal 𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑜 50 𝑁𝑁 at an angle of 30 north of east.
Which two components are equivalent to the applied force?
A 43 𝑁𝑁- east and 7 𝑁𝑁- north
B 43 𝑁𝑁- east and 25 𝑁𝑁- north

C 35 𝑁𝑁- east and 15 𝑁𝑁- north
D 25 𝑁𝑁- east and 25 𝑁𝑁- north
4. The figure on the right represents the relationship between the force acting and acceleration of two
objects, 𝑨𝑨, and 𝑩𝑩. Which of the following statements is true?
A Object A has a mass greater than object B.
B Object A has a mass equal to object B.
C Object B has a mass greater than object A.
D The mass of the two objects cannot be compared.
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5. A book with a mass of 6.0 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 is held in equilibrium on a surface inclined at an angle of 60. What is the
normal force FN exerted on the book?
A 30 𝑁𝑁 𝐹𝐹𝑁𝑁
B 52 𝑁𝑁
C 60 𝑁𝑁
60
D 104 𝑁𝑁
6. Ahmed and Sara are pulling a light rope in opposite directions. The forces acting on the rope are shown
in the diagram. Which single force has the same effect as the two forces?
A 150 N acting towards the girl

Sara Ahmed
B 550 N acting towards the boy 400 N 550 N
C 150 N acting towards the boy rope
D 400 N acting towards the girl
7. Which combination of forces air resistance

would result in the car moving driving force
at constant speed?
friction
air resistance friction driving force
A 500 N 800 N 1300 N

B 500 N 1300 N 800 N
C 800 N 1300 N 500 N
D 1300 N 800 N 500 N
8. Ahmed pulls his brother 80 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 with a force of 240 𝑁𝑁 at an angle of 60° on a frictionless
horizontal surface, as shown. What is the acceleration of his brother?
A 4 m/s2
motion
B 3 m/s 2
240N
C 2.6 m/s2
60o
D 1.5 m/s 2
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9. The graph shows Saeed’s car journey from his house to

school library. During which section(s) does the acceleration
equal zero? 50
40
Velocity (m/s)
A A&C&E
30
B B&D 20
B
C A&C 1
0
2 4 6 8
D E Time (s)
10. Consider the baby being weighed in the shown figure. What is the mass of the baby if a
scale reading is 67 𝑁𝑁 . Consider the acceleration due to gravity to be 𝑔𝑔 = 10 𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠 2 .
A 10 kg
B 670 kg
C 6.7 kg
D 0.0 kg
11. The figure shows a free-body diagram, a man exerting force on a box to slide it across the
floor. If the box is sliding at a constant velocity, which of the following forces in the free-body
the diagram must be equal in magnitude?
A F1 & F4 𝐹𝐹2
B F1 & F3 𝐹𝐹1
C F4 & F2 𝐹𝐹4
D F4 & F3
𝐹𝐹3
12. The figure shows that two forces, F1= 20 N and F2= 8 N, are acting on a 4 kg object. What are the
magnitude and the direction of the acceleration?
A 4 m/s2 to the left (the same direction of F2) 20 N

4 kg 8N
B 2 m/s2 to the left (the same direction of F2)
C 4 m/s2 to the right (the same direction of F1)
D 3as/s2 to the right (the same direction of F1)
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13. According to the diagram, if the mass of the box increased, which force could remain constant?
Normal force
A Applied force
B Normal force Applied force Friction force
C Friction force
rough table
D Weight
Weight
14. A cord and frictionless pulley supports a bag with a weight of 30 𝑁𝑁 . A force of 15 𝑁𝑁 acts on the bag
and, one end of the cord is pulled by a force of 100 𝑁𝑁, as shown in the figure.
Determine the net force acts on the bag?
A 115 N
B 85 N
100 N
C 70 N
D 55 N
15 N
15. The diagram shows two crates, 𝑚𝑚1 = 12 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 and = 16 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘, respectively, are connected with light
inextensible string rope. A force to the right of 𝐹𝐹1 = 96 𝑁𝑁, is applied. The crates move with an
acceleration of 2 𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠 2 to the right. What the magnitude of force 𝐹𝐹2 ?
A 𝐹𝐹2 = 72 𝑁𝑁
B 𝐹𝐹2 = 56 𝑁𝑁 𝐹𝐹2 =? ? 𝒎𝒎𝟐𝟐 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌 𝐹𝐹1 = 96 𝑁𝑁

𝒎𝒎𝟏𝟏 =12 kg
C 𝐹𝐹2 = 40 𝑁𝑁
D 𝐹𝐹2 = 48 𝑁𝑁
16. Two forces are acting on an object with a mass of 20 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘, as shown in the figure below. What will be
the acceleration of the object?
A 0.5 m/s2 F1=100 N
B 2 m/s2
F2=10 N 60
C 4.5 m/s 2
𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
D 5 m/s2
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Received: June 25, 2022 Revised: September 08, 2022 Accepted: November 25, 2022
Cite as: AlArabi, K., Tairab, H., Wardat, Y., Belbase, S., & Alabidi, S. (2022). Enhancing the learning of Newton’s second law of
motion using computer simulations. Journal of Baltic Science Education, 21(6), 946-966. https://doi.org/10.33225/jbse/22.21.946
Khaleel AlArabi Assistant Professor, College of Education, Al Ain University 1,

United Arab Emirates.
E-mail: 201790104@uaeu.ac.ae
Hassan Tairab PhD, Professor, College of Education, United Arab Emirates
University 2, P.O. Box No. 15551, Al Ain, United Arab Emirates.
E-mail: tairab@uaeu.ac.ae
Yousef Wardat PhD, Assistant Professor, Higher Colleges of Technology 3, United
(Corresponding author) Arab Emirates University 2, United Arab Emirates.
E-mail: yousef_alwardat@yahoo.com
Shashidhar Belbase PhD, Assistant Professor, College of Education, United Arab
Emirates University 2, United Arab Emirates.
E-mail: sbelbase@uaeu.ac.ae
Suzan Alabidi PhD, Assistant Professor, College of Education, Al Ain University 1,
United Arab Emirates.
E-mail: suzan.alabidi@aau.ac.ae
966
DEVELOPING A SUSTAINABLE
DEVELOPMENT-ORIENTED
PICTURE BOOK SELECTION ISSN 1648-3898 /Print/
SYSTEM THROUGH EMPLOYING ISSN 2538-7138 /Online/
THE MODIFIED DELPHI METHOD
Abstract. The concept of “sustainable

Shin-Cheng Yeh, development” was proposed to re-examine
Hsin-Ya Li the human development model. Initiated
by the United Nations, education for
sustainable development (ESD) has become
an important tool for educators to achieve
sustainable development. Although
“Early Childhood Education” (ECE) is
often taken as a starting point of ESD, the
concept of sustainable development is
Introduction difficult to integrate into ECE because of its
unfamiliarity among teachers. Therefore,
Faced with various problems of unsustainability in the global environ- picture books can be used to bolster ESD
ment, society and economy call for re-examining the past development in ECE. This research aims to construct an
model are increasing. In 1987, the United Nations (UN) released the report appropriate book selection guide system
“Our Common Future.” The UN advanced a clear definition of “sustainable that can assist them in selecting picture
development” and urged countries around the world to achieve sustainable books independently, objectively, and
development through various conferences and events. Education is con- efficiently through a focus group and
sidered a key factor in achieving sustainable development. Initiated by the modified Delphi method. The guide system
United Nations, education for sustainable development (ESD) has become an is based on three major aspects, covering
important tool for educators to achieve sustainable development. The “Early 8 main guidelines and 21 sub-guidelines.
Childhood Education” (ECE) stage is considered to be the starting point for A sustainable development-oriented
lifelong learning in ESD (Daries et al., 2009). However, ESD is a new concept picture book is defined as “a book that
and is relatively unfamiliar to ECE teachers which makes it challenging to includes the core, values, and concept of
incorporate ESD into this education stage. sustainable development which can make
Picture books have been used to promote the environmental/ecologi- readers aware of the balance between
cal literacy of students or kids for a long time (Babb et al., 2018; Bhagwanji the environment, society and economy
& Born 2018; Fang, 2018; Fatmah et al., 2020; Hsiao & Shih, 2016; Majdenić & and that attempts to systematically
Saratlija, 2019). Children’s pro-environmental behavior and comprehension explore problems, generate actions, and
of complex, global sustainability issues can be improved by carefully selected solve problems in relation to these three
children’s books (Bhagwanji & Born 2018). These books can promote children’s dimensions from a critical and global
learning motivation and interest through their graphic narrative. Therefore, viewpoint.” in this study.
sustainable development-oriented picture books can be an appropriate tool Keywords: education for sustainable
for ECE teachers to introduce the concept of sustainability at an entry level development, early childhood education,
and can help children understand the positional differences between global Delphi Method, picture book
citizens as well as the rights and obligations to realize a sustainable future.
Many studies propose the application of picture books in ESD (Bhagwanji &
Born 2018; Goga, 2017; Wu, 2021), but compared to picture books related to
environmental or ecological themes that have been around for more than Shin-Cheng Yeh, Hsin-Ya Li
20 years and are readily available (Rule & Atkinson, 1994), the number of sus- National Taiwan Normal University, Taiwan
tainable development-oriented picture books only increased after the 2000s
(Babb et al, 2018; Spearman & Eckhoff, 2012). Therefore, it is challenging for
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ECE teachers who may not have received ESD themselves to choose a suitable sustainable development-oriented
picture book from a large number of picture books, as some books may not be helpful in learning sustainable
development-related concepts and issues. Materials inducing negative learning effects are also possible, which is
of major concern. Most ECE teachers lack confidence in independently choosing a suitable picture book and lack a
book selection system that can assist early education teachers to select picture books independently, objectively,
and efficiently. Thus, a clear definition is necessary for identifying sustainable development-oriented picture books,
and a corresponding discussion on how to select high-quality books for educational purposes is necessary. In recent
years, more and more electronic picture books have been published together with printed books. The focus of this
research is on sustainable development-oriented picture books in either form. Other online sources are also worth
further studying but are not included in this research.
Currently, there already exists a sufficient book selection system for ecological and environmentally oriented
picture books, which assists librarians and teachers in establishing book lists that can be used as teaching resources
(Martín et al., 2019; Rule & Atkinson, 1994). However, relevant research on the selection of sustainable development-
oriented picture books is not yet mature (Bhagwanji & Born, 2018; Spearman & Eckhoff, 2012). There is no clear
definition of sustainable development-oriented picture books and there is a lack of in-depth discussion on how
to select books. Therefore, this research aimed to construct a book selection guide system that not only lists the
characteristics of picture books but can specifically assist educators in independently, objectively, and efficiently
selecting suitable picture books. This is important and necessary to promote ESD in the ECE stage. This research
first formulates a definition of sustainable development-oriented picture books, outlines their appearance, and
explores the connotation and performance of the sustainable development-oriented picture book, its methods,
and subsequent effects.
Literature Review
After the ages of the Industrial Revolution, the rapid and global industrial development led to revolutionary
changes in the production and consumption of commodities and more progress in science and technologies
that reshaped human lives. These also resulted in the explosive increase of the world population according to
advancement in medical and public health research. However, these leap-forwards were accompanied by the
depletion of resources, the decline of environmental quality, climate change, the prevalence of infectious dis-
eases, and other pressing issues which affected the complex network that constitutes the global environment,
society, and economy. The Post–World War II period was characterized by severe environmental pollution and
the overuse of resources. This raised questions among many Western scholars about the sustainability of the
post-war growth model and led to the emergence of works such as “The Limit to Growth”, reminding people that
humanity’s future is deprived by one’s actions. In 1987, the UN released the report “Our Common Future”, which
proposed the concept of sustainable development. It argued that in order to deal with the above-mentioned
problems, it is necessary to re-examine the human development model and the unsustainable pursuit of economic
development. Economic development should consider environmental protection and social justice, as well as
intergenerational justice to enhance and create contemporary well-being without sacrificing the well-being of
future generations (United Nations, 1987).
To achieve sustainable development, education is regarded as crucial. Therefore, the UN has stimulated
ESD since 1992, hoping to integrate the concept and practice of sustainable development into all stages of
education. In social education curricula and activities, individuals are trained from an early age to become
global citizens capable of supporting sustainable development (Foley, 2016; Hägglund & Samuelsson, 2009;
Kioupi & Voulvoulis, 2019; United Nations, 1992, p. 320). Among all stages of education, ECE is “recognized as
the starting point for lifelong learning within education for sustainability” (Daries, 2010). The integration of ECE
into ESD, or the integration of ESD into ECE, contributes to the establishment of concepts, attitudes, values, a nd
behaviors on a personal level related to sustainable development in the stages of early childhood (Ernst et al.,
2021; Kahriman-Ozturk et al, 2012).
A picture book is a teaching tool suitable for ECE. Sustainable development-oriented picture books can be
used as a medium to promote ESD in the stage of ECE due to their graphic narrative which is the main charac-
teristic of picture books. Teaching ESD with visual effects is a powerful and effective teaching strategy (Bautista
et al., 2018) and ECE teachers can guide children through picture books while discussing the issues of sustain-
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ability and sustainable development (Spearman & Eckhoff, 2012). Although ECE teachers and parents are familiar
with picture books related to the environment or ecology, they are less familiar with picture books oriented to
sustainable development. Integrating the concept of sustainability into existing curricula is challenging for early
childhood educators, as the inclusion of social and economic issues in the curriculum is different from most
traditional Environmental Education (EE) models (Spearman & Eckhoff, 2012).
The Content of Picture Books Gradually Evolves with the Development of ESD
Scholars in the field of EE emphasize that early childhood is a crucial period for developing a connection
with nature and cultivating a love for the natural world (Ardoin & Bowers, 2020). Picture books that include
natural elements and the concept of environmental protection have become teaching tools that are often used
in ECE to raise children’s environmental awareness and natural-friendly behavior and also develop a sense of
place (Babb et al., 2018; Bhagwanji & Born 2018; Fang, 2018; Fatmah et al., 2020; Hsiao & Shih, 2016; Majdenić
& Saratlija, 2019). In the United States, with the establishment of the Environmental Protection Agency and the
passage of the Environmental Education Act in the 1970s (Carter & Simmons, 2010), a number of picture books
describing environmental problems that arose from industrialization were published. Examples are “Michael
Bird-Boy” (DePaola, 1975), “The Giving Tree” (Silverstein, 1964), and “The Lorax” (Seuss & Random House, 1971).
Marris (2011) described “The Lorax” as a “parody of a misanthropic ecologist” and “gloomy”, questioning the book’s
narrative and its effects on young children’s thinking. However, she still affirmed that the book communicates
environmental issues effectively, in a way that young children can understand. Different from “The Lorax”, the
picture book “The Sea People” not only criticizes industrial development for causing ecological tragedy but also
describes that environmental resources are finite and must be used in a limited way to let resources regenerate
(Muller & Steiner, 1982). To this day, “The Sea People” is a classic picture book used to explain the sustainable
use of environmental resources and intergenerational justice, echoing the “Declaration of the United Nations
Conference on the Human Environment”, emphasizing that “people should utilize the resources of the earth in
such a way that they can be transmitted to generations yet to be born as a heritage which is not only preserved
but enriched” (Sohn, 1973). It also echoes the “Tbilisi Declaration” (UNESCO, 1977) which states that “EE helps
reveal the enduring continuity which links the acts of today to the consequences for tomorrow,’’ not only em-
phasizing the need to solve environmental problems but also the need for generational justice, which is at the
core of the sustainable development concept.
From the 1990s onwards, the UN has advanced the discourse on sustainable development, which it dis-
seminated to countries around the world through conferences and events. The Brundtland Report put forward
a formal definition of sustainable development: “sustainable development is the development that meets the
needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs’’ (United
Nations, 1987). In 1992, the World Summit on Sustainable Development adopted Agenda 21 (United Nations,
1992). This included Chapter 25 which put emphasis on strengthening the role of children and young people
in sustainable development and Chapter 36 which promoted education, public awareness, and training which
could provide a global blueprint that bolstered sustainable development globally. Furthermore, the United Na-
tions declared 2005 to 2014 as the Decade of Education for Sustainable Development (DESD), looking to further
emphasize the importance of education in promoting sustainable development and gaining momentum for ESD
(UNESCO, 2005). In 2015, the United Nations launched the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and published
the “2030 Agenda 30 Agenda for Sustainable Development Goals” the following year. The 17 SDGs serve as a
basis to guide sustainable development strategies by 2030 (United Nations, 2015). SDGs have become the focus
of ESD and serve as an important guiding framework for sustainable development policies of various countries.
Since the contents of ESD are evolving, picture books are as well. Babb et al. (2018) analyzed the content of
249 picture books on the shortlist of the Children’s Book Council of Australia (CBCA) from 1955 to 2014. The study
found that descriptions of the natural environment and wild animals decreased year by year. On the contrary, the
topic of sustainability has only appeared since 2000 and has been increasing every year. The author argues that
this is due to the fact that a clear definition of sustainable development has only been established since 1987. By
using sustainability as the main theme, picture books that are oriented toward sustainable development can help
readers understand the interaction between the three dimensions of environment, economy, and society, and
try to explore problems, generate actions, and come up with solutions. For example, the picture book “Isabel’s
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The Transition of the Content of Picture Books Evolved with the Development of ESD
Figure 1
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House of Butterflies” describes the story of Isabel, a Mexican girl, whose family is affected by a drought. When
the family has to cut down the firs where many butterflies live, Isabel asks her father to plant drought-tolerant
corn and make cakes in the form of butterflies to sell to tourists who come to watch butterflies. This solves the
family’s economic problems and protects the butterflies and firs (Johnston, 2005). Similarly, the story “Beatrice’s
Goat” which is based on the true story of Beatrice Biira, a poor Ugandan girl, describes how a goat improved her
family’s financial problems and gave Beatrice her dream of going to school (McBrier, 2004). The protagonists
of these two picture books solve environmental, social, and economic problems of unsustainability and are
representatives of picture books with a sustainable development orientation. Figure 1 shows the transition of
the content of picture books from the 1970s till the current day. The negative effects of industrialization were
emphasized in the 1970s, while the problems between the environment, society, and economy were designed
and discussed in the 1990s. Since the origin of the 21st century, the balance between the environment, economy,
and society from a more inclusive and diverse perspective could be found in many picture books.
When ECE teachers use picture books as a tool to promote ESD in the ECE stage, they often experience
several problems in selecting suitable books. Not only are they unfamiliar with picture books that are oriented to
sustainable development, but they might also lack a clear understanding of sustainable development. This lack
of confidence in independently selecting picture books often sees teachers resort to selecting popular books
or stories that are written in simple language and content (Hug, 2010). Therefore, it is necessary to define what
sustainable development-oriented picture books are and construct a book selection system that can help ECE
educators select picture books independently, objectively, and efficiently.
Related Research on the Development of Book Selection Guides for

Sustainable Development-Oriented Picture Books
At present, research on picture book selection guidelines is based on picture books that include concepts
of natural elements and environmental protection. For example, Rule and Atkinson (1994) analyzed 30 picture
books about ecology between 1942 and 1992 including keywords such as endangered species, destruction of
habitats and forests, pollution, land use and overpopulation. They also analyzed 10 traits (Table 1) to carry out a
5-level score of each book to provide elementary school teachers and librarians with a reference guide to select
ecological-oriented picture books. Martín et al. (2019) continued and updated the research of Rule and Atkinson
(1994) by analyzing 30 ecological-themed picture books published in English and Spanish from 1994 to 2019.
The authors used 12 criteria to construct a 5-level score content analysis to provide primary school teachers
with a guide to selecting appropriate ecological-themed picture books.
Regarding the research on sustainable development-oriented picture books, Spearman and Eckhoff (2012)
propose that teachers should ask questions related to the six E’s (Ecology/Environment, Economy/Employment,
and Equity/Equality) when teaching children about sustainable development using picture books. The research
of Bhagwanji and Born (2018) has provided a model for emerging sustainable learning curricula supported by
picture books consisting of 4 categories: Appreciation for Nature, Caring for Nature, Leading Healthy Lifestyles,
and Practicing Sustainable Living. The authors also recommend selecting picture books according to the follow-
ing book selection process: “choose books that approach environmental topics with sensitivity and grace”, “look
carefully at the roles or responsibilities of children encouraged in the stories”, and “how is nature portrayed?’’
meaning that books which “will perpetuate a disconnect from the natural world and add to the children’s feelings
of hopelessness’’ should not be selected, “be aware of how animals are portrayed”, and “make multiple copies of
books available.’’ Although the above-mentioned studies have constructed a basic outline for what teaching with
sustainable development-oriented picture books entails, they neither include a clear definition of sustainable
development-oriented picture books, nor a discussion of what the conceptual content, layout, and functions
of the picture books should consist of. Only after this knowledge gap is filled, it is possible to construct a book
selection guide system that can assist ECE educators to select suitable picture books independently, objectively,
and efficiently.
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Table 1
Research Related to the Selection of Picture Books
Relevant Research Picture Books Characteristics and Book Selection Process
Rule &Atkinson (1994) examine how primary 1. Nature Appreciation

school teachers and librarians choose picture 2. Interrelatedness of Nature
books about ecology to foster environmental 3. Realistic Ecology Problem
care in children and encourage them to become
4. Hope of a Solution
global problem-solvers.
5. Steps of Solution
6. Positive Tone
7. Non-stereotypic Portrayals
8. Appropriate Illustrations
9. Story Appeal
10. Developmental appropriateness
Martín et al. (2019) continue the research of 1. Nature Appreciation
Rule & Atkinson (1994) and assist teachers in 2. Interrelatedness of Nature
establishing a list of children’s picture books on 3. Realistic Ecology Problem
ecology as a reference for EE.
4. Differing Perspectives
5. Hope for a Solution
6. Reflection and Responsibility
7. Steps for a Solution
8. Positive tone
9. Representation of Diversity
10. Appropriate Illustrations
11. Story Appeal
12. Developmental Appropriateness
Spearman and Eckhoff (2012) propose picture 1. Ecology/Environment: knowledge of environmental resources and the fragility of the environment
book features that can be used when teaching 2. Economy/Employment: sensitivity concerning the limits of economic growth and its impact on society
“young readers” about sustainability. and the environment
3. Equity/Equality: understanding social institutions and their role in change and development
Bhagwanji and Born (2018) propose book selec- 1. Carefully select books that deal with environmental themes
tion procedures that support emerging sustain- 2. Pay attention to the suitability of the roles or responsibilities given to children in the book
able learning curricula for children 3. Avoid books that include a bleak or discouraging description of the natural world
4. Avoid descriptions of animals that are aggressive, malicious, demeaning, or anthropomorphic
5. Provide a multiplicity of books and provide time for children to read through the books on their own
Source: Composed by the author, based on the relevant literature (Rule & Atkinson, 1994; Martínet al., 2019; Spearman & Eck-
hoff, 2012; Bhagwanji & Born, 2018).
The Definition and Conceptual Content of Sustainable Development-Oriented Picture Books
Ideally, the conceptual content and implication of sustainable development-oriented picture books should be
able to echo the environmental, sociocultural, and economic aspects of sustainable development as well as several
SDGs. At least one aspect should be the main axis around which the other two aspects revolve. This can guide
readers to think about these three aspects and motivate them to raise questions. If educators are willing, they can
assist readers to apply these questions concerning the relationship between the three aspects to their daily lives.
This can be done from a micro perspective for young learners, extending it to a macro perspective for older learners
to let them understand the complex interactions between human and natural systems and the role of individuals,
groups, and institutions in these systems (Bhagwanji & Born, 2018; Spearman & Eckhoff, 2012; UNESCO, 2014).
Each of the three aspects has a different function in enhancing the understanding of sustainable development.
The environmental aspect shows that natural resources are limited and fragile, which encourages appreciation and
care for nature. This care for nature can improve our understanding of how to maintain the natural environment
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and promote sustainable resource extraction (Martín et al. et al., 2019; Rule & Atkinson, 1994). The socio-cultural
aspect conveys an understanding of social institutions and their role in change and development. Furthermore,
this aspect enhances our understanding of democratic systems of civic engagement which allow people to express
opinions, choose governments, reach consensus, and resolve differences (Bhagwanji & Born, 2018; Martín et al.,
2019; Spearman & Eckhoff, 2012; UNESCO, 2014). The economic aspect presents the limits, sensitivity, and impact
of economic growth on society and the environment, assessing individual and social consumption levels from an
environmental and social justice perspective (Bhagwanji & Born, 2018; Spearman & Eckhoff, 2012). A complete ESD
concept should go beyond the natural environment and embrace a holistic concept of sustainability that includes
social, economic, and political dimensions (Hill et al., 2014). ESD is an appropriate way to build concepts and values
of sustainability, as it focuses not only on environmental sustainability but also on social justice, responsibility,
and values of care for all people and the world itself (Mensah, 2019). When ESD is integrated into ECE, the latter
transforms into an educational stage that values, encourages, and supports children to detect problems, solve
them, and act on sustainability issues that are relevant in their own lives (Davis, 2009; Davis & Elliott, 2014). This
not only cultivates children’s appreciation and concern for nature but also empowers children to participate in
political, social, and economic issues.
Besides the three environmental, socio-cultural, and economic aspects, the conceptual content of a picture
book with a sustainable development orientation should also include the values a nd concepts of SD, ESD, and SDGs,
which respects differences, diversity, the environment, the earth’s resources (UNESCO, 2014), global citizenship
and changes in the timeline which can present differences between past, present, and future perceptions of the
world. This research defines such sustainable development-oriented picture books as follows: books that contain
the core values a nd concepts of sustainable development, attract readers to pay attention to the balance between
environmental, socio-cultural, and economic aspects, use critical thinking after reading, and explore sustainability
problems, generate action, and solve the problems occurring in each of the aspects by using a global perspective.
The Form of Expression of Sustainable Development-Oriented Picture Books
The form of expression of picture books is mainly based on images and supplemented by text to narrate sto-
ries. This makes picture books suitable for teaching children, as these books can cater to children’s nature, promote
their learning motivation and interest, and have them develop a relationship with language through cognitive
participation related to artistic thinking and entertainment (Elia, et al., 2010; Hsiao, 2010; Montag, et al., 2015;
Saltmarsh, 2007; Tare, et al., 2010). When choosing a picture book as a carrier to promote ESD in the ECE stage, not
only is it important to note the conceptual content and main connotation of picture books, but also the layout’s
suitability for children in the ECE stage.
Bhagwanji and Born (2018) have emphasized that the selection of books, media, and other materials to teach
children in the ECE stage is an indirect experience with the real world. Therefore, attention must be paid to whether
the natural environment and living things are accurately, respectfully, and sensitively depicted. Hug (2010) has
pointed educators must be able to judge whether the science used in the books is accurate or misleading when
using children’s literature for teaching. Marriott (2002) argues that an excessive use of anthropomorphic images in
picture books is also extremely misleading. If picture books contain fantasy or fictional content, teachers need to
explain this to children additionally (Mantzicopoulos & Patrick, 2011). The Stages of Reading Development proposed
by Jeanne Chall (Chall, 1983) shows that children under the age of 8 have difficulties with ‘abstract thinking’ and
do not comprehend events that do not occur around them. The reading and comprehension abilities of children
are not perfect. Therefore, if the content of the picture book is too detached from reality and too abstract, it is very
likely to mislead children in the ECE stage. Images in picture books can arouse children’s emotions about different
organisms and the environment itself which can leave a lasting impression on children (Babb et al., 2018). Therefore,
picture books must be used carefully with children, especially when it comes to explaining environmental sustain-
ability and issues that are global by nature (Muthukrishnan & Kelley, 2017). Hence, the description of sustainable
development-oriented picture books should closely represent what is happening in reality and should connect
with realistic situations.
However, real-world issues can also create fear or limit a child’s thinking space to the extent that goes far
beyond a child’s ability to process emotions. For example, the extinction of all living things, the end of the world,
is likely to bring a sense of alienation, anxiety, guilt, or fear into a child’s mind. This can cause them to feel hopeless
about the future and even make children disengage from participating (Bhagwanji & Born, 2018; Marris, 2011).
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Examining real-world problems, therefore, requires positive attitudes and expressions of hope for solving these
problems without placing too much responsibility or culpability on the shoulders of young children (Mantzico-
poulos & Patrick, 2011). Rule and Atkinson (1994) emphasized that picture books should make children happy, and
active, and enable them to generate feelings towards environmental problems that are positive instead of fearful.
Similarly, picture books with a sustainable development orientation should include this ‘positive orientation’ as well.
Adults should not merely regard children as incapable or in need of protection but should empower children
as decision-makers and actors in solving problems (Boyd, 2018; Davis, 2009). A story with an open ending that is
left to the reader’s judgment, avoids the reinforcement of prejudice against certain norms and behaviors, prevents
the imposition of the author’s own beliefs and values o nto children, and limits the opportunities for propagandistic
narratives to be included in the story. Therefore, the layout of picture books should also include ‘inclusiveness’ as
one of its core traits.
The form of expression of picture books is characterized by their special artistic forms. Since picture books are
designed for children, it is important to assess whether the description method is suitable for certain age groups,
whether the story is interesting, and whether the number of words is appropriate and comprehensible to keep
children’s attention to the story. Bhagwanji and Born (2018) argue that picture books that support sustainable
learning curricula must attract children to read more than once since this results in a better chance of generating
follow-up actions after engaging with the story.
The Substantial Impact of Sustainable Development-Oriented Picture Books
The function of picture books can be examined from multiple perspectives, including the knowledge,
values, and skills of the readers, which would be reflected in their daily lives (Rule and Atkinson, 1994; Spearman
and Eckhoff, 2012). The theoretical backgrounds have been explored not only through traditional behavioral
studies but also via the methodologies in neuroscience. Some research works demonstrated that most of the
growth and ‘wiring’ of brain connections occur before birth and during the first six years of life (Doria et al., 2010).
The experiences of infants and young children significantly affect physical and neurological development, which
are directly related to subsequent physical, psychological, and socio-emotional responses. These life experiences
alter the brains of young children and many beliefs and values that are formed during early childhood are carried
over to adulthood. The impact of childhood experiences is important and will affect children’s emotions and feel-
ings about the world around them, as well as their knowledge, skills, and dispositions (Bhagwanji & Born, 2018).
These offered the base for the states and parties of Unicef to agree on the 1990 Convention on the Rights of the
Child (CRC), addressing the inclusion of fostering respect for the natural environment and environmental issues
in children’s education (Unicef, 1989).
Thus, it is crucially important that concepts and values of sustainability are introduced at an early stage of life
(Spearman & Eckhoff, 2012; Bhagwanji & Born, 2018). When ESD enters early education, it is a transformative educa-
tion that supports children’s development as problem solvers, actors, and decision-makers in sustainability-related
matters and invites children to engage with real-world issues (Boyd, 2018). The ideal sustainable development-
oriented picture books would therefore invite children to understand the problems that occur in the real world
and help them to reflect on “what is our responsibility? (Martín et al., 2019), appropriately encourage and empower
children with roles or responsibilities (Bhagwanji & Born, 2018), and generate motivation for subsequent action;
even more so, to generate action in their daily lives and even become advocates who influence others. This also
reflects the characteristics of the SDGs and the TBLs of sustainable development, i.e., integration and indivisibility
of all aspects and balance between the environmental, social, and economic perspectives (United Nations, 2015).
Research Focus
The concept of sustainable development was advanced to re-examine the current human development model
that has caused problems of unsustainability on an environmental, societal, and economical level and is character-
ized by a pursuit of excessive economic growth. Education is important to successfully achieve more sustainable
development models. This starts at the ECE stage, in which the foundation for lifelong learning in ESD is laid down.
This foundation should create a deeper understanding of this complex, global issue and develop appropriate
concepts, attitudes, values , and behaviors in relation to sustainable development (Kahriman- Ozturk et al., 2012;
Spearman & Eckhoff, 2012). However, integrating the concept of sustainable development into the existing cur-
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riculum is challenging for early childhood educators. Child-centered and sustainable development-oriented picture
books can provide strong support for early childhood educators. However, ESD is relatively unfamiliar to these
educators, and they may lack ESD-related education or an in-depth understanding of sustainable development.
This creates a lack of confidence among ECE teachers to independently select books. Therefore, it is necessary to
construct a book selection guide system that can help ECE teachers to be independent, objective, and efficient.
This kind of guide system would be unprecedented as it does not only list the features of picture books but also
helps users to independently select suitable picture books through the book selection guide system. As mentioned
above, this study first defines sustainable development-oriented picture books as books that contain the core
values and concepts of sustainable development and can attract readers to pay attention to the balance between
the three aspects of environment, society, and economy. After reading, picture books should motivate readers to
explore problems, generate action, and solve problems by using critical thinking from a global perspective. Having
discussed what the conceptual content, layout, and function of sustainable development-oriented picture books
entail, it is now possible to analyze how a preliminary concept of a sustainable development-oriented picture book
selection guide system can be developed.
The sustainable development-oriented picture book selection guide system has the concept of sustainable
development at its core and considers the characteristics of picture books and the principles of early education in
its selection guide. As shown in Table 2, this system consists of several core aspects. First of all, it includes (A) ‘com-
pleteness of the concept of sustainable development,’ taking at least one of the three major aspects (environment,
society, and economy) of sustainable development as its main focus, corresponding to the other two aspects, and
being consistent with the SDGs. Second, it includes the concept of (B) ‘caring for nature’ to have readers understand
and feel the beauty of nature, and to demonstrate the necessity of cooperation between man and nature. This
aspect focuses on the natural world serving the common good of all and demonstrating the need to foster healthy
ecosystems and create a sense of interconnectedness between man and nature. Third, this system includes the
aspect of (C) ‘literacy and artistry’ which assesses the concepts, vocabulary, and sentences used in the story. These
different aspects should contain an appropriate structure including pictures and texts that are designed to suit
the age of children in ECE. Examples of questions that can be asked here are: Do the illustrations complement and
enhance the content? Are the illustrations engaging? And do the illustrations move the story forward? Fourth,
it includes the concept of (D) ‘realism’ which assesses if questions are presented realistically. This means avoiding
the usage of oversimplifications, exaggerations, playful narratives, excessive anthropomorphisms, and portray-
als of certain animal species as aggressive, non-intelligent or malicious. Fifth, the system should assess whether
picture books are (E) ‘inclusive’ and provide readers with environmental, social, and economic perspectives. This
also includes assessing whether picture books provide enough thinking space to readers (rather than subjectively
nudging readers into judging the story). For example, by providing multiple outcomes or an open ending, prompt-
ing readers to think independently about various possibilities. Sixth, and last, this system assesses the (F) ‘positive
orientation’ of picture books which includes emphasizing problem-solving rather than blame, encouraging posi-
tive and appropriate behaviors, not causing any feelings of fear, and respecting children as individuals who can
think critically and logically. These six core aspects are used as the foundation for the subsequent construction of
a sustainable development-oriented picture book guide system.
Table 2
The Core Aspects of a Preliminary Book Selection Guide for Sustainable Development-Oriented Picture Books
Core Aspects Conceptual Explanation
A. Completeness of the Concept of Including at least one of the three major aspects of sustainable development (environment, society,
Sustainable Development economy) as its main focus. It can also correspond to the other two aspects and relate to the SDGs.
B. Caring for Nature Assisting readers in understanding and feeling the beauty of nature and demonstrating the necessity to
have man and nature cooperate.
C. Literacy and Artistry Considering whether the core concepts, vocabulary, sentence structure, and design of pictures and texts
within the book are suitable for children.
D. Realism Assessing whether problems are raised in a realistic way, as well as assessing the usage of oversimplifi-
cations or exaggerations.
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Core Aspects Conceptual Explanation
E. Inclusivity Providing enough space for readers to think critically about the story instead of subjectively guiding read-
ers to make judgments. This can be done by including multiple endings or open endings.
F. Positive Orientation Encouraging effective problem-solving and positive and appropriate behavior rather than blame). Fear is
not induced in the story and children are regarded as individuals who can think critically and logically.
Research Objectives and Questions
The book selection guide system is a new tool that can help ECE educators or parents to select appropriate
picture books independently, objectively, and efficiently. The definition of sustainable development-oriented
picture books should be confirmed first, then outlining their appearance and exploring in depth the conceptual
content, form of expression, and substantial impacts as the basis for constructing a sustainability-oriented picture
book selection guide. Thus, this research included two main objectives:
1. Examine and understand research works on picture books and the development of book selection
guides related to the broadened concept of sustainable development, and how sustainable develop-
ment was framed in these picture books.
2. Construct a sustainable development-oriented picture book selection guide system.
The corresponding research questions were:
1. What are the relevant studies on the guidelines for selecting picture books for sustainable develop-
ment? What are the possible benefits or shortcomings of these studies? And what are the proposed
definitions and characteristics of sustainable development-oriented picture books?
2. What is the structure and content of the book selection guide system for sustainable development-
oriented picture books?
General Background
The Focus Group Interview and the Modified Delphi Methods were employed as the main research meth-
ods. As this study aims to construct a sustainable development-oriented picture book selection guide, the basic
characteristics of picture books and the principles of ECE were contextualized and integrated, with sustainable
development as the core concept. A group of selected experts was invited to offer comments and amendments
to the original proposal of the sustainable development-oriented picture book selection guide system.
The Modified Delphi Method (MDM), proposed by Murry and Hammons (1995), captures the spirit and advan-
tages of the Delphi Method by replacing the original first-round questionnaire with a literature review or expert
interview to simplify the process of a complex open-ended questionnaire, reduce the burden on experts. The
Focus Group Interview mentioned above may function as the first round of questionnaires in the MDM processes.
Lanford (1972) noted that in studies conducted with the MDM, the more pronounced expert convergent thinking
usually occurs between the first and second rounds. In this study, we conducted two more rounds of questionnaire
surveys to achieve a stable level of consensus among more experts.
The flow of the study is shown in Figure 2.
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Figure 2 Figure 2
Flow
Flow Chart Chart
of the of theProcess
Research Research Process
Initial research
The concept of sustainable
development as the core
Principles of early education Literature review
Characteristics of picture books

Construction of the first draft of a
sustainable-oriented book selection guide
Focus group Interview
The draft to be
checked by the MDM
experts
First round of the Delphi method

questionnaire
Modified Delphi Method
Collection, analysis, and revision of

questionnaires
Second round of the Delphi method

questionnaire
Collection, analysis, and revision of

questionnaires
Completion of a book selection guide for

sustainable-oriented picture books
Participants
Focus Group Participants
In general, the recommended size for focus groups is six to eight participants, large enough to gain a variety
of perspectives and small enough not to become disorderly or fragmented (Krueger & Casey, 2000; Chestnutt
& Robson, 2001; Plummer, 2008). A group of fewer than 6 participants can make the discussion inadequate or
boring. On the other hand, more than 12 participants can make the moderator difficult to control the discussion,
and those participants need more time to participate actively. Academic focus groups tend to use groups of less
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than 10 participants to explore the motivation and causes of participants’ opinions or attitudes in depth (Stewart
& Shamdasani, 2014). As constructing a sustainable development-oriented picture book guide system involves
topics such as sustainable development, early education, and picture book creation-related fields, six experts in
environmental education, education for sustainable development, picture book writing, picture book editing, and
picture book promoting were invited to participate in the group discussion. More information on these experts is
presented in Table 3. These six experts formed a moderated structured group so that the moderator could guide
the experts through in-depth interactions and discussions.
Table 3
Background Information of the Focus Group Participants
Expert Job title Workplace Expertise
A University Research Institute Environmental interpretation, tourism and recreation management, responsible
Professor environmental behavior, ecotourism, environmental education
B Manager NGO Environmental education, promotion of green picture books and lesson plans
C University Centre of General Sustainable development, SDGs, sustainable development education, outdoor
Professor Studies education, environmental education
D University Research Institute Environmental education, disaster prevention education

Professor
E Picture Book Publishing House Promoting the significance of sustainable development

Writer
F Editor Publishing House Picture book editing, picture book marketing
Delphi Survey Respondents
This research adopts an original exploration method which is constructed and developed by using the Delphi
method (Brady, 2015). The experts invited to answer to the Delphi questionnaires were selected considering the
diversity of their academic or professional backgrounds, their familiarity with related topics and issues, balanced
experiences and viewpoints between theory and practice, the ability to communicate, and an inclusive and open
mindset. Following these, 20 experts were invited who are professors in environmental education or education
for sustainable development, picture book editors, picture book creators, elementary school teachers, and early
education teachers by purposive sampling.
Research Instrument and Procedures
The opinions of the focus group experts were compiled in the form of video, audio, and written records. Their
consensus reached in the meeting was documented and then mailed to each of the participants for inquiring fur-
ther opinions. As there were no more objections to the transcript received, we can conclude that data saturation
was obtained and thus there was no need to conduct another group discussion. Thus, we obtained the draft of the
Preliminary Book Selection Guide for Sustainable Development-Oriented Picture Books (Table 5) as the basis for
the first round of the Delphi Method questionnaire, in order to simplify the process of the complex open-ended
questions. The processes of two rounds of structured questionnaires were then carried out. The 20 participants were
told to focus on the 3 aspects, 8 main guidelines, and 18 sub-guidelines of the sustainable development-oriented
picture book selection guide. The responses were scaled using a 5-point Likert scale, 1 being ‘very unimportant’, 2
being ‘unimportant’, 3 being ‘neutral’, 4 being ‘important’, and 5 being ‘very important.’ A higher score indicates a
higher level of agreement on the aspects, guidelines, or sub-guidelines. The experts can also propose any amend-
ment. The statistical analysis of the two rounds of the Delphi method expert questionnaire used EXCEL software
to calculate the mean, standard deviation, standard deviation coefficient, paired sample t-test, and other values.
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In order to determine whether the convergence of the various guidelines has been attained, we need to
establish the criteria based on some statistics, including the mean (M), standard deviation (SD), and coefficient
of variance (CV). The mean (M) for each guideline, which shows the ‘concentration’ of 20 experts’ opinions on the
importance of each guideline, can represent the average strength of the guideline. The coefficient of variance (CV),
the ratio of the standard deviation to the mean, was used to measure the degree of agreement of the experts with
the guidelines (Chang et al., 2002). A CV ≤ 0.3 indicates that the experts’ opinion is highly consistent; 0.3 ≤ CV ≤
0.5 means that the experts’ opinion is consistent within an acceptable range; while the situation CV ≧ 0.5 shows
that the difference in opinions must be explained. In addition, the paired sample t-test checks the consensus of
experts in the two rounds of the questionnaire. If p > .05, we can say that the experts have the same opinion in the
two questionnaire rounds. Accordingly, the collective criteria for convergence of the experts’ opinions include the
mean of the guidelines ≧ 4, CV ≤ 0.5, and p > .05.
Data Analysis
In addition to the on-site recording of the focus group’s opinion, the entire discussion process was recorded
and converted into a verbatim transcript. Based on the analysis of on-site records and verbatim manuscripts, the
researchers reviewed and revised each guideline one by one. Furthermore, they added, deleted or merged some
guidelines, and completed the preliminary sustainable development-oriented picture book selection guide sys-
tem. Then, following the preliminary sustainable development-oriented picture book selection guide system, it
conducted the first round of the Delphi method questionnaire.
In order to allow experts to maintain their impressions and patience in completing the questionnaire, we limited
the two rounds of the Delphi questionnaire to one month. Both rounds of the Delphi Method questionnaire were
set up using Google Forms. After the questionnaires were collected after each round, the qualitative and quanti-
tative data were analyzed. The former classifies experts’ opinions concerning the revision of relevant guidelines,
while the latter conducts statistical analyses of the mean, standard deviation, standard deviation coefficient and
paired-sample t-test according to experts’ views on the importance of guidelines. For the implementation of the
Delphi Method questionnaire, the recovery rate was 100%. Twenty copies of the first round of questionnaires were
sent out on April 8, 2022, and the second round was collected on April 21st the same year.
Research Results
Focus Group Results
The main purpose of the focus group was to hold interactive discussions with experts on the first draft of the
sustainable development-oriented picture book guide system. Based on the proposed revisions made by experts on
the first draft of the sustainable development-oriented picture book index system, the following points were revised:
1. Positioning as a Book Selection Guide System: experts suggest positioning it as a book selection guide
system, which clearly informs that the function of this system is to help users select sustainable devel-
opment-oriented picture books suitable for ESD, rather than evaluating a single picture book, which
is more in line with the purposes of this research.
2. The Six Major Dimensions are Consolidated into Three Major Dimensions: after the focus group meeting in
this study, the researchers adopted experts’ suggestions. They consolidated the six major dimensions
of the first draft of the sustainable development-oriented picture book index system into three major
dimensions (see Table 4). The first major aspect is (A) ‘conceptual content.’The first aspects of the first draft
(A and B) are integrated into this concept. The second aspect is (B) ‘form of expression’ which includes
aspects C, D, and E of the first draft as they all include forms of expression. The third major aspect is (C)
‘substantial impact’ which is an adjustment of aspect F of the first draft. It now emphasizes the positive
attitude and motivation picture books should bring to the readers after reading.
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Table 4
Consolidation of the First Draft’s Six Major Aspects into Three
The six major aspects of the first draft of the sustainable The three major aspects of the sustainable development-
development-oriented picture book selection guide system oriented picture book selection guide system
A. Completeness of the Concept of Sustainable Development

A. Conceptual Content
B. Caring for Nature
C. Literacy and Artistry
D. Realism B. Form of Expression
E. Inclusivity
F. Positive Orientation C. Substantial Impact
Establishment of Main and Sub-Guidelines: for the establishment of the main guideline and the sub-guidelines,
this research adopted the experts’ suggestion to set the first main guideline of (A) conceptual content as (A-1)
substantive content of sustainable development. This main guideline is then disassembled into the following
sub-guidelines: (A-1.1) explanation of environmental aspects, (A-1.2) explanation of socio-cultural aspects, (A-1.3)
explanation of economic aspects, and (A-1.4) explanation of sustainable development issues across fields. The
second main guideline is set as (A-2) values and
concepts of sustainable development, education for sustainable
development, and sustainable development goals, and is disassembled into (A-2.1) correspondence to several
sustainable development goals, (A-2.2) respected values, (A-2.3) global citizenship, and (A-2.4) timeline changes.
The first main guideline of (B) form of expression is set as (B-1) degree of connection with reality. This guideline is
then disassembled into (B-1.1) faithful presentation of issues in the real world and (B-1.2) realism of painting style.
The second main guideline is set as (B-2) positive orientation, which is dismantled as (B-2.1) solving problems and
generating hope, and (B-2.2) making steps to solve problems. The third main guideline is (B-3) inclusiveness and
dismantled into (B-3.1) give readers room to judge for themselves and (B-3.2) adopt a non-didactic, non-propaganda
narrative. The fourth primary guideline is (B-4) artistry, broken down into (B-4.1) appropriate text, (B-4.2) story at-
tractiveness and interest, and (B-4.3) appropriate imagery. The two main guidelines of (C) substantial impact are
(C-1) reflection and responsibility and (C-2) educational function. The respective sub-guidelines are (C-1.1) pro-
moting follow-up actions and (C-2.1) encouraging sustainability in everyday life. According to the revised results
described above (Table 5), the first Delphi method questionnaire was compiled.
Table 5
The Preliminary Sustainable Development-Oriented Picture Book Guide System
Three Major Aspects Main guideline Sub-guideline
A-1.1 Explanation of environmental aspects
A-1 Substantive content of A-1.2 Explanation of socio-cultural aspects

sustainable development A-1.3 Explanation of economic aspects
A. A-1.4 Explanation of sustainable development issues across fields

Conceptual Content A-2.1 Correspondence to several SDGs
A-2 Values and concepts of
A-2.2 Respected values
sustainable development, ESD,
and SDGs A-2.3 Global citizenship
A-2.4 Timeline changes
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Three Major Aspects Main guideline Sub-guideline
B-1 Degree of connection with B-1.1 Faithful presentation of issues in the real world
reality B-1.2 Realism of painting style
B-2.1 Solving problems and generating hope
B-2 Positive orientation
B-2.2 Making steps to solve problems
B.
Form of Expression B-3.1 Give readers room to judge for themselves
B-3 Inclusiveness
B-3.2 Adopt a non-didactic and non-propaganda narrative
B-4.1 Appropriate text
B-4 Artistry B-4.2 Story attractiveness and interest
B-4.3 Appropriate imagery
C-1 Reflection and responsibility C-1.1 Promoting follow-up actions

C. Substantial Impact
C-2 Educational function C-2.1 Encouraging sustainability in everyday life
Delphi Method Results
The content of the second round of the Delphi method questionnaire includes three parts: evaluation of
importance, one-way comments, and comprehensive comments. The first part is based on a 5-point Likert scale, 1
being ‘very unimportant’, 2 being ‘unimportant’, 3 being ‘neutral’, 4 being ‘important’, and 5 being ‘very important.’
The second and third parts ask participants to revise or delete guidelines that they deem inappropriate, add new
ones, and provide an explanation for their revisions. The results of the two rounds of Delphi method questionnaires
are summarized and compared in Table 6.
Analysis of Each of the Three Major Aspects of the Sustainable Development-oriented Picture Book
Selection Guide System
In terms of conceptual content, Table 6 shows that the SD of most guidelines is lower in the second round
compared to the first round of the Delphi method questionnaire. The SD of A-2.1 in the first round is 1.076 and the
CV is 0.269. After the concept was revised as a result of the focus group meetings, the SD in the second round was
reduced to 0.670 and the CV was reduced to 0.154, indicating that the experts agreed to revise the name of this
guideline. The SD of all guidelines in the second round was reduced to 0.154. If the coefficient is less than or equal
to 0.3, and the p-value of all items in the t-test result is greater than .05, it means that the expert opinions have
reached a high degree of consistency, and the guidelines have all been successfully converged.
The expression form also shows a high degree of consistency in terms of expert opinions as Table 6 shows
that the standard deviation of the second round is reduced and most of the t-test results are insignificant (p-value
> .05). Only on two aspects (the major aspect and sub-guideline B-4.3.) did opinions among experts vary as the
SD increased by 0.348 with a p-value was .048 for the main aspect and a p-value of .014, for the sub-guideline.
In terms of substantial impact, Table 6 shows that the average values of sub-guidelines C-1.2 and C-2.2. are
presenting a successful revision of these two sub-guidelines. Except for the two items that cannot be calculated
using p-values, the overall SD are reduced in the second round and most of the t-test results are not significantly
different (p-value > .05). Therefore, the expert opinions on this aspect are highly consistent, and all guidelines are
converged successfully.
According to the evaluation results of the second round, almost all guidelines were revised successfully. There-
fore, no guideline was deleted in the results of the second round of the questionnaire. Instead, only minor revisions
were made to the text, which did not change the meaning of the original guidelines. Because the results of the
two rounds of questionnaires reached a high degree of consistency, it was concluded that the expert opinions of
the two rounds reached a consensus. Therefore, this research refrained from distributing the third questionnaire.
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Table 6
Results of the Second Round of the Delphi Method Questionnaire
First round Second round

t-test
Guideline
p-value
M SD CV M SD CV
A. Conceptual Content 4.70 0.571 0.122 4.70 0.571 0.121 .500
A-1 Substantive content of sustainable development 4.70 0.571 0.122 4.65 0.489 0.105 .385
A-1.1 Explanation of environmental aspects 4.65 0.489 0.105 4.60 0.598 0.130 .500
A-1.2 Explanation of socio-cultural aspects 4.40 0.753 0.171 4.35 0.670 0.154 .420
A-1.3 Explanation of economic aspects 4.25 1.019* 0.240 4.20 0.894 0.212 .438
A-1.4 Explanation of sustainable development issues across fields 4.75 0.550 0.116 4.80 0.410 0.085 .385
A-2 Values and concepts of sustainable development, ESD, and SDGs 4.55 0.759 0.167 4.60 0.598 0.130 .357
A-2.1 Correspondence to several SDGs 4.00 1.076* 0.269 4.35 0.670 0.154 .083
A-2.2 Respected values 4.40 0.820 0.187 4.55 0.604 0.132 .252
A-2.3 Global citizenship 4.55 0.759 0.167 4.60 0.598 0.119 .401
A-2.4 Timeline changes: past, current, and future changes 4.25 0.786 0.185 4.35 0.587 0.146 .314
B. Form of Expression 4.95 0.223 0.045 4.70 0.571 0.121 .048*
B-1 Degree of connection with reality 4.40 0.882 0.201 4.20 0.833 0.198 .223
B-1.1 Faithful presentation of issues in the real world 4.00 1.076 0.269 4.00 0.917 0.229 .500
B-1.2 Realism of painting style 3.25 1.208 0.372 3.25 0.786 0.242 .500
B-2 Positive orientation 3.95 1.099 0.278 4.10 0.788 0.192 .301
B-2.1 Solving problems and generating hope 4.20 0.951 0.227 4.50 0.760 0.169 .150
B-2.2 Making steps to solve problems 3.40 1.046 0.308 3.90 0.911 0.233 .053
B-3 Inclusiveness 4.20 0.951 0.227 4.20 0.767 0.182 .500
B-3.1 Give readers room to judge for themselves 4.25 0.910 0.214 4.45 0.825 0.185 .259
B-3.2 Adopt a non-didactic and non-propaganda narrative 4.55 0.686 0.151 4.60 0.680 0.147 .412
B-4 Artistry 3.80 1.196 0.315 3.80 0.767 0.202 .500
B-4.1 Appropriate text 4.40 0.820 0.187 4.45 0.510 0.114 .416
B-4.2 Story attractiveness and interest 4.80 0.410 0.085 4.90 0.307 0.062 .164
B-4.3 Appropriate imagery 4.50 0.688 0.153 4.65 0.587 0.126 .014*
C. Substantial Impact 4.50 0.688 0.153 4.65 0.489 0.105 .226
C-1 Reflection and responsibility (behavior) 4.40 0.753 0.171 4.60 0.598 0.130 .179
C-1.1 Promoting follow-up actions 4.35 0.606 0.171 4.60 0.598 0.130 .117
C-1.2 Triggers self-reflection and thinking 4.60 0.502 0.109
C-2 Educational function (action) 4.05 1.050 0.259 4.45 0.604 0.135 .088
C-2.1 Encouraging sustainability in everyday life 4.50 0.745 0.135 4.70 0.470 0.100 .148
C-2.2 Facilitate persuasive actions to others 4.05 0.604 0.149

Note: * SD ≧ 1, **CV ≧ 0.5
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Importance Analysis
Table 7 shows the results of the importance analysis of the two rounds of Delphi method questionnaires.
The A-1 guideline (substantive content of sustainable development) has an average of 4.5 and above, and the
ratio of main and sub-guidelines is 60%, showing that experts attach the most importance to this guideline. This
is followed by B-4 (artistry) with a ratio of 50%, A-2 (values and concepts of sustainable development, ESD, and
SDGs) with a ratio of 40%, and B-3 (inclusiveness) with a ratio of 33%. Similar results were shown by the importance
analysis of the guidelines discussed in the previous paragraph (Table 6). The results show that the analysis of major
aspect C (substantial impact) resulted in an average of more than 4.5 in both rounds and the ratio of the number
of main- and sub-guidelines is 0%. Compared to the other three sub-guidelines, the number of each guidance
is generally low and consistent with the results in Table 8. However, after the end of the first round of the expert
questionnaire, an additional guideline was added to the two main guidelines following suggestions made by the
experts. This affected the average.
Table 7
Statistical Analysis of the Importance of the Main and Sub-Guidelines of the Delphi Method Questionnaire
Total number of The ratio of main

Total number of main and sub- and sub-guidelines Importance
Three Major
Main guideline main and sub- guidelines with an with an average Ranking of the
Aspects
guidelines average of over of over 4.5 in both main guidelines
4.5 in both rounds rounds %
A-1 substantive content of

5 3 60 1
A. Con- sustainable development
ceptual A A-2 values and concepts of
Content sustainable development, ESD, 5 2 40 3
and SDGs
B-1 degree of connection with
3 0 0 5
reality
B. Expres- B-2 positive orientation 3 0 0 5
sion Form
B-3 inclusiveness 3 1 33 4
B-4 artistry 4 2 50 2
C. Substan- C-1 reflection and responsibility 3 0 0 5

tial Impact C-2 educational function 3 0 0 5
Adjustment of the Guidelines
The aforementioned results of the SD, CV, and t-test p-value indicate that the three major aspects of the sustain-
able development-oriented picture book selection guide system have all been converged successfully. Therefore,
there is no need to further revise any of the guidelines. The adjustments to the descriptions of the guidelines are
made in accordance with expert opinions. Table 8 shows the three guidelines that have a M of 4 or less, ranging
from 3.25 to 3.90. The CV after the first round of the questionnaire was between 0.3 and 0.5, showing average
consistency. However, after the second round, the CV was less than 0.3, showing a high degree of consistency
and indicating a successful convergence. Therefore, this study argues that the guidelines can be retained after the
statistical analyses.
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Table 8
Overview of Guidelines with a Mean Below 4.0
First round Second round

t-test
Guidelines
p-value
M SD CV M SD CV
B-1.2 realism of painting style 3.25 1.208 0.372 3.25 0.786 0.242 .500
B-2.2 making steps to solve problems 3.40 1.046 0.308 3.90 0.911 0.233 .053
B-4 artistry 3.80 1.196 0.315 3.80 0.767 0.202 .500
Integration of Expert Opinions into the Delphi Method Questionnaire
While conducting the Delphi method questionnaire survey, experts provided suggestions on the descrip-
tion of the guidelines and the applicability of the guidelines for each major aspect, the main guideline, and the
sub-guideline. These suggestions are summarized as follows and can be used as a reference for further revisions:
1. The description of the guideline should be precise, but not too concise. For example, C-1.1 (promoting
follow-up actions) which emphasizes the attitudes of people is revised to “motives for generating follow-up
actions”, which avoids confusion with guideline C-2.1 (encouraging sustainability in everyday life).
2. The age of picture book readers needs to be taken into account. Most experts mentioned that age is an
important factor and should be included in the guidelines. Moreover, they suggested that the focus and
content of book selections should be tweaked in a way that suits different age groups. Age must also be
included as a reference item for subsequent revision of the guidelines.
3. It is necessary to consider the degree of correspondence between the guidelines and picture books. If the
purpose of the guidelines is to serve as a framework for sustainable development-oriented picture books,
it is necessary to assign weights to the guidelines. Since the purpose of this study is to construct a book
selection guide system for educators, future research can suggest weighted guidelines for this guide system.
Discussion
Although ECE is seen as the natural starting point for lifelong learning in ESD (Daries et al., 2009; Davis et al., 2008;
Kahriman-Ozturk et al., 2012; UNESCO, 2016), ESD entered ECE as a transformative education that is still challenging
for educators (Spearman & Eckhoff, 2012). To actually implement this transformative framework, educators must move
beyond the traditional ECE view of children as a vulnerable group in need of protection and support children to explore
real-world issues and develop as problem solvers, actors, and decision-makers in matters related to sustainable develop-
ment (Boyd, 2018). Thus, the teachers’ challenges when they plan to use picture books to offer the students educational
opportunities on real-world issues with the framing of sustainable development include how to define sustainable
development-oriented picture books, as well as the guidelines for selecting high-quality books for educational purposes.
Past research has focused on picture books that promote students’ or children’s environmental/ecological literacy.
These picture books mainly focused on the identification of biology, the importance of recycling, and criticism of envi-
ronmental pollution and ecological degradation (Bhagwanji & Born, 2018; Martín et al., 2019; Rule & Atkinson, 1994). One
research on picture books related to sustainable development just proposed a basic teaching outline and mentioned
the triple bottom lines of sustainable development, i.e., ecology/environment, economy/jobs, and fair/equity, which
was closer to real-world scenarios (Spearman & Eckhoff, 2012). Warren (2016) suggested that teachers and parents need
a transparent and systemic framework for examining and selecting picture books. This especially applies to the sustain-
able development-oriented picture books that educators might not be familiar with.
As the sustainable development-oriented picture book has not been defined explicitly so far, and neither has been
developed a book selection guideline, this study sought to define sustainable development-oriented picture books in
terms of conceptual content, the form of expression, and substantive impact. The ‘conceptual content’ refers to the value,
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focus, and framework of the core concept of ‘sustainable development’ or ‘sustainability,’ which Delphi experts consider
to be the most important components of a sustainable development-oriented picture book. The ‘form of expression’
refers to the way the picture book is presented, whether the illustrations can attract readers or relate to reality, etc. It
is related to the principles of picture book design and early education. The ‘substantial impact’ refers to the impact of
picture books on readers and the educational function of picture books. Through these three dimensions, we define a
sustainable development-oriented picture book as “a book that includes the core, values, and concept of sustainable
development which can make readers aware of the balance between the environment, society and economy and that
attempts to systematically explore problems, generate actions, and solve problems in relation to these three dimensions
from a critical and global viewpoint.”The book selection guide for sustainable development-oriented picture books has
also been established to fill the gap in research on sustainability-oriented picture books. The results are shown in Table 9.
Whether our book selection guide for sustainable development-oriented picture books can truly assist ECE teachers
and parents in selecting sustainable development-oriented picture books independently, objectively, and efficiently
requires further practical verification and can be used as a reference for subsequent research.
Conclusion and Implications
This study defines sustainable development-oriented picture books as books that “contain the core values and
concepts of sustainable development and can attract readers to pay attention to the balance between the three
aspects of environment, society and economy; after reading, picture books should motivate readers to explore
problems, generate action, and solve problems by using critical thinking from a global perspective.’ The selection
guide system that was constructed in this research puts the concept of ESD at its core. The entire framework is
made to be comprehensive and complete. In practice, the guide system should be handled flexibly according to
practical conditions and in the context of space and time. For example, if the user is a first-time teacher in the field
of ECE, he can strengthen the guidelines of the conceptual content and expression form by assessing and evaluat-
ing the guide system. By doing so, the teacher can reflect on his or her ESD teaching without being restricted by
all the guidelines.
For educational administrative agencies, the sustainable development-oriented picture book selection
guide system constructed by this research can assist educational administrative agencies to establish sustainable
development-oriented picture book lists as ESD teaching materials. This research suggests incorporating the
concept of sustainability in picture books that are used as teaching materials in pre-service education courses. For
example, Australia, a pioneer in implementing Early Childhood Education for Sustainability (ECEfS) which integrates
ECE and ESD, includes picture books with the concept of sustainability in the pre-service education curriculum as
teaching materials, such as: “Lester and Clyde” (Reece, 1991), “The Waterhole” (Base, 2001), “Window” (Baker, 1991),
“Belonging” (Baker, 2004) and so on.
For relevant educators, the introduction of ESD in the ECE stage is to lay the foundation for a deeper under-
standing of global issues and to establish appropriate concepts, attitudes, values, and behaviors for sustainable
development in the ECE stage. The book selection guide system for sustainable development-oriented picture
books is not only a reliable source to assist ECE teachers and elementary school teachers in selecting ESD resources,
but the system contains 3 major aspects, 8 main guidelines and 21 secondary guidelines, which can help educa-
tors, primary caregivers of children and all adults interested in ESD to get familiar with the concept of sustainable
development. For parents, we suggest that they can use this picture book selection guide to pick up picture books
that can help the children build their holistic worldview with both value and reality.
The purpose of this research is to construct a sustainable development-oriented picture book selection
guide system. The constructed system has been completed, yet further practical applications are to be designed
and implemented to verify the actual effectiveness of the book selection guide system. Thus, follow-up research
based on the results of this study can be carried out to identify and analyze the actual selection of picture books
for sustainable development, and to verify the actual performance of the framework constructed in this study.
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Appendix
Table 9
A Complete Book Selection Guide for Sustainable Development-Oriented Picture Books Based On Expert Advice and Analysis Results
Three Major aspects Main Guideline Sub-Guideline
A-1.1 Explanation of environmental aspects

A-1.2 Explanation of socio-cultural aspects
A-1 Substantive content of sustainable A-1.3 Explanation of economic aspects
development
A-1.4 Explanation of sustainable development issues across fields
(considering at least two of the following aspects: environmental,
A. Conceptual Content economic, or socio-cultural aspects)
A-2.1 Correspondence to several SDGs
A-2 Values and concepts of sustainable A-2.2 Respected values

development, ESD, and SDGs A-2.3 Global citizenship
A-2.4 Timeline changes: past, current, and future changes
B-1.1 Faithful presentation of issues in the real world
B-1 Degree of connection with reality
B-1.2 Realism of painting style
B-2.1 Solving problems and generating hope
B-2 Positive orientation
B-2.2 Making steps to solve problems
B. Form of Expression B-3.1 Give readers room to judge for themselves
B-3 Inclusiveness
B-3.2 Adopt a non-didactic and non-propaganda narrative
B-4.1 Appropriate text
B-4 Artistry B-4.2 Story attractiveness and interest
B-4.3 Appropriate imagery
C-1 Reflection and responsibility C-1.1 Promoting follow-up actions

(behavior) C-1.2 Triggers self-reflection and thinking
C. Substantial Impact
C-2.1 Encouraging sustainability in everyday life
C-2 Educational function (action)
C-2.2 facilitate persuasive actions to others
Cite as: Yeh, S.-C., & Li, H.-Y. (2022). Developing a sustainable development-oriented picture book selection
system through employing the modified Delphi method. Journal of Baltic Science Education, 21(6), 967-988.
Shin-Cheng Yeh PhD, Professor, Graduate Institute of Sustainability Management and

Environmental Education, National Taiwan Normal University, 88, Ting-chou
Rd., Sec. 4, Taipei 11677, Taiwan.
E-mail: scyeh@ntnu.edu.tw
Hsin-Ya Li MSc, PhD Student, Graduate Institute of Sustainability Management and
(Corresponding author) Environmental Education, National Taiwan Normal University, 88, Ting-chou Rd.,
Sec. 4, Taipei 11677, Taiwan.
E-mail: hsinya.li@gmail.com
988
SCIENCE TEACHING SELF-

EFFICACY BELIEFS OF
PRE-SERVICE TEACHERS: ISSN 1648-3898 /Print/
CONTEXT OF TECHNOLOGICAL ISSN 2538-7138 /Online/
PEDAGOGICAL CONTENT
KNOWLEDGE AND VISUAL
METAPHORS
Abstract. It is of great importance to

Zeynep Yıldız examine the level of science teaching
self-efficacy (SE), which is related to
technological developments in primary
school teacher education. It is seen that
this subject is not addressed in the context
of technological pedagogical content
knowledge (TPCK) and visual metaphors.
The purpose of this research was to
Introduction examine the pre-service primary school
teachers’ SE beliefs related to science
The SE belief is one of Albert Bandura’s main concepts in social learn- teaching in terms of the TPCK levels and
ing theory and the center of this theory. Bandura has defined SE beliefs as visual metaphors they created related
individuals’ judgments about their capacities to fulfill the actions necessary to science teaching. For this purpose,
to perform performance and to organize those actions (Bandura, 1986, qualitative and quantitative methods were
used in the research. The research sample
1995; Zimmerman, 1995). SE concerns judgments about how well individu-
consisted of 75 pre-service primary school
als can perform the actions needed to cope with possible situations. These teachers. A metaphorical perception form,
judgments affect the choice of right or wrong events and environmental a science SE scale, and a TPCK scale were
regulations. According to Bandura, success does not only depend on having applied as data collection tools. It was
the skills necessary to do a job but also requires the effective use of skills found that the majority of pre-service
with confidence. teachers in science teaching had moderate
An individual’s SE belief affects his perception, motivation, and per- and high SE and technological pedagogical
content. It was also found that pre-service
formance in many ways. People’s motivation levels, emotional states, and
teachers’ science teaching SE levels were
behaviors are objectively based on what they believe rather than the situation related to the sub-dimension levels of the
or event (Bandura, 1995). From this point of view, perceived SE belief being TPCK. When the visual metaphors created
firm can affect individuals’ cognitive processes and their motivation by caus- by the pre-service teachers were associated
ing them to have higher goals and to be consistent in their decisions (Locke with quantitative data, it was seen that
& Latham, 1990). SE belief can affect their sensory states by influencing how as the SE level of the pre-service teachers
much stress and depression they may experience in a threatening situation or increased, visual metaphors gained a
quality from general to specific. It was also
a difficult situation by raising their beliefs on coping skills. It also influences
concluded that the metaphors of the pre-
the process of making functional choices by allowing individuals to enter service teachers with high SE levels were
different circles with different beliefs to be successful and be in different formed in more detail and accurately, and
activities. In addition, in cases where individuals do not believe that certain the conceptual errors were reduced.
behaviors produce certain results, they can only do the necessary activities. Keywords: pre-service teachers, primary
Still, they will not do other behaviors that are related to this behavior, or they school, science teaching, self-efficacy, visual
will not insist on it even if they do (Bandura, 1977, 1997). metaphors
One of the most important concepts related to SE belief is the concept
of the teacher SE. In this context, it is thought that a teacher who thinks
that learning is affected by effective teaching and believes that he can do Zeynep Yıldız
it with his own abilities, is more persistent about teaching than a teacher Yildiz Technical University, Turkey
who does not believe it and spends most of his time in the classroom, and
uses different feedback types (Berkant & Ekici, 2007). In research by Gibson
989
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and Dembo (1984), it was found that teachers with firm and low SE beliefs differed in their academic studies and
feedback behaviors in the classroom, and teachers with low SE beliefs preferred large group teaching. In failure,
they used negative criticism and showed less determination. SE believes in science teaching judgments about
teachers’ beliefs about science teaching and activities, about their ability to make science teaching effective and
productive and to increase the student’s success (Akbas & Celikkaleli, 2006; Bıkmaz, 2002). Teachers with high SE
beliefs have some differences. These teachers tend to use student-centered approaches. Also, they spend more time
teaching science. They prefer to conduct research-based instruction. After all, they are quite successful in doing so.
On the other hand, teachers with low SE beliefs prefer to use teacher-centered approaches such as reading and
verbal explanations of information (Schriver & Czerniak, 1999). Moreover, according to Chan (2003), teachers with
higher SE reported offering more effective instruction and less intensive stress during teaching. For this reason,
special attention should be paid to the development of SE perception in teacher education (Altuncekic et al., 2005).
Coşkun (2019) stated that a moderately positive relationship exists between teachers’ SE perceptions and
their technological pedagogical content knowledge (TPCK). In the context of this result, he deduced that content
knowledge (CK) would increase depending on the increase in SE belief. Similarly, Çam (2017) stated that there are
positive relationships between teachers’ SE perceptions and their TPCK in the study he conducted with primary
school teachers. Akgün (2013), on the other hand, found that there was a positive relationship between pre-service
teachers’ web pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) levels and teacher SE perception levels. When these results
are evaluated, it is possible to say that there are positive relationships between SE perception and CK. Consider-
ing the situation in terms of teaching processes, it is seen that teachers primarily focus on CK (Shulman, 1986). In
CK, it is seen that teachers are ignoring pedagogical information and putting their field expertise at the forefront.
This is one of the most important factors affecting teaching activities and SE belief. Shulman (1987) also incorpo-
rated pedagogical knowledge (PK) into CK in his work. Thus, PCK constituted the integrated structure of teacher
knowledge. This structure demonstrated a skill that includes the interaction of teachers’ content and PK (Öztürk
& Horzum, 2011).
TPCK is expressed as an interaction complex formed between technology, pedagogic and content (Singh &
Malik, 2022). In this structure, there are seven fields of knowledge formed by combining technology, pedagogy,
and CK. They are; CK, PK, Technological Knowledge (TK), PCK, Technological Content Knowledge (TCK), and TPCK
(Öztürk & Horzum, 2011).
Science education and teaching are important in almost every level of education and schools. Science course
is also one of the basic courses in Turkey as in many countries (Türkmen, 2002). In formal education, students first
meet science courses in primary school (Çıray et al., 2018). Thus, basic science education is given to the students
by the classroom teachers. Therefore, science teaching occupies an important place in the teaching of primary
school instructors (Huyugüzel Çavaş et al., 2013; Uluçınar et al., 2008). In Turkey, pre-service teachers take the
course “Basic Science in Primary School” in their first year at universities. The content of this course, the subject
and principles of science, the basic concepts of science, the place of science among other sciences, its historical
development, the aims of science teaching, general information about science subjects in the elementary school
curriculum, features and daily life in the form of its usage areas can be summarized. The purpose and importance
of the laboratory in science education; security in the laboratory, scientific method, scientific process skills and
how they are acquired; laboratory experiments related to primary school are studied by pre-service teachers in
the second year at universities. In the third year of primary school teaching, pre-service teachers carry out studies
on the characteristics of scientific knowledge and the scientific method, science and technology literacy, science-
technology-society-environment relations, attitudes towards science, aims of science teaching, the historical de-
velopment of science teaching in Turkey and the world, characteristics of primary school science program and its
relations with other courses and scientific process skills (YÖK, 2018). In the fourth Grade at universities, pre-service
teachers can experience what they have learned about science teaching in the real primary school environment
through the teaching practice courses.
In science teaching it is aimed to create and disseminate a positive thinking structure by changing the wrong
thinking structure that has been going on from the past to the present (Aktamış & Dönmez, 2016). For this reason,
it is important to determine the attitudes and images of primary school teachers and primary school pre-service
teachers, who teach science. Levine (2005) stated that metaphors can be used to determine attitudes and images.
Metaphors are an important factor in revealing the hard-to-understand issues more easily and the sources of the
problems clearly (Semerci, 2007). In addition, people use metaphors to transfer views, concepts, and terminol-
ogy about a situation to an area they do not know well or know little about. Metaphors are particularly useful in
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understanding and describing a new phenomenon because they carry a well-known situation into an unknown
situation. Thus, the metaphor facilitates the learning of new knowledge. Metaphors, however, are the form of
thought and vision (Morgan, 1998). In recent years, a perspective has emerged based on the “mental metaphor
theory” work by Lakoff and Johnson (2005). Lakoff and Johnson (2005) pointed out that our concept system was
largely metaphoric. In this respect, the way we think about time, every phenomenon we experience, and every-
thing we do daily are metaphorical aspects (Saban, 2009). According to the theory of mental metaphor, the basis
of metaphor is to understand and experience one phenomenon according to another (Lakoff & Johnson, 2005).
Therefore, the metaphor consists of the explicit or implicit specification that the X factor is like the Y factor. This is
also the case of a metaphorical mental model, that is, allowing a certain mental chant to be reflected on another
mental schema by establishing a relationship between the two disjunctive phenomena (Saban, 2009). Metaphor
research with teachers and pre-service teachers is a suitable method to examine the relationship between teachers’
professional definitions and contextual factors. It is a method used to examine metaphorical images, to reveal the
roles of teachers in the classroom, beliefs, and assumptions about students and education (Ben-Peretz et al., 2003).
However, when the aims of science teaching are examined, it is seen that importance is given to the elimination of
negative thoughts towards scientific studies and science and to develop positive attitudes in individuals about the
developing, changing, and self-renewing structure of science. Positive emotions should be tried to be developed
for science and every situation that contributes to science (Aktamış & Dönmez, 2016). Over time, a need has arisen
for a language to convey scientific knowledge and an area to embody abstract thought. In this context, metaphors
have become an indispensable element (Kurt & Sarı, 2018). In this direction, it is important to determine the per-
ceptions of the primary school pre-service teachers who are the part of teaching science in primary school, which
is the first step towards science teaching. Doğan and Dönmez (2019) determined students’ attitudes towards the
mathematics lesson through the visual metaphors created by the students and drew attention to the importance
of using metaphor images for this purpose. In other words, the examination of visual metaphors has a remarkable
place in determining individuals’ feelings, thoughts, and perspectives. In this respect, it is observed that the evalu-
ation of visual metaphors created by the pre-service primary teachers related to science teaching is important.
SE has an important place in the literature of studies related to science teaching (Altunçekiç et al., 2005;
Andrew, 1998; Britner & Pajares, 2006; Hamurcu, 2006; Lent et al.,1984; Morrell & Carroll, 2003; Morgil et al., 2004;
Yaman et al., 2004). However, there was no research comparing SE beliefs and TPCK of teachers or pre-service teach-
ers regarding science teaching. In this context, it is thought that evaluating science teaching SE belief levels and
the TPCK of pre-service teachers in education faculties may provide a future projection about science teaching in
primary school. Therefore, this research can shed light on the issues that need to be studied in the field of science
teaching within the scope of pre-service primary teachers.
In light of these mentioned, the main question of this research was “How do pre-service teachers relate to the
level of SE of science teaching, levels of technological PCK, and the visual metaphors make about science teach-
ing?” In this direction, answers were sought for the research’s sub-questions.
•• What are the science teaching SE levels of pre-service teachers?
•• What are the levels of TPCK of pre-service teachers?
•• Is there any relationship between SE levels and TPCK levels of pre-service teachers?
•• What kind of visual metaphors do the pre-service teachers have for science teaching?
•• Are there any differences in visual metaphors of pre-service teachers for science teaching according
to the level of science SE and TPCK?
Design
When qualitative and quantitative methods are combined, within a research or sequential work, it is de-
scribed as a mixed method research (Creswell, 2003; Johnson & Onwuegbuzie, 2004; Tashakkori & Teddlie, 1998).
In this respect, since both qualitative and quantitative data were used, the research design was determined as
mixed. Quantitative method was preferred to determine the SE levels and TPCK levels of pre-service teachers and
to reveal the relationship between these two variables. Qualitative research methods were also used to see pre-
service teachers’ metaphorical perception about science teaching. The data for this research was collected in the
fall semester of the 2019 teaching year.
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Sample
In this research, a purposive sampling method was preferred. The main goal of purposive sampling is ex-
pressed to focus on particular characteristics of a population that is of interest, which will best enable to answer
the research questions (Rai & Thapa, 2015). Science teaching is taught in the 3rd grade’s second semester in Primary
School Teacher Education program. The pre-service teachers in the sample should have taken this course to be
appropriate for the subject and purpose of the study because it was planned to examine the teachers’ readiness,
and to analyze the data obtained from the pre-service teachers who took the course / the courses related to sci-
ence education in the curriculum. For this reason, the third and fourth-grade pre-service teachers were worked
with. As a result, the sample of the research was composed of 43 pre-service teachers who were studying in the
third year, and 32 pre-service teachers were studying in the fourth year in the primary school teacher education
program. Table 1 gives a detailed description of the sample of the research.
Table 1
Sample of Research
Grade
Department 3rd Year 4th Year Total
Female Male Female Male
Primary School Teacher Education 27 16 20 12 75
In the process of determining the study group within the scope of the research, information about the content
and process of the research was given to the pre-service teachers and the research process was started with those
who were willing. In addition, a certificate of approval was obtained from the ethics committee of Yıldız Technical
University.
Instrument and Procedures
A metaphorical perception form that pre-service teachers were asked to draw what came to their minds when
science teaching was called was used to examine the symbolic perceptions of pre-service teachers about science
teaching. The Science Teaching Self-Efficacy Scale (STSES) developed by Gözüm (2015) was used to examine the
science teaching SE levels of the pre-service teachers. 5-Point Likert-type scale consisting of 46 items was used.
28 items are positive, and 18 items are negative. The scale is a 5-Point Likert-type scale consisting of 46 items, 28
are positive, and 18 are negative. In the scale items prepared by taking into account the concept of SE in Bandura’s
Social Learning Theory and the relationship between this concept and the theory, to be understood a single state-
ment by the participants, the expressions of SE were used without expressing the events and cases. In the scale
development process, current teacher training conditions, teacher training programs, and teacher qualifications
related to science teaching were taken into account (Gözüm, 2015). Positive and negative samples of the scale
items prepared in this sense are given in Table 2.
Table 2
STSES The Sample of Positive and Negative Scale Items
Positive Negative
I can give children the ability to make observations to improve their science I cannot prepare practical applications related to theoretical knowl-
learning skills edge on science subjects.
I can interpret the results of experiments that do not match the theoretical I may not be able to teach the science concepts appropriate to the
knowledge of the children’s experiments. level of children during science teaching.
I can take precautions against security problems during science experi-

I don’t think I’m good enough to experiment.
ments.
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The “TPCK Scale” developed by Schmidt and others (2009) and adapted to Turkish by Özturk and Horzum (2011)
was used to examine the SE of the technology teachers. The scale consists of a total of 47 items and technology
knowledge (TK), and CK, including seven sub-dimension constitutes which are PK, PCK, TCK, TPK, and TPCK. It is
a 5-point Likert-type measure and contains expressions such as “Strongly disagree”, “Disagree “Neither agree or
disagree”, “Agree” and “Strongly agree”. The examples of questions prepared according to 7 sub-dimensions of the
TPCK scale prepared in this sense are given in Table 3.
Table 3
The Examples of Questions Prepared According to 7 Sub-Dimensions of the TPCK Scale
Sub-Dimension Item
TK I can adapt to important new technologies.
CK I have enough science knowledge.
PK I can evaluate students’ learning in many ways.
PCK I know how to choose effective teaching approaches to guide students to learn and think about science.
TCK I know the technologies I can use to understand and study science.
TPK I can choose technologies that will increase the impact of teaching approaches for a course.
TPCK I can teach a course by combining science-related technologies and teaching approaches appropriately.
To avoid any effect on pre-service teachers of the scale, firstly, the metaphorical perception form was applied,
and then the STSES and TPCK scale were applied.
Data Analysis

When analyzing collected data by metaphoric perception form, the visuals created by all the pre-service teach-
ers were examined in detail, and a visual list was created. Then, appropriate categories were created and placed in
categories consistent with the contents of the visuals in the list. In this process, pre-service teachers were given code
names as C1, C2, … . Next, the data collected with the STSES were analyzed. Table 4 shows the scoring key for this
scale. In this respect, the score obtained from the scale consisting of 46 items is in the range of 46 and 230 points.
Table 4
STSES scoring key
Neither agree or Strongly

Strongly disagree Disagree Agree
disagree agree
Positive Question Score 1 2 3 4 5
Negative Question Score 5 4 3 2 1
The total score distribution for the data collected with both scales was analyzed, and the range was calculated.
To determine pre-service teachers at low, medium, and high SE levels, the categorization was made by dividing the
range value by 3. In addition, Pearson Correlation analysis was performed to compare the levels of science educa-
tion SE and TPCK of pre-service teachers, based on total scores and sub-dimensions. SPSS 22 statistical analysis
program was used to analyze the quantitative data obtained.
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Research Results
Findings of Obtained from STSES and TCPK Scale

When the data obtained from STSES was examined, the score of the person who got the lowest score among
75 pre-service teachers was calculated as 99, and the score of the person who got the highest score was calculated
as 230. SE levels of pre-service teachers in the research were categorized as low, medium, and high. With the division
of the range value into three, it was determined to be low between 99-148 points, the medium between 149-185
points, and high between 186-230 points. The findings obtained in this respect are shown in Table 5.
Table 5
Science Teaching SE Levels of Pre-service Teachers
Level f %
Low 16 21
Medium 41 55
High 18 24
As seen in Table 5, more than half (55%) of pre-service teachers had moderate science teaching SE. Pre-service
teachers with moderate and high SE constituted the majority (79%) of all pre-service teachers.
When the data gathered with the TPCK Scale were analyzed, the score of the pre-service teachers who got the
lowest score was determined as 83, and the highest score was 235. With the breakdown of the value of Range, it
was determined as 83-142 points low, between 143-189 points medium, and 190-235 points high level. The find-
ings obtained in this direction are shown in Table 6.
Table 6
TPCK Levels of Pre-service teachers
Level f %
Low 10 13
Medium 42 56
High 23 31
As seen in Table 6, more than half (56%) of pre-service teachers had moderate TPCK. The middle and high-level
pre-service teachers constituted the majority (87%) of all pre-service teachers.
A Pearson correlation analysis was conducted to determine the direction and severity of the relationship
between the total scores of the two pre-service teachers. Table 7 shows the results of the analysis.
Table 7
Analysis of Pearson Correlation Between Scale Scores (N=75)
STSES Total Score TPCK Scale (TPCKS) Total Score
r 1 .643
STSES Total Score
p .0001
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When the results of the analysis in Table 7 were examined, it was seen that there was a high correlation be-
tween grade points of pre-service teachers on two scales (r = .643).
A Pearson correlation analysis was conducted to determine the relationship between the total scores of the
pre-service primary teachers from the STSES, the total points they received from the TPCKS, and the scores based
on the sub-dimensions. Table 8 shows the results of the analysis.
Table 8
Pearson Correlation Analysis Between STSES Total Scores and TPCK Subscales (N=75)
TPCKS Technological
TPCKS TPCK Lower

TPCKS PCK Lower
TPCKS TCK Lower

STSES Total Score
TPCKS CK Lower
TPCKS PK Lower
TPCKS TK Lower
Lower Dimension
Knowledge (TPK)
Pedagogical
Dimension
Dimension
Dimension
Dimension
Dimension
Dimension
Pearson
STSES Total Score 1 .375** .642** .546** .476** .585** .580** .648**
Correlation
TPCKS TK Lower Dimen- Pearson

.375** 1 .716** .608** .549** .616** .507** .470**
sion Correlation
TPCKS CK Lower Dimen- Pearson

.642** .716** 1 .814** .789** .810** .644** .798**
sion Correlation
TPCKS PK Lower Dimen- Pearson

.546** .608** .814** 1 .770** .798** .723** .758**
sion Correlation
TPCKS PCK Lower Pearson

.476** .549** .789** .770** 1 .699** .711** .792**
Dimension Correlation
TPCKS TCK Lower Pearson

.585** .616** .810** .798** .699** 1 .793** .788**
TPCKS Technological
Pearson
Pedagogical Knowledge .580** .507** .644** .723** .711** .793** 1 .848**
Correlation
(TPK) Lower Dimension
TPCKS TPCK Lower Pearson

.648** .470** .798** .758** .792** .788** .848** 1
When the results of the analysis in Table 8 were examined, it was seen that the total scores of the pre-service
teachers’ SE scale of the teachers were highly correlated with the CK Sub-dimension and TPCK Sub-dimension; PK
Sub-dimension, PCK Sub-dimension, TCK Sub-dimension, and TPK Sub-dimension and moderate-intensity cor-
relation; TK appeared to be weakly correlated with the lower dimension.
According to these findings, pre-service teachers’ science teaching SE levels were related to the total scores
of TPCK, and the scores obtained from sub-dimensions. These variables affect each other.
Findings of Visual Metaphors

When the metaphors created by the prospective teachers were analyzed, it was seen that the metaphors were
produced in the headings and subheadings shown in Table 9.
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Table 9
Visual Metaphor Information About Science Teaching by Pre-service teachers
Category Subcategory f %
Laboratory and experiment 38 29.7
Projection use 10 7.8

Teaching Environment
Other 14 10.9
Total 62 48.4
Psychics 14 10.9
Chemistry 8 6.3
Science Subjects
Biology 20 15.6
Total 42 32.8
Topics related to daily life 10 7.8
Tools / Materials 6 4.7
Other 8 6.3
Final total 128 100
When the data in Table 9 was examined, it was seen that the category with the highest metaphor formation
was the teaching environment, with 48.4%. The metaphor for the teaching environment was often a laboratory,
experiment in the laboratory, beaker-lab tube use, lab with large and long gates, demonstration, or presentation
from the project. In addition, some pre-service teachers produced metaphors in the laboratory, such as using a
microscope, having the blackboard in the environment, and the students listening to the class. The second category
with the highest metaphor of 32.8% was the science subjects’ category. The metaphors created in this category
were divided into three subcategories: physics, chemistry, and biology. The examples of metaphors created in the
subcategory of physics were; power, leverage, balance, speed/distance problems, space, planets, sun, stars, world,
magnetism, electric circuit, and sound waves. The examples of metaphors created in the subcategory of chemistry
were; evaporation, condensation, matter cycles, natural phenomena, and the molecular structure of the atom. The
examples of metaphors created in the subcategory of biology were; plants, the spiral structure of DNA, human/
animal anatomy, ecosystem, animals, and food chain. In the category of topics related to daily life were metaphors
such as recycling, home, life, nature, pollution, and sunlight utilization. Finally, metaphors belonging to tools such
as lenses, magnifiers, technological tools, and protective glasses were created tools. Apart from these, some pre-
service teachers produced metaphors such as instructors, burning light bulbs, and scientists.
When the findings obtained within the scope of the research were evaluated in general, it was concluded
that prospective teachers’ scores on the STSES and the TPCK scale correlated positively with each other. This result
was associated with the visual metaphors of the pre-service teachers about science teaching within the scope of
the research. Qualitative similarities were found in the metaphors of the pre-service teachers in the low, middle,
and high categories.
When the drawings of pre-service teachers with low SE levels were examined; it was determined that the
drawings were much simpler than the other drawings, they were not detailed, they were easily overlooked, they
were very unstressed, and they could be described as childlike. They were in the form of a painting. The drawing
of the pre-service teacher C33 is given in Figure 1 as an example.
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Figure 1
The Visual Metaphor Generated by The Participant Pre-service Teacher (C33)
While some of the teachers in this category contained their drawing concepts, it was observed that there
were missing or conceptual errors in the drawings. Figures 2 and 3 are visual metaphors created by the participants
C25 and C65.
Figure 2 Figure 3
Conceptual Error-Containing Metaphor (Drawn by C25) Conceptual Error-Containing Metaphor (Drawn by C65)
It was seen that the food chain was drawn in the metaphor in Figure 2. Visually, the steps of the food chain
were named. Considering the three steps, it was seen that the steps were named correctly but it was seen that a
singular expression was used in the steps in which a plural expression needed to be used. For example, in the im-
age, the 4th step was called “decomposer”. However, as it was known, the decomposers were not in a single step.
They were in all the stages of the food chain. Therefore, it was seen that there was a conceptual mistake in the
visual about the names of steps. In the metaphor in Figure 3, it was seen that the molecular structure of the water
was tried to visualize (the created image was confirmed by the informal interview with the pre-service teacher,
which was formed as the molecular structure of the water). However, as shown in the picture, even if the molecular
structure was not considered in detail about atoms and bonds, in the form of H2O, it was seen that 1 Hydrogen
and 2 Oxygen atoms were used visually.
In comparison, 2 Hydrogen and 1 Oxygen atoms must be combined. So here, too, there was a conceptual
error in this respect. This situation can be interpreted as a result supporting that the level of field knowledge of
pre-service teachers with low science SE may be weak. It was also seen that some of the pre-service teachers in
this category left the metaphorical perception form empty or unable to form any metaphors even though they
had filled the scales. When the drawings of pre-service teachers whose SE levels were moderate were examined,
it was observed that these drawings were drawn more with labor, the details in the drawings were increased, and
the conceptual drawings made were more accurate. This result was more clearly understood when comparing the
images given in Figure 4 and Figure 5.
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Figure 4 Figure 5
The Metaphor Formed by The DNA Helix (Drawn Metaphor Formed by DNA Helix (Drawn by C9)
by C26)
In Figure 4, it was seen that the DNA models generated by C26 pre-service teachers in the low SE level catego-
rization and P9 pre-service teachers in the middle SE level in Figure 5. (The generated image was confirmed by the
informal interview with the pre-service teachers, which was generated as a DNA helix model after the application).
Compared to the drawings, P9’s drawing was more carefully drawn, closer to reality, and more conceptually less
error-free.
In the drawings of the pre-service teachers in the middle-level SE category, the drawings about the laboratory
environment and the experimental equipment started to be given more weight shown in Figure 6.
Figure 6
Metaphor with Experimental Tools Created by a Pre-service Teacher (C13)
In addition, it was observed that the images created about the environment were designed as an ideal envi-
ronment for science education. Figure 7 and Figure 8 show sample visual metaphors in this sense.
Figure 7 Figure 8
Regulated Class Metaphor Created by A Pre-service Teacher Regulated Laboratory Metaphor Created by A Pre-
(C19) service Teacher (C39)
When examining the two metaphors created by the pre-service teachers at the middle SE level in Figure 7
and Figure 8, they saw laboratory environments that pre-service teachers create in their minds. In the classroom,
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they were notable of detail. For example, when the students were seated in two, the placement of rows was in
such a way that they did not obstruct the student’s views and the teacher’s instructions of sound and light. In the
laboratory, it was seen that there was a certain order. The sinks and the equipment and tools were included in
the research tables. When the metaphor in Figure 1 created by a low SE pre-service teacher was examined, it was
seen that the pre-service teacher had visualized the environment where he or she was present in the classroom
without adding any comment.
When the drawings of the pre-service teachers in the high SE category were examined, they were drawn in
much more detail than the other pre-service teachers. At the same time, it was observed that while drawing was
made, attention was paid to the accuracy of the details. Figure 9 shows C54 pre-service teacher, and Figure 10
shows P8 pre-service teacher metaphor.
Figure 9 Figure 10
Visual Metaphor Generated by a Pre-service Teacher (C54) Visual Metaphor Generated by a Pre-service Teacher (C8)
When the image in Figure 9 was examined, it was seen that the students observed the experiment in an
environment where the experiment was performed. The experimenter had protective goggles. In addition, the
environment in which the experiment was performed was drawn as an isolated environment. When we consider the
experimental apparatus, it was seen that the experimental vessels and the created apparatus were drawn carefully
and properly. In the image in Figure 10, it was seen that the writing board, projection, and test equipment were
found. It was seen that both the content of the lesson was enriched and how the experiment was made from the
projection tool. Considering the drawings, the pre-service teachers in the high SE category formed their metaphors
in much more detail and cared to avoid making mistakes in the visual elements. However, the generated visuals
suggested that the pre-service teachers in this category could be environmentally conscious individuals. As a matter
of fact, P29 pre-service teacher described the concept of recycling as the first thing that came to mind regarding
science teaching (Figure 11). In addition, it was observed that the pre-service teachers in this category had more
complicated drawings and some of the drawings contained certain processes related to science teaching (Figure 12).
Figure 11 Figure 12
Visual Metaphor Created by a Pre-service Teacher (C29) Visual Metaphor Created by a Pre-service Teacher (C30)
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When pre-service teacher (C29) was asked to create a metaphor for science teaching, the first thing that came
to her mind was the subject of recycling. In other words, it was seen that science teaching was directly associated
with daily life, and in this sense, the science course was internalized. When the drawing of the pre-service teacher
(C30) with a high SE level was examined, it was seen that a liquid material was heated in the test tube. When we
consider drawings, including the used spirit stove, the shape of the test tube, and the gas from the top of the test
tube, it was seen that the visuals were detailed and were created with care.
Discussion
Within the scope of the research, the SE levels of primary school pre-service teachers who will be teaching at
the primary school level are discussed in terms of various variables. It was observed that most pre-service teach-
ers in the research group had moderate and high SE when the level of SE was analyzed. It was found that similar
studies had similar findings in this respect (Oğuz, 2012; Yılmaz et al., 2007). The high level of SE of the pre-service
teachers can be expressed as a sign that they see themselves as sufficient about teaching they will undertake in
their teaching lives and that they have confidence in this issue. In this sense, the higher the SE levels of the pre-
service teachers, the higher the awareness about the related issues can be expressed. Science teaching has been
particularly related to technological developments in the global world since the 21st century (Hançer et al., 2003).
In other words, it is expected that the subjects of science teaching and technology teaching will be parallel in
many ways. Therefore, it was deemed necessary to examine the knowledge levels of technological pedagogical
content of pre-service teachers. The results obtained were in parallel with the results of SE. In other words, most
TPCK levels are moderate and above. When the subscales of the scale are considered, they can be interpreted as
having sufficient knowledge in the fields of technology, content, pedagogical, pedagogical content, technological
content, technological pedagogical, and technological pedagogical content, that they see themselves well and
trust themselves. When the relationship between scores on the STSES and TPCK scale and total scores of sub-
dimensions were examined, it was concluded that there was a positive relationship among all of them, and even
a majority had a high positive correlation. This can be expressed as a supporting result of all the previous findings.
Many researchers seem to support this situation (Bandura et al, 1996; Choi, 2005; Landis et al., 2007; Usher & Pajares,
2006; Zimmerman et al., 1992).
Generally, the visual metaphors created by pre-service primary teachers related to science teaching are exam-
ined. Most of the metaphors created (80%) are related to the teaching environment and science subjects. In other
words, the first metaphors that came to the minds of the pre-service teachers related to science education were
in this direction. When the metaphors were evaluated in terms of their contents, it was seen that the metaphors
the pre-service teachers created based on their SE level increased from the general to the specific. This may be
interpreted as an indication that the level of knowledge of low SE pre-service teachers expressed above is also low.
There was little detail in the visuals created by pre-service teachers at a low SE level, and the drawings were filled
with non-subject plugins. In addition, there were conceptual errors in the drawings. Teachers at intermediate SE
levels produced a wide variety of metaphors.
Teachers at medium SE levels produced a wide variety of metaphors. The fact that there are a lot of pre-service
teachers with a medium level of SE can be expressed as a reason for more metaphors to be produced. It was also
observed that metaphors at this level were becoming more related to science and science teaching. However, more
specific details began to appear in the pictures. Conceptual errors were reduced. In the drawings of pre-service
teachers at a higher level of SE, it was observed that there were drawings focused on a specific subject or situation
rather than general drawings. It was observed that the details were increased, and all the characteristics of the
situations depicted were considered. The level of conceptual errors was much lower. It was also seen that there
were drawings for affective learning among metaphors that could be interpreted as more internalized teaching of
science. Although the pre-service teachers with different levels of SE created visual metaphors in similar categories,
these metaphors differed from one another in terms of both conceptual and level of detail. For example, a low SE
pre-service teacher painted only one test tube in the experimental category, and a high SE pre-service teacher
portrayed the protective glasses used when performing this experiment. It was seen that the use of projections
in the class, as another category, was drawn by prospective teachers at all levels. For teachers at low SE levels,
the projection was an aesthetic figure, while the higher the SE level, the higher it was observed that the image
created in accordance with the intended use was included. Again, the higher the SE of pre-service teachers, the
more innovative and up-to-date issues such as solar energy, pollution, recycling, etc., they were drawing about.
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In this study, it was determined that there was a positive correlation between the academic achievement of
pre-service teachers in science courses in their bachelor years and their SE beliefs, total scores of technological
pedagogical content, and the quality of visual metaphors they formed. Accordingly, the higher the academic
achievement, the higher the total scores of students’ SE beliefs in the TPCK were seen. In addition, in the visual
metaphors they created, conceptual errors were reduced, the situation depicted was expanded to more detailed
drawings than general drawings, and the quality of the drawings was improved.
Conclusions
As a result of the research, it was found that TPCK was directly related to pre-service teachers’ SE beliefs. For this
reason, by performing studies related to TPCK during the undergraduate period, pre-service teachers of the future
are necessary to work to strengthen their SE beliefs. At this point, measuring the SE levels of pre-service teachers
will contribute to finding out which pre-service teachers are weaker in terms of TPCK and should be specially sup-
ported. In this way, it can be predicted which student will be at a low level in terms of TPCK before a course such
as science teaching at the undergraduate level of the primary school teaching department is taught. Thus, those
pre-service teachers can be provided with extra support in this direction. With this study, it has been seen that
in the field of teacher training, the SE belief of the pre-service teachers and the TPCK are closely interconnected
in the context of science teaching and should be evaluated together as they affect each other. The fact that this
study examined metaphorical perceptions through visual metaphors also makes the research findings valuable
because it has been observed that pre-service teachers present more detailed and internal data through these
visual metaphors than metaphors expressed only with words. For these reasons, it is thought that the study has
important contributions to the literature in terms of the findings and results obtained.
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Received: September 21, 2022 Revised: November 06, 2022 Accepted: December 03, 2022
Cite as: Yildiz, Z. (2022). Science teaching self-efficacy beliefs of pre-service teachers: Context of technological pedagogical content
knowledge and visual metaphors. Journal of Baltic Science Education, 21(6), 989-1003. https://doi.org/10.33225/jbse/22.21.989
Zeynep Yildiz PhD, Associate Professor, Faculty of Education, Yildiz Technical

University, A-312, Esenler, Istanbul, Turkey.
E-mail: zeynepyildiz.2005@hotmail.com
1003
CONNECTION OF TERMS
BETWEEN INQUIRY ACTIVITIES
AND THE MAIN TEXT IN
THE LIFE SCIENCE UNIT OF
LOWER SECONDARY SCHOOL
TEXTBOOKS IN THE REPUBLIC
OF KOREA
Abstract. Teachers are highly reliant on

textbooks for teaching. In the Republic of
Youngshin Kim,
Korea, science textbooks help students Chaewon Oh,
to understand scientific terms through Mohadesse Eskandari,
inquiry activities. However, there is a lack of Soo-min Lim
analysis on whether the inquiry activities
suggested in these textbooks appropriately
cover the terms included in the main
text. Therefore, this study assesses the
life science units included in widely used
lower secondary school science textbooks
Introduction
in the Republic of Korea by analysing the
connection between the terms presented
Science teachers select teaching - learning materials and conduct classes
in the inquiry activities and the main text
according to the teaching - learning methods of each teacher based on the
using the NetMiner 4.0 programme. The
curriculum. In science classes in the Republic of Korea, teachers generally
results reveal that the life science units
included in the lower secondary school
choose textbooks as their teaching - learning materials. It can be confirmed
science textbooks are well structured for from the results of previous studies that 89.9% of science teachers and 85.4%
learning life science terms through the of students in the Republic of Korea depended on textbooks as teaching -
inquiry activities, as the terms presented in learning materials (Choi & Kim, 1996; Lee, 2018; Park et al., 2022). As such,
the inquiry activities and the main text are textbooks are used as a means of materialising and delivering curriculum
well connected. However, the number of content (Lebrun et al., 2002; Oakes & Saunders, 2004) and occupy an impor-
terms included in each unit greatly differs tant position in the realisation of the curriculum (Angus, 2004; Rillero, 2010).
and needs to be supplemented with the Textbooks are most of the time source of the basic and objective information
optimization of the number of terms per that allow teachers to determine the nature and content of many activities
unit. The results provide basic data for the that occur during students’ learning process (DeLeuil, 1998; Wellington &
future development of lower secondary Osborne, 2001). In general, teachers are highly dependent on textbooks for
school science textbooks. Future research teaching and learning (Roseman et al., 2001; Schwarz et al., 2008), textbooks
should analyse how the terms used in play a very important role in carrying out science education in the school
inquiry activities and the main text are field. Nevertheless, science textbooks in many countries have various prob-
connected in real science classes. lems as follows: Not only problems related to the quality of concepts such
Keywords: biological terms, connection as concepts presented in textbooks lead to misconceptions, but also simple
network, terms connection, inquiry activity, arrangement of concepts that do not consider the hierarchy of concepts in
main text learning, those that are described as concept-centred rather than inquiry-
centred (Kim & Park, 2000; Kook, 2003), and not connecting among concepts
Youngshin Kim, Chaewon Oh, described textbooks (Eichinger & Roth, 1991; Staver & Bay, 1989).
Mohadesse Eskandari, Soo-min Lim Although textbooks have several problems, this study focused on the
Kyungpook National University, inquiry activities presented in the textbook. The goals of science education
Republic of Korea
in the Republic of Korea can be summarized as enhancing scientific inquiry
ability, acquiring scientific concepts, and cultivating scientific attitudes. In-
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ISSN 2538–7138 /Online/ (pp. 1004-1025)
quiry activities have the advantage of acquiring scientific knowledge and inquiry skills by contacting and dealing
with specific phenomena as a unique learning method of science subjects (Thorsten et al., 2010). Accordingly, sci-
ence education curriculum in the Republic of Korea recommends that science teachers guide students to acquire
science concepts through inquiry activities (Ministry of Education, 2015). In order to become an inquiry-centred
class, textbooks, which are the main teaching - learning materials, must be described as inquiry-centred. However,
the current science textbooks in the Republic of Korea are still described as concept-centred rather than inquiry-
centred (Suh, 2007).
As the importance of scientific inquiry is emphasised in science education, the analysis of the inquiry activi-
ties presented in science textbooks has been steadily conducted. Most of the previous studies have focused on
the changes in the inquiry activities presented in textbooks (Kim, 2013; Oh & Jeong, 2012; Park & Jeong, 2019;
Park & Kim, 1999), the types of inquiry activities according to the revision of the curriculum (Kim et al., 2017; Kim
et al., 2021; Park, 2017), and the purpose of the inquiry activities (Millar, 2010). However, while these studies have
analysed the external studies, that is, the types and frequencies of inquiry activities presented in textbooks, they
have not analysed which scientific terms are connected through the inquiry activities.
In the Republic of Korea, the structure of science textbooks describes the scientific terms appropriate for the
inquiry activities. In other words, science textbooks attempt to help students to understand science concepts by
directly experiencing such terms through inquiry activities (Kim et al., 2017). Therefore, to ensure students’ effec-
tive understanding of science concepts, the textbooks’ description of the inquiry activities is very important, and
effective learning is possible when the core concepts presented in the main text and in the inquiry activities are
properly connected (Kim, 2020). However, while students unilaterally follow instructions from their teachers and
textbooks, they lack the awareness of why they are engaging in inquiry activities (Bell et al., 2003; Germann et al.,
1996). Moreover, the majority of students fail to combine intellectual aspects with inquiry activities (Penner & Klahr,
1996). If scientific content is not conceptually connected, students will have difficulty structuring the knowledge to
achieve an integrated understanding (Brophy, 1992; Staver & Bay, 1989). Therefore, in order for students to easily
understand scientific knowledge through inquiry activities through textbooks, it is necessary to properly connect
the terms presented in the inquiry activities of textbooks in the main text of the textbook.
Semantic Network Analysis (SNA) analyses the connections between terms in texts to identify relation-
ships between texts using words and terms as the analysis targets (Doerfel & Connaughton, 2009). This method
is particularly suitable for the analysis of textbooks since they are mainly composed of text and is often used as
an objective research method in the education field (Jung & Choi, 2020). The previous studies have used SNA to
analyse the connections between the terms presented in textbooks (Kim et al., 2022; Kwon & Kim, 2018) and to
conduct a structural analysis between the terms (Park et al., 2010). Therefore, SNA is a suitable research method
for analysing the connections between a textbook’s inquiry activities and the terms presented in the main text.
Analyses of the connections between the terms presented in textbooks’ inquiry activities and the main text
using SNA have already been conducted. For example, Kim (2020) used SNA to analyse the connections between
the terms presented in the inquiry activities and the main text of plant-related units in elementary and lower
secondary schools in the Republic of Korea. In the plant-related units, the core terms were presented in both the
inquiry activities and the main text, while some terms were only presented in the inquiry activities but not in the
main text. Therefore, the analysis of other subject units or school levels is required.
The scientific terms learnt in lower secondary schools are based on elementary school terms, which then
become the basis for upper secondary school science subjects in the Republic of Korea (Ministry of Education,
2015). Compared with the elementary school science textbooks, there is a sharp increase in the number of terms
introduced in lower secondary school textbooks (Kim, 2020; Kim et al., 2011; Lim & Kim, 2015) as well as a relatively
large number of inquiry activities presented (Lim & Jang, 2015). However, there is a lack of analysis on whether
the inquiry activities suggested in lower secondary school science textbooks are appropriate. Therefore, this study
analyses the connection between the terms presented in the inquiry activities and the main text in the life science
domain included in the lower secondary school science textbooks.
This study intended to assess whether the inquiry activities suggested in the textbooks are appropriate so
as to provide basic data for the future development of lower secondary school science textbooks. The purpose of
this study was to assess whether the inquiry activities suggested in the textbook are appropriate, and to provide
basic data to increase the connection between the terms presented in the inquiry activities and in the main text
in the future development of lower secondary school science textbooks.
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Theoretical Background
Lower Secondary School Life Science Domain in Korean Textbooks
In the Republic of Korea, science subjects are taught to students in grades 3-6 of elementary school, grades 7-9
of lower secondary school, and grades 10-12 of upper secondary school. The Republic of Korea implements a national
curriculum in which the science curriculum contains life science subjects for these students (Ministry of Education,
2015). The science curriculum contains subjects including physics, life science, chemistry, and earth science that are
to be taught in elementary school, lower secondary school, and upper secondary school alongside the characteristics,
goals, content systems, achievement standards, evaluation methods, and guidance instructions for each subject.
In the lower secondary school science curriculum, the life science domain consists of five units: ‘Biological diver-
sity’, ‘Plants and energy’, ‘Animals and energy’, ‘Stimulation and reaction’, and ‘Reproduction and genetics’. These units
are revised when the national curriculum is revised. The current units are part of the 2015 revised curriculum that was
implemented in 2017. The curriculum previously focused on ‘things to be taught’ but now emphasises ‘what needs
to be accomplished’ as part of a competency-based curriculum. Accordingly, achievement standards are included for
each unit, and the inquiry activities related to the achievement standards are described in detail (Ministry of Education,
2015). Table 1 shows the achievement standards for the life science domain’s units in the 2015 revised curriculum.
Table 1
Achievement Standards for Each Unit
Unit Achievement Standards
•• To understand biodiversity and explain the relationship between the environment and biodiversity in terms of variation.
•• To understand the concept and classification system of biological species and classify living things at the kingdom level.
Biodiversity
•• To understand the need for biodiversity conservation and investigate and present cases of activities for biodiversity
maintenance.
•• To understand photosynthesis and explain that plants produce nutrients to obtain the energy necessary for life activities,
alongside the factors affecting photosynthesis.
•• To understand the relationship between the movement of water and transpiration required for photosynthesis and explain
Plants and energy the transpiration in leaves in relation to photosynthesis.
•• To understand respiration in plants and explain the relationship with photosynthesis.
•• To express the process of the production, storage, and use of photosynthetic products as a model.
•• To explain the organic composition of living things.
•• To explain the process by which food is digested and nutrients are absorbed in relation to the action of digestive enzymes.
•• To understand the structure and function of the circulatory system and explain the blood circulation pathways.
Animals and energy •• To understand the structure and function of respiratory organs and explain the principle of respiratory movement using
models.
•• To understand the structure and function of excretory organs and express the process of excreting waste products.
•• To explain the process by which animals obtain energy through cellular respiration in relation to digestion, circulation,
respiration, and excretion.
•• To understand the structure and function of sensory organs (eyes, ears, nose, tongue, and skin) and explain the transmis-
sion process to the brain through sensory organs according to the type of stimulus.
Stimulus and response •• To understand the structure and function of neurons and the nervous system and express the process from the stimulus
to the response through reaction experiments depending on the type of stimulus.
•• To understand that hormones are involved in regulating the functions of our body and investigate and present related cases.
•• To explain cell division in relation to the growth of an organism.
•• To understand the relationship between chromosomes and genes and explain the characteristics of mitosis and meiosis,
focusing on the behaviour of chromosomes.
Reproduction and
•• To express the development process of an individual from a fertilised egg as a model.
heredity
•• To understand the significance of Mendelian inheritance and investigate and present related genetic phenomena.
•• To understand human genetic traits and methods of genetic research and express human genetic phenomena using a
genogram.
Note. Achievement standards for each unit in the 2015 revised science curriculum. From “Science curriculum (pp. 59-60, 68-70,
78-81),” Copyright 2015 by Ministry of Education.
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Structure of Science Textbooks
In the Republic of Korea, lower secondary school science textbooks are authorised textbooks that are used to
improve the autonomy of education and guarantee diversity within the national curriculum. Authorised textbooks
refer to those that have been tested according to the qualification standards set by the Minister of Education.
Lower secondary school science textbooks are developed by the publisher (author) according to the national cur-
riculum and qualification standards, and the committee of the national level (Korea Foundation for the Advance-
ment of Science and Creativity) decides on whether to publish them or not. Currently, lower secondary schools in
the Republic of Korea use science textbooks developed by five publishers. Most science textbooks consist of an
introduction to the unit, class-related content, a summary of the unit, science stories about scientific issues, and
summative evaluations at the end of the unit. Among these, the class-related content includes the introduction,
inquiry activities, scientific term explanations, and brief intermediate evaluations (e.g., quizzes) for each class. This
study uses class-related content for its analysis. The class-related content contains between 9–16 inquiry activities
that correspond to each life science unit (see Appendix). The unit with the lowest number of inquiry activities is
‘Plants and energy’, and the unit with the highest number of inquiry activities is ‘Animals and energy’.
Subject
The subject of this study was the life science units in the lower secondary school science textbooks. The spe-
cific analysis units were as follows: ‘Biodiversity’ for the 7th grade; ‘Plants and energy’ and ‘Animals and energy’ for
the 8th grade; and ‘Stimulation and reaction’ and ‘Reproduction and genetics’ for the 9th grade. Each unit is sub-
divided into 2–5 sub-units. The ‘Biodiversity’ unit consists of three sub-units: ‘biodiversity’, ‘classification of living
organisms’, and ‘conservation of biodiversity’. The ‘Plants and energy’ unit consists of two sub-units: ‘photosynthesis’
and ‘plant respiration’. The ‘Animals and energy’ unit consists of five sub-units: ‘digestion’, ‘circulation’, ‘respiration’,
‘excretion’, and ‘relationships between organ systems’. The ‘Stimulus and response’ unit consists of two sub-units:
‘sensory organs’ and ‘nervous system and hormones’. Finally, the ‘Reproduction and genetics’ unit consists of two
sub-units: ‘reproduction’ and ‘heredity’.
For the science textbook analysis, this study selected three of the five publishers’ textbooks that had a high
adoption rate. This means that most of the science teachers in the lower secondary schools in the Republic of Korea
have agreed with the school boards to use these textbooks in their class. As a result, most students in the lower
secondary schools in the Republic of Korea use these textbooks during classes. Among the adopted textbooks, the
class-related contents were selected, and the inquiry activities and terms presented in the main texts correspond-
ing to the selected contents were analysed. This study excluded the introduction to the unit, summary of the unit,
science stories including scientific issues, summative evaluation, and the end of the unit. In the inquiry activities,
this study’s subject of analysis was the introductory text, inquiry method, and discussion parts. It excluded the
preparations and precautions parts. This is because the terms presented in the preparations and precautions parts
are not directly related to each unit, but are related to the general scientific inquiry process.
Data Analysis
The terms of the inquiry activities and main text presented in the life science units in the textbooks were
transcribed. The terms were divided into inquiry activities and main text terms by using sentences as the unit
and were saved as a text file (.txt). The terms were then extracted from the transcribed file using the NetMiner 4.0
programme (http://www.netminer.com), in which the noun form was used as the basis.
The NetMiner 4.0 programme used in this study is one of the widely used software that can analyse and visual-
ize networks (Huisman & Van Duijn, 2005). This programme enables Semantic Network Analysis by extracting terms
from unstructured text data and converting them into term-to -term networks. The network structure consists of
one-mode and two-mode. one-mode network is a network composed of relationships between entities (nodes)
within a group (homogeneous), and a two-mode network is a network composed of relations between entities
within two different groups (heterogeneous). As shown in the example in Figure 1 below, using a two-mode net-
work makes it easy to analyse the degree of connection by visualizing the relationship between the terms in two
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different groups (heterogeneous) of inquiry activity and main text as a network (e.g., conceptual alignment through
the connection between concepts presented in curriculum, textbook, instruction, and assessment).
Figure 1
The Example Using Two-mode Network
Note. From “Conceptual alignment between the somatic cell division curriculum, textbooks, instruction, and assessment in high
school,” by Y. Kim et al., 2021, Journal of Biological Education, p12. https://doi.org/10.1080/00219266.2021.1884585.
The extracted terms were pre-processed to leave only meaningful life science terms. A pre-processing step
consists of cleansing, control operation, and removal (Lee, 2014). During the pre-processing step, this study used
cleaning (e.g., spacing and changing the form of parts of text) as well as control operations to adopt appropriate
terms (e.g., synonyms) and then removed meaningless terms. In the control operation and removal operation for
adopting an appropriate term, if the extracted term is not a controlled term, an appropriate term is adopted by
controlling synonyms, analogues, broad terms, and narrow terms, in particular, if there is no dictionary of controlled
terms such as thesaurus, control with appropriate terms with the help from experts in the relevant field.
After the pre-processing step, eight people selected the terms: six of them are in-service life science teachers
in secondary school and two are professor at the college of Education who teach pre-service life science teachers.
All of them have doctoral degrees in life science education. All in-service life science teachers had more than 10
years of experience working in secondary schools. Among the eight people who requested concept selection, terms
that were judged to be meaningless in terms of life science by more than five people, more than half of them, were
excluded from the analysis. Among the selected terms for the analysis, which are terms meaningful in life science,
any term with an eigenvector centrality index of zero (as derived using the NetMiner 4.0 programme) was excluded
from the analysis since it was meaningless (Kim & Kwon, 2016; Kwon et al., 2018). Eigenvector centrality index is
an index used to analyse not only the number of connected terms, but also how important and influential terms
connected to this term are on the network (Bonacich, 2007). Therefore, it is mainly used when selecting core terms
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on the network, and in this analysis, the term with an eigenvector centrality index of zero was excluded. Through
these processes, this study could finally select the terms to be analysed (Table 2).
Table 2
Number of Selected Terms
Unit Number of Terms
Biodiversity 51
Plants and energy 29
Animals and energy 106
Stimulus and response 87
Reproduction and heredity 68
The final selected terms were visualised using the NetMiner 4.0 programme. The visualisation divided the
life science terms presented in the inquiry activities and the main text into units so as to confirm the connections
between the units. An analysis of the sub-units was first performed, followed by an analysis of the units. The connec-
tions between the terms in the units were visualised in the form of a two-mode network. Then, the term networks
and connections between the terms in the inquiry activities and the main text were analysed.
Research Results
The Connection Networks at the Sub-Unit Level
‘Biodiversity’ Unit
Figure 1 presents a connection network that visualises the connections between the terms presented in the
inquiry activities and the main text for each sub-unit. There are eight terms in the ‘biodiversity’ sub-unit (Figure
2a). Three terms connect the inquiry activities and the main text: ‘living organism’, ‘ecosystem’, and ‘forest’. Five
terms appear only in the main text: ‘filamentous fungi’, ‘species’, ‘wetland’, ‘variation’, and ‘communicable diseases’.
Through examples of representative ecosystems, such as ‘forests’, the interactions between living organisms in the
environment and other living organisms are investigated in the inquiry activities.
Meanwhile, the main text includes the term of ‘variation’ as a cause of biodiversity and ‘communicable diseases’
as explained by the necessity of biodiversity. Therefore, although the terms of ‘living organism’, ‘ecosystem’, and
‘forest’ are connected with the main text and inquiry activities, the inquiry activities on the causes and necessity
of biodiversity presented in the main text are insufficient.
Figure 2
The Connection Networks at the Sub-unit Level between the Terms Presented in the Inquiry Activities and the Main Text of the
‘Biodiversity’ Unit
a. ‘Biodiversity’ sub-unit
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b. ‘Classification of living organisms’ sub-unit
c. ‘Conservation of biodiversity’ sub-unit
There are 28 terms in the ‘classification of living organisms’ sub-unit (Figure 2b), and 18 terms connect the
inquiry activities and the main text, which include ‘living organism’, ‘plantae’, ‘protista’, ‘animalia’, ‘fungi’, ‘cell’, and so
on. As such, the terms that connect the inquiry activities and the main text correspond to the ‘kingdom’ term; for
example, ‘plantae’, ‘protista’, ‘monera’, ‘animalia’, and ‘fungi’. Example terms correspond to species of living organ-
isms, such as ‘Streptococcus pneumoniae’, ‘E. coli’, and ‘filamentous fungi’. Terms of the classification criteria are also
presented; for example, ‘cell wall’, ‘photosynthesis’, ‘hypha’, and ‘unicellular organism’. This is because the learning
goal for the classification of life sciences for lower secondary schools in the Republic of Korea concerns classifica-
tion at the ‘kingdom’ level (Table 1). Meanwhile, 10 terms only appear in the main text, which include ‘digestion’,
‘cyanobacteria’, ‘variation’, ‘gene’, ‘food’, and so on.
There are nine terms in the ‘conservation of biodiversity’ sub-unit (Figure 2c), and five terms connect the inquiry
activities and the main text, which include ‘food chain’, ‘food’, ‘ecosystem’, ‘living organism’, and ‘extinction’. These
terms can explain the effects of biodiversity on the ecosystem’s equilibrium. However, four terms only appear in
the main text: ‘habitat’, ‘exotic species’, ‘individual’, and ‘animals and plants’. Among these, terms such as ‘habitat’
and ‘exotic species’ correspond to terms that cause the decline of biodiversity.
Overall, in the ‘Biodiversity’ unit, there is a relatively high number of connections between the terms presented
in the inquiry activities and the main text. Moreover, the main text explains the terms of life science based on the
terms used in the inquiry activities and provides additional examples.
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‘Plants and Energy’ Unit
Regarding the ‘Plants and energy’ unit, the ‘photosynthesis’ sub-unit explains the process of photosynthesis,
the place of photosynthesis, the products of photosynthesis, the environmental factors that affect photosynthesis,
and transpiration. The relationship between respiration and photosynthesis and the process of the production,
storage, and use of the products of photosynthesis are explained by understanding respiration in the ‘plant res-
piration’ sub-unit.
Figure 3
‘Plants and energy’ Unit
a. ‘Photosynthesis’ sub-unit
b. ‘Plant respiration’ sub-unit
There are 23 terms in the ‘photosynthesis’ sub-unit (Figure 3a). There are 14 terms that connect the inquiry ac-
tivities and the main text, which include ‘photosynthesis’, ‘leaf’, ‘plant’, ‘light’, ‘transpiration’, and so on. The connected
terms are ‘leaf’ and ‘plant’, where photosynthesis takes place; the environmental factors that affect photosynthesis
are ‘light’ and ‘carbon dioxide’; and the terms that relate to transpiration are ‘transpiration’, ‘stoma’, and ‘guard cell’.
Meanwhile, nine terms are only presented in the main text, for example, ‘oxygen’, ‘glucose’, ‘starch’, ‘growth’, ‘chloro-
phyll’, ‘root’, and so on. Terms that correspond to the product of photosynthesis, such as ‘oxygen’, ‘glucose’, and ‘starch’,
and terms related to water, such as ‘root’ and ‘vessel’ (i.e., elements necessary for photosynthesis), are presented.
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There are 22 terms in the ‘plant respiration’ sub-unit (Figure 3b). Although the ‘plant respiration’ sub-unit has
the theme of plant respiration, terms related to photosynthesis are mainly presented. This is because these terms
focus on the relationship between plant respiration and photosynthesis rather than on plant respiration itself. There
are 15 terms that connect the inquiry activities and the main text, which include ‘photosynthesis’, ‘plant’, ‘light’, ‘leaf’,
and ‘chloroplast’. Meanwhile, seven terms are only presented in the main text, for example, ‘animal’, ‘growth’, ‘fat’,
‘protein’, ‘organ’, ‘seed’, and ‘stoma’.
Overall, the ‘Plants and energy’ unit shows a high number of connections between the terms presented in the
inquiry activities and the main text, like in the ‘Biodiversity’ unit. This means that terms that include the relationship
between photosynthesis and respiration are explained in the main text after the inquiry activities are performed.
‘Animals and Energy’ Unit
Regarding the ‘Animals and energy’ unit, the ‘digestion’ sub-unit explains the organic building of living organ-
isms, nutrients, digestive enzymes, and digestion. The ‘circulation’ sub-unit explains the heart and blood vessels
that belong to the circulatory system, the structure and function of blood, and the circulation path of blood. The
‘respiration’ sub-unit explains the structure and function of the respiratory tract and the principle of respiratory
movement, and the ‘excretion’ sub-unit explains the structure and function of the excretory organs and the excre-
tion process of waste products. Finally, the ‘relationships between organ systems’ sub-unit explains the process
of obtaining energy through cellular respiration in relation to digestion, circulation, respiration, and excretion.
There are 53 terms in the ‘digestion’ sub-unit (Figure 4a). There are 14 terms that connect the inquiry activities
and the main text, which include ‘digestion’, ‘enzyme’, ‘nutrient’, ‘fat’, ‘protein’, and so on. These terms are nutrient-
related terms, such as ‘protein’, ‘fat’, and ‘starch’, and organ system-related terms, such as ‘digestive system’, ‘circulatory
system’, and ‘excretory system’. Meanwhile, 39 terms are only presented in the main text; for example, ‘cell’, ‘amylase’,
‘bile’, ‘glucose’, and ‘pancreas’. These terms correspond to digestive enzymes, such as ‘pancreatic juice’, ‘trypsin’,
‘pepsin’, and ‘lipase’; digestive organs, such as ‘pancreas’, ‘large intestine’, and ‘small intestine’; and the absorption
process of digested nutrients, such as ‘villus’, ‘capillary’, and ‘chyle duct’.
Figure 4
The Connection Networks at the Sub-unit Level between the Terms Presented in the inquiry Activities and the Main Text of the
‘Animals and energy’ Unit
a. ‘Digestion’ sub-unit
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b. ‘Circulation’ sub-unit
c. ‘Respiration’ sub-unit
d. ‘Excretion’ sub-unit
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e. ‘Relationships between organ systems’ sub-unit
There are 32 terms in the ‘circulation’ sub-unit (Figure 4b). There are 12 terms that connect the inquiry ac-
tivities and the main text, which include ‘circulation’, ‘blood’, ‘heart’, ‘lung’, ‘blood vessel’, and so on. Meanwhile, 20
terms are only presented in the main text; for example, ‘aorta’, ‘vena cava’, ‘atrium’, ‘ventricle’, ‘respiration’, and so on.
Regarding the terms that connect the inquiry activities and the main text, only ‘blood corpuscle’ among the terms
corresponding to the components of blood appears connect the inquiry activities and the main text, while its terms
of ‘blood plasma’, ‘red blood cell’, ‘leucocyte’, and ‘platelet’ are only presented in the main text. This is because stu-
dents mainly discover blood corpuscles, such as red blood cells, leucocytes, and platelets, as a result of the inquiry
activities for observing blood. However, it is not possible to clearly understand the functions of the composition
components of blood through inquiry activities that only focus on the observation of blood corpuscles. This is a
limitation because only the functions of blood plasma (e.g., as ‘waste products’ and ‘protein’) and the terms that
belong to the functions of blood corpuscles (e.g., ‘phagocytosis’) are presented in the main text.
There are 20 terms in the ‘respiration’ sub-unit (Figure 4c). There are eight terms that connect the inquiry
activities and the main text, which include ‘lung’, ‘respiration’, ‘capillary’, ‘lung sac’, ‘thoracic cage’, and so on. There
are 12 terms presented in the main text, which include ‘cell’, ‘tissue’, ‘oxygen’, ‘carbon dioxide’, ‘blood’, and so on. The
terms connected in the inquiry activities and the main text correspond to terms used when organically present-
ing changes in the diaphragm, lung, and thoracic cage during inhalation and exhalation. However, terms such
as ‘circulation’, ‘cell’, ‘oxygen’, ‘carbon dioxide’, ‘tissue’, and ‘diffusion’, which are presented only in the main text, are
related to gas exchange in the body and are not used in the inquiry activities. The terms related to the principle of
respiratory movement are presented in the inquiry activities; however, these terms cannot be acquired through
inquiry activities because they do not represent the gas exchange that occurs in the body. Meanwhile, the terms
of gas exchange presented only in the main text mainly relate to diffusion and are explained in the “Properties of
gas’ unit in the 7th grade; thus, they are excluded from the ‘Animals and energy’ unit in the 8th grade.
There are 34 terms in the ‘excretion’ sub-unit (Figure 4d). There are 19 terms that connect the inquiry activities
and the main text, which include ‘kidney’, ‘urine’, ‘renal tubule’, ‘waste product’, ‘filtration’, and so on. There are 13
terms presented only in the main text; for example, ‘urethra’, ‘blood’, ‘nephron’, ‘blood vessel’, and so on. The terms
presented only in the inquiry activities are ‘red blood cell’ and ‘artery’. The terms that connect the inquiry activities
and the main text include ‘ammonia’ and ‘urea’, which are substances that form through the excretion process of
digested nutrients, such as ‘fat’, ‘carbohydrate’, ‘glucose’, and ‘protein’. Moreover, the ‘glomerulus’, ‘Bowman’s capsule’,
and ‘renal tubule’ terms are presented, which represent the structure of the kidneys (i.e., an excretory organ) and
the ‘filtration’ and ‘reabsorption’ terms (i.e., the formation process of urine). The terms presented only in the main
text include ‘lung’ and ‘exhalation’ (related to the respiratory system) and ‘ureter’, ‘bladder’, and ‘urethra’ (related to
the excretory organs). ‘Red blood cells’ appears only in the inquiry activities and is used to explain the reabsorption
process, while ‘artery’ is used to represent changes in the blood entering the renal artery.
There are 20 terms in the ‘relationships between organ systems’ sub-unit (Figure 4e). There are 14 terms that
connect the inquiry activities and the main text, including ‘respiration’, ‘cell’, ‘circulation’, ‘excretion’, and so on. These
terms correspond to digestion, circulation, respiration, and the excretion process to obtain energy through cellular
respiration, which is an achievement standard for lower secondary schools (Table 1). Meanwhile, the terms that are
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presented only in the main text include ‘animal’, ‘plant’, ‘muscle’, and ‘waste product’, where ‘muscle’ is a term related
to tissue that directly utilises energy formed through cellular respiration, ‘waste product’ is a term that is presented
in the transport of products through cellular respiration, and ‘plant’ is a term that is presented for comparison with
plant respiration. The terms that are presented only in the inquiry activities include ‘tissue’ and ‘ammonia’, where
‘tissue’ is presented in the main text of the ‘respiration’ sub-unit, while ‘ammonia’ connects the inquiry activities
and the main text in the ‘excretion’ sub-unit.
The ‘Animals and energy’ unit has more terms in the textbook than the other units. This corresponds with
the results of Seo et al.’s (2020) study on the connections between the animal-related terms presented in the cur-
riculum and textbooks according to the revised curriculum in the Republic of Korea. The inquiry activities in the
‘Animals and energy’ unit are mainly described in terms of the structure of organs and include ‘observing organs
composing organ systems’, ‘recognising structures of blood vessels and heart’, ‘expressing excretory processes’, and
so on. Moreover, because this sub-unit emphasises learning about the interaction between digestion, circulation,
respiration, and excretion in relation to cellular respiration (Seo et al., 2020), the processes and functions of diges-
tion, circulation, respiration, and excretion are presented as focal points alongside their interactions. Therefore,
there is a relatively larger number of presented terms compared to the other sub-units.
‘Stimulus and Response’ Unit
Regarding the ‘Stimulus and response’ unit, the ‘sensory organs’ sub-unit describes the structure and function
of the eyes, ears, nose, tongue, and skin sensory organs alongside the transmission process to the brain through
the sensory organs. Moreover, this unit explains the structure and function of neurons and the nervous system
in terms of the processes by which stimuli are transmitted through neurons and control the body’s function via
hormones in the ‘nervous system and hormones’ sub-unit.
Figure 5
‘Stimulus and response’ Unit
a. ‘Sensory organs’ sub-unit
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b. ‘Nervous system and hormones’ sub-unit
There are 37 terms in the ‘sensory organs’ sub-unit (Figure 5a). There are 17 terms that connect the inquiry
activities and the main text, which include ‘eye’, ‘skin’, ‘sensation’, ‘stimulus’, and so on. Meanwhile, 20 terms are
only presented in the main text; for example, ‘auditory’, ‘tongue’, ‘taste cell’, ‘pain spot’, ‘organ’, and so on. The terms
that connect the inquiry activities and the main text mainly represent the transmission process from the sensory
organs, for example, ‘sensory organs’, ‘stimulus’, and ‘brain’. In terms of the sensory organs, eye-related terms, such
as ‘eye’, ‘iris’, ‘blind spot’, ‘retina’, and ‘pupil’, are the most presented, followed by skin-related terms, such as ‘skin’,
‘warm spot’, and ‘cold spot’. The nose-, tongue-, and ear-related terms, such as ‘sense of smell’, ‘ear’, and ‘gustation’,
are the least presented. Accordingly, most of the activities involved in the inquiry activities concern the processes
by which the senses of sight and skin are transmitted to the brain, and name-based learning is conducted using
other sensory organs.
There are 52 terms in the ‘nervous system and hormones’ sub-unit (Figure 5b). There are 28 terms that connect
the inquiry activities and the main text, which include ‘neuron’, ‘sensation’, ‘stimulus’, ‘sensory organ’, and so on. Of
these terms, many relate to maintaining blood sugar and diabetes in relation to the maintenance of homeostasis.
Terms related to the difference in responses to moving to the cerebrum and spinal cord according to the type of
stimulus are also presented. Meanwhile, 23 terms are only presented in the main text (e.g., ‘adrenal gland’, ‘endocrine
gland’, ‘adrenaline’, ‘testosterone’, and so on), while ‘ear’ is only presented in the inquiry activities. The terms that are
presented only in the main text feature aspects related to the brain, endocrine glands, and hormones. ‘Ear’, which
is only presented in the inquiry activities, connects the main text and the inquiry activities via the ‘sensory organ’
sub-unit and does not overlap the text in the ‘nervous system and hormones’ sub-unit.
‘Reproduction and Genetics’ Unit
Regarding the ‘Reproduction and genetics’ unit, the ‘reproduction’ sub-unit mainly describes the relationship
between cell division and growth and mitosis and meiosis. The ‘heredity’ sub-unit explains Mendelian inheritance,
human genetic traits, and research methods of genetic traits using a genogram. There are 33 terms presented in
the ‘reproduction’ sub-unit (Figure 6a). There are 16 terms that connect the inquiry activities and the main text,
which include ‘cell’, ‘reproduction’, ‘chromosome’, ‘somatic cell’, ‘fertilised egg’, and so on. There are 17 terms that
are presented only in the main text; for example, ‘nucleus’, ‘oviduct’, ‘mother cell’, ‘heredity’, and so on. The ‘mitosis’,
‘meiosis’, and ‘cleavage’ terms connect the inquiry activities and the main text, and the terms that are presented
only in the main text correspond to reproductive organs; for example, ‘oviduct’, ‘vas deferens’, ‘ovary’, and ‘testis’.
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Figure 6
‘Reproduction and genetics’ Unit
a. ‘Reproduction’ sub-unit
b. ‘Heredity’ sub-unit
There are 30 terms in the ‘heredity’ sub-unit (Figure 6b). There are 20 terms that connect the inquiry activities
and the main text, which include ‘reproduction’, ‘Mendel’s inheritance’, ‘character’, ‘dominance’, ‘gender’, and so on.
The terms that are presented only in the main text include ‘autosome’, ‘development’, ‘fertilisation’, ‘fertilised egg’,
and ‘meiosis’. The terms that are presented only in the inquiry activities include ‘sperm’, ‘ovum’, ‘egg cell’, ‘pistil’, and
‘stamen’.
The terms that connect the inquiry activities and the main text relate to Mendelian inheritance, human ge-
netic phenomena, and genetic diseases. The term that is only presented in the main text concerns the process of
human genetic phenomena. Among the terms that are only presented in the inquiry activities, ‘sperm’ and ‘ovum’
connect the main text and inquiry activities in the ‘heredity’ sub-unit. Moreover, the terms of ‘pistil’ and ‘stamen’
are only presented in the inquiry activities, thus have already been taught to the related achievement standard
(It is possible to explain the structure and function of roots, stems, leaves, and flowers through observation and
experiments on the overall structure of plants) for the 3rd and 4th grades (Ministry of Education, 2015). Therefore,
since ‘pistil’ and ‘stamen’ are already introduced via the structure of flowers, they are omitted from the main text in
the ‘Reproduction and genetics’ unit.
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The Connection Networks at the Unit Level
This study then visualised the connection networks between the terms presented in the inquiry activities and
the main text at the unit level (Figure 7). There are 38 terms in the ‘Biodiversity’ unit and 24 terms that connect the
inquiry activities and the main text, which include ‘living organism’, ‘photosynthesis’, ‘classification’, ‘forest’, ‘cells’, and
so on (Figure 7a). There are 14 terms that are presented only in the main text, for example, ‘variation’, ‘digestion’,
‘wetland’, ‘species’, ‘individual’, and so on.
Figure 7
The Connection Networks at the Unit Level between the Terms Presented in the Inquiry Activities and the Main Text
a. ‘Biodiversity’ unit
b. ‘Plants and energy’ unit
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c. ‘Animals and energy’ unit
d. ‘Stimulus and response’ unit
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e. ‘Reproduction and genetics’ unit
There are 28 terms in the ‘Plants and energy’ unit and 20 terms that connect the inquiry activities and the
main text, which include ‘plant’, ‘photosynthesis’, ‘leaf’, ‘light’, ‘cell’, and so on (Figure 7b). There are eight terms that
are presented only in the main text, which include ‘growth’, ‘vessel’, ‘organ’, ‘chlorophyll’, ‘seed’, and so on.
There are 91 terms presented in the ‘Animals and energy’ unit and 49 terms that connect the inquiry activities
and the main text, which include ‘cell’, ‘respiration’, ‘tissue’, ‘circulation’, ‘blood’, and so on (Figure 7c). There are 42
terms that are presented only in the main text, which include such as ‘gastric juice’, ‘large intestine’, ‘blood plasma’,
‘vein’, ‘urethra’, and so on.
There are 78 terms presented in the ‘Stimulus and response’ unit and 39 terms that connect the inquiry activi-
ties and the main text, which include ‘sensory spot’, ‘neuron, ‘stimulus’, ‘sensory organ’, ‘cell’, and so on (Figure 7d).
There are 39 terms that are presented only in the main text, which include ‘endocrine gland’, ‘medulla oblongata’,
‘homeostasis’, ‘oestrogen’, and so on.
Finally, there are 50 terms presented in the ‘Reproduction and genetics’ unit and 30 terms that connect the
inquiry activities and the main text, which include ‘gene’, ‘heredity’, ‘cell’, ‘reproduction, ‘chromosome’, ‘somatic cell’,
and so on (Figure 7e). There are 17 terms that are presented only in the main text, which include ‘nuclear division’,
‘mitotic phase’, ‘cytoplasm’, ‘interphase’, ‘autosome’, and so on. The terms that are presented only in the inquiry
activities include ‘egg cell’, ‘pistil’, and ‘stamen’.
In sum, even at the unit level, the connections between the terms in the inquiry activities and the main text
are generally well established. The main text includes all the terms presented in the inquiry activities alongside
additional terms to help students’ understanding. However, some units contain terms that are not presented in
the main text but are included in the inquiry activities. Therefore, additional research on the terms presented only
in the inquiry activities is needed.
Discussion
This study analyses five life science units in the lower secondary school science textbooks in the Republic of
Korea to assess the connections between the terms in the inquiry activities and the main text. The results reveal
that many terms connect the inquiry activities and the main text; thus, the two can be considered well-connected,
as the science textbooks consist of learning terms through inquiry activities and rearranging terms through the
main text. However, some terms that are presented in the inquiry activities in the ‘Reproduction and genetics’ unit
(e.g., ‘egg cell’, ‘pistil’, and ‘stamen’) are not presented in the main text; thus, they have no connection. In the cases
in which terms are presented only in the inquiry activities and not in the main text, additional research is needed
on how these instances affect students’ acquisition of terms.
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On the other hand, as in the ‘Animal and energy’ and ‘Stimulus and response’ units, in the connection network
at the sub-unit level, there are terms that are presented only in the inquiry activities without being connected to
the main text, whereas in the connection network at the unit level, it is connected to the main text with other
sub-units. Through this, it is thought that it would be more effective to learn by integrating into a unit rather than
learning separately by sub-unit.
The terms presented in the main text and in the inquiry activities of science textbooks are presented without
considering the hierarchy of concepts. As an example, terms such as ‘root’ and ‘chlorophyll’, which are presented
only in the main text of the ‘Plants and energy’ unit, are recognized as terms with different order. Therefore, it is
necessary to consider the order of terms when describing textbooks.
There are few inquiry activities related to social issues. The inquiry activities relate to social issues included in a
survey of activities for biodiversity conversation, examples of activities for maintaining biodiversity, and investiga-
tions on hormone-related diseases. These inquiry activities occupy a very small proportion of the total 66 inquiry
activities; thus, there are insufficient inquiry activities related to social issues. Life science content related to social
issues can motivate students as well as interest in life science (Choi & Choi, 2003; Koh & Kim, 2016). Therefore, con-
crete, and practical inquiry activities and teaching-learning contents related to social issues should be developed
and dealt with in the curriculum and textbooks.
In the future, students are expected to be able to apply and respond to various social issues or situations be-
yond the level of acquiring or understanding terms through learning (Griffin et al., 2012; Park, 2019). However, the
inquiry activities presented in lower secondary school science textbooks in the Republic of Korea were insufficient
for students’ scientific participation and lifelong learning ability (Park, 2019). According to a previous study (Koh &
Jeong, 2014), the lower secondary school is the most appropriate school level to develop these competencies based
on the cognitive development level of students and the educational reality of the Republic of Korea. Therefore,
the development process of the lower secondary school next science textbooks should include sufficient inquiry
activities related to social issues, and the terms of the main text should reflect them.
Conclusions and Suggestions
In the Republic of Korea, science textbooks help students to understand scientific terms through inquiry
activities. However, there is a lack of analysis on whether the inquiry activities suggested in life science textbooks
appropriately cover the terms included in the main text. Therefore, this study analyses the connection network
connections between the terms presented in the inquiry activities and the main text in the life science textbooks
issued in the 2015 revised curriculum in the Republic of Korea. The results confirmed that the terms presented
in the inquiry activities and the main text in the life science textbooks were well connected. In most of the units,
there were few terms that were not connected to the main text and were presented only in the inquiry activities.
The unit with the terms presented only in the inquiry activities was the ‘Reproduction and genetics’ unit, and it
was found that only the terms of ‘egg cell’, ‘pistil’, and ‘stamen’ were present.
And looking at the number of terms in terms of being connected to the main text and the inquiry activities,
there were more terms being connected to the two domains than the terms presented only in the text of the
textbook. This is common to all units. This means that through the main text in the textbook, it is possible to learn
the terms learned in the inquiry activities and additional terms that were not presented in the inquiry activities.
However, there were differences in the number of terms presented in the text and the inquiry activities ac-
cording to each life science unit. For example, the ‘Plants and energy’ unit had the fewest terms (e.g., 29 terms in
the main text, 20 terms in the inquiry activities) while the ‘Animals and energy’ unit had the most terms (e.g., 106
terms in the main text, 49 in the inquiry activities). This difference in the number of terms could potentially result
in the students being biased towards certain terms when learning each life science unit. Therefore, it is necessary
to optimize the number of terms for each unit.
The results of this study can provide basic data for the future development of lower secondary school science
textbooks. This study’s limitation is that it used textbooks to analyse the scientific terms learning processes that
occur in real school situations. Therefore, future research should analyse how the terms used in inquiry activities
relate to the term learning that is conducted in real science classes.
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Appendix
List of Inquiry Activities by Unit
Unit Sub-unit Inquiry activities
•• Compare biodiversity.
Biodiversity •• Compare the characteristics of clam shells.
•• What are the reasons for the different appearance and characteristics of foxes?
•• Classify creatures.
•• Categorise different living things into order levels.*
Classification of
•• A species is a group of organisms with what characteristics?
living organisms
Biodiversity •• Which organisms belong to the prokaryotic, protist, and fungal kingdoms?
•• How can we classify the living things around us?
•• Discover the impact of sea otters on marine ecosystems.
•• Investigate examples of activities to conserve biodiversity.*
Conservation of
•• Discover why biodiversity is declining.
biodiversity
•• Discover the benefits of biodiversity around you.
•• What are some examples of activities to maintain biodiversity?
•• Explore the substances needed for photosynthesis.
•• Explore the places and products of photosynthesis.*
•• Environmental factors that affect photosynthesis.*
Photosynthesis
•• Transpiration of water.
Plants and energy •• Explore the relationship between water movement and transpiration.
•• Observe guard cells.*
•• Can you check the respiration of plants?
Plant respiration •• Express the relationship between respiration and photosynthesis.
•• Express the process of the production, storage, and use of nutrients made through photosynthesis.
•• Compare plant and animal characteristics.
•• Classify the organs that make up the organ system.
Digestion •• Detect nutrients.*
•• Experiment with saliva digestion.*
•• How are nutrients digested?
•• Investigate the structure of the heart.
•• Observe blood.*
Circulation
•• Types and functions of blood vessels.
•• Schematic representation of blood circulation paths.
Animals and energy
•• Observe a pig’s lungs.
•• Investigate the composition of inhalation and exhalation.
Respiration
•• How does gas exchange happen in the body?
•• Investigate the principles of breathing.
•• Express the process of excretion.
Excretion
•• How is urine produced?
Relationships •• Check the energy released by cellular respiration.

between organ •• Express how organ systems work together.
systems •• Digestion, circulation, breathing, and excretion role-playing.*
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Unit Sub-unit Inquiry activities
•• How do we see objects?

•• Experiment with vision.*
•• How do we hear sound?
Sensory organs
•• How does it taste?
•• Investigate the distribution of sensory points on the skin.
•• Check your sense of equilibrium.
•• Create a neuron model.
Stimulus and •• Create a model of the central nervous system.
response •• Investigate the structure and function of the brain using brain models.
•• How does the response take place depending on the stimulus?
Nervous system •• How does the autonomic nervous system work depending on the situation?
and hormones •• Experiment with responses to stimuli.*
•• Investigate the thermoregulation process.
•• How do hormones and the nervous system work differently?
•• Simulate the blood sugar control process.
•• Investigate hormonal-related diseases.*
•• How do living things grow?
•• Experiment with the relationship between cell surface area and volume.*
•• Investigate the relationship between chromosomes and genes.
Reproduction
•• Observe mitosis.*
Reproduction and •• Compare mitosis and germ cell division.
heredity •• Express the process of development.
•• Gene transfer process.
•• Simulation and application of Mendel’s principles of inheritance.
Heredity
•• Simulate genetic phenomena.*
•• Interpretation of pedigree.
Note: * Inquiry activities presented in the curriculum.
Received: August 24, 2022 Revised: October 20, 2022 Accepted: November 25, 2022
Cite as: Kim, Y., Oh, C., Eskandari, M., & Lim, S.-M. (2022). Connection of terms between inquiry activities and the main text in
the life science unit of lower secondary school textbooks in the Republic of Korea. Journal of Baltic Science Education, 21(6),
1004-1025. https://doi.org/10.33225/jbse/22.21.1004
Youngshin Kim PhD, Professor, Department of Biology Education, College of Education,

Kyungpook National University, 80 Daehakro, Bukgu, Daegu, 41566,
Republic of Korea.
E-mail: kys5912@knu.ac.kr
Chaewon Oh MS Student, Department of Biology Education, College of Education,
Republic of Korea.
E-mail: ohj1224@naver.com
Mohadesse Eskandari MS Student, Department of Biology Education, College of Education,
Republic of Korea.
E-mail: mohadese.eskandari@gmail.com
Soo-min Lim PhD, Research Professor, Science Education Research Institute,
(Corresponding author) Kyungpook National University, 80 Daehakro, Bukgu, Daegu, 41566,
Republic of Korea.
E-mail: bbolsar@naver.com
1025
MEASURING CHINESE RURAL

SCIENCE TEACHERS’ SELF-
PERCEPTION TOWARDS
TEACHING COMPETENCIES:
INSTRUMENT DEVELOPMENT
Abstract. The teaching competency of Mengmeng Li,

rural teachers is fundamental to providing Le Cai,
rural pupils with a high-quality education. Dimei Chen,
Nonetheless, China has not yet established Jianqiang Ye
standardized competence criteria for
rural science teachers, making it difficult
to ascertain the actual competence of
the rural teaching force on the front Introduction
lines. Consequently, this study aimed at
accessing Chinese rural science teachers’ Rural education is well renowned for its commitment to improving
teaching competency and exploring the general quality of pupils in rural regions. The latest survey shows
that nearly one third of China’s population live in rural areas, despite this
rural-urban differences by developing a
large proportion, the rural areas nevertheless suffer several obstacles and
measurement instrument. Factor analyses concerns. For instance, rural-urban resource disparity, combined with the
confirmed the reliability and validity of low salaries and low social status of rural areas, makes it difficult to recruit
this instrument, which consisted of 21 and retain rural teachers (Adams & Woods, 2015; Zhou et al., 2004). As a
items and four dimensions. In addition, the result, rural students have even less access to highly qualified and com-
questionnaire was employed to examine petent teachers committed to rural education (Reagan et al., 2019; Yarrow
et al., 1999). Many scholars, not only in China, have revealed that many
393 science teachers in China, discovering
countries are confronted with comparable dilemmas, indicating that rural
the significant rural-urban differences education has become a global issue (Beach et al., 2019; Ciftci & Cin, 2018;
in terms of teaching implementation Downes & Roberts, 2018). The competence of instructors is crucial to rural
and learning evaluation together with education and the development of students’ core abilities. Therefore, the
teacher distribution. This study was hoped development of rural education cannot be attained without teachers of
to promote the building of the teaching exceptional quality and with qualified teaching competency.
Competency-based education is encouraged within the context of
competency system and provide references
China’s new curriculum reform, as science courses are essential for devel-
for rural science teachers’ professional oping the pupils’ scientific literacy. It is obvious that the proficiency of sci-
development. ence teachers determines the quality of science education. Consequently,
Keywords: rural teacher, teaching emphasis should be placed on the competency of rural science teachers
competency, science teacher, factor (Chin, 2005). The promotion of pupils’ competence and the standard of
analysis rural science education would both benefit from the teaching competency
of rural science teachers reaching a qualified level. Some researchers have
defined the requirements that competent teachers need possess, providing
references and suggestions for the professional development of beginner
Mengmeng Li, Le Cai,
Dimei Chen, Jianqiang Ye teachers (Darling-Hammond & Baratz-Snowden, 2007; Esau & Maarman,
Wenzhou University, China 2019). In response to the COVID-19 pandemic, Caena and Vuorikari (2021)
established a system of teacher competence applicable to teachers of
many subjects. It has been determined that the study of general teaching
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ISSN 2538–7138 /Online/ (pp. 1026-1039)
competency has matured to the point where it can be used to measure the core competencies of teachers
in various subjects. However, it had the disadvantage of being unable to highlight the competency features
of practice-oriented science teachers. Although there were relevant studies which stressed the competency
required of science teachers, such as scientific inquiry, there was little research that completely constructed
science teachers’ comprehensive competencies, particularly rural science teachers (Alake-Tuenter et al., 2012;
Avraamidou & Zembal-Saul, 2010; Ramnarain, 2014).
Rural education has received widespread attention, and the frontline rural teaching force is still primarily
stabilized through macro policies. Attempts to prepare teachers specifically for rural areas remain limited, and
rural science teachers’ competencies fall short of standards (Azano & Stewart, 2016; Monk, 2007). The research
aimed at establishing the Teaching Competency of Rural Science Teachers (TCRST) instrument and applying
it to examine differences in the teaching competencies of urban and rural science teachers. This research can
help educational researchers build expected teaching competency standards, as well as encouraging more
rural science teachers in conducting self-assessments of teacher competence.
Literature Review
“Teaching competency” is closely tied to teaching skills and learning environments, all of which teachers
need to acquire in order to deal with a variety of teaching scenarios (Caena, 2014). Blomeke et al. (2015) pointed
out that “competence” was a broad term from a holistic perspective, and from an analytical standpoint, noted
that “competency” refers to the components of competence. With an emphasis on categorizing and describ-
ing particular cognitive capacities, “competencies” were defined as cognitive capacities and skills. In this study,
teaching competencies reflected the abilities required of secondary school teachers to manage daily situations.
As for the dimensions of science teaching competencies, Alake-Tuenter et al. (2012) listed four factors: lesson
preparation, adaptation of curriculum, scaffolded inquiry teaching, and evaluation. De Putter-Smits et al. (2012)
asserted the importance of managing instructional contexts, regulation, emphasis, design, and innovation.
In addition, the ability of teacher research was also considered as one of teacher’s core competencies (Zhu &
Wang, 2014), which was being described as a significant dimension of professional development increasingly
(Campbell et al., 2004; Cochran-Smith, 2003).
Pedagogical Design
Pedagogical design (PD) is the cornerstone of teacher competencies and a prerequisite for implement-
ing, assessing, and conducting educational research. Brown (2009) characterized it as the teacher’s ability to
design instructional episodes by recognizing and employing available resources, including teacher resources
(subject knowledge and attitudes) and curriculum resources (teaching goals, domain representations, and
tasks). As a vital component of pedagogical design, course materials have attracted a great deal of academic
attention (Beyer & Davis, 2012). In addition, the analysis of previous knowledge and lesson goals, understand-
ing students, and choosing strategies should also be considered within the framework of pedagogical design
abilities. For instance, Davis et al. (2011) outlined the characteristics of pedagogical design abilities with a
deep understanding of students and the achievement of pedagogical goals. John (2006) illustrated the seven
basic components of pedagogical design: student engagement, disciplinary materials, curriculum, resources,
classroom management, professional values, and activities. Besides, Zhang et al. (2017) divided science teach-
ers’ pedagogical design abilities into six areas: analyzing teaching materials, understanding learners, making
goals, analyzing teaching contents, designing the teaching processes and teaching strategies, and choosing
resources as well as media.
Teaching Implementation
Teaching implementation (TI) is a vital step in putting pedagogical design and planning into practice.
Many scholars, such as Beyer and Davis (2012), and Wu et al. (2018) mentioned that the effectiveness of teach-
ing may be improved by fostering a positive learning atmosphere to encourage interaction and cooperation
among pupils, as well as motivating pupils to actively engage in the learning process. Additionally, practical
work also attracted the attention of many researchers. Simpson and Brown (1977) noted the introduction of
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techniques, preparation for laboratory procedures, and hands-on experience. Beasley (1982) attached great
importance to focusing on laboratory work, scientific inquiry, and information technology. What’ more, inter-
national organizations such as UNESCO exerted considerable importance on the enhancement of teachers’
information technology competence, who published a Competency Framework for Teachers in Information
Technology (2008). As a consequence, quite a few scholars have begun to discover the significant contribution
of information technology. For example, Forbes and Davis (2010) employed computer software to assist science
teachers in the development of effective instructional practices. Karagozlu (2021) discovered that AR practices
facilitated classroom participation and students’ comprehension about science themes.
Learning Evaluation
Regarding learning evaluation (LE), the content evaluates students’ science learning with a focus on their
scientific achievements and performance in activities. Scholars discovered that the majority of instructors
concentrated more on the correctness of students’ responses than on their thoughts (Larkin, 2012; Levin et
al., 2009; Talanquer et al., 2015). Therefore, science teachers should improve the ability of learning evaluation
that promotes meaningful learning and sustained inquiry. Nevertheless, there existed international evaluation
research that only paid attention to one evaluation component, as Aydeniz and Dogan (2016) evaluated and
gave feedback on the process of science learning. Hensiek et al. (2016) measured students’ hands-on laboratory
skills through digital experiments. Likewise, there were studies that covered several aspects of evaluation. Bell
and Cowie (2001), and Tulloch (1986) attached great importance to teachers’ assessment of learning processes
as well as assessment of academic quality. Despite certain distinctions in subject and content, the authors of
the aforementioned study on science teachers’ assessment placed a particular focus on the evaluation capacity
to acknowledge and correct instructional flaws.
Teacher Research
Since the late 1980s, there has been a movement that teachers are viewed as “thinkers” and “knowers”
who should actively engage in research and possess specific understanding of their teaching and learning
process, which has sparked great research interest in teacher research (TR) (Cochran-Smith & Lytle, 1999).
Given that teacher research benefits teachers’ continuous learning and student accomplishment, it should be
a core competency for science instructors (Mitchell et al., 2009; Sperling & DiPardo, 2008). As for the items of
teacher research, Castle (2006) proposed seven items: being conscious of problems, posing questions, con-
sulting others for knowledge, responding, and sharing conclusions with others, etc. Additionally, Dobber et
al. (2012) presented a set of relevant aspects in the research procedures, including the collection of data, the
presentation of research proposal, the data processing, and the reporting of the results. Alake-Tuenter et al.
(2012) subsequently enumerated the teacher’s comprehension of research abilities, which included raising
questions, looking for specific information, formulating plans, conducting research, analyzing and interpreting
data, communicating and presenting conclusions.
Research Focus
According to the literature review of the framework of teaching competency, 21 items were arranged,
adapted, and derived from previous research for the four dimensions of teaching competency: PD, TI, LE, and TR.
These dimensions were used as the foundation for designing the TCRST to assess the teachers’ self-perception
towards teaching competencies of rural science teachers. The specific research questions were set:
RQ 1: What empirical evidence supports the validity and reliability of the TCRST instrument?
RQ 2: What differences in self-perception of teaching competencies exist between rural and urban
science teachers?
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Instrument Development
The survey instrument was a paper-and-pencil questionnaire that was designed in three stages. The
first step came with the development of the TCRST. Based on the literature review, this study constructed a
theoretical framework of rural teachers’ competency and summarized four dimensions: PD, TI, LE, and TR. As
shown in Table 1, a total of 21 items were condensed and their connotations were defined. “I can arrange or
design...” was used to restate each item in the questionnaire, and scores were formatted using a 5-point Likert
scale. Subsequently, the research group’s feedback was submitted to evaluate the item attributes, the adequacy
of item expressions, and any potential linguistic ambiguities. These four dimensions and the 21 TCRST items
eventually achieved adequate agreement, symbolizing the formation of the initial questionnaire.
The second step was the validation of the TCRST. Before applying the questionnaire, the study gathered
data from Chinese science teachers to validate the initial instrument. The recovered questionnaires were then
utilized to examine the reliability and validity of the initial instrument using EFA and CFA. The EFA would be
used to discover what factors emerged from the data, and the CFA would be used to check whether these fac-
tors could hold up under close examination.
Through questionnaire development and validation, a final instrument was generated with 6 items in the
PD, 6 items in the TI, 4 items in the LE, and 5 items in the TR. The TCRST would be employed to measure the
self-perception towards teaching competencies of rural science teachers and compare them to those of urban
science instructors. Figure 1 depicts the specifics of the three-step procedure.
Participants
In this research, the data collections from participants were divided into three periods. The first two phases
took place in 2019 and involved science teachers from different cities in Shandong province, China. In order to
clarify the structure of instrument, 286 science teachers participated in the pilot study (Group 1), containing
107 males and 179 females respectively. To collect additional empirical evidence for the instrument’s valida-
tion, 617 science teachers were randomly selected from different schools in Shandong province. Considering
the invalid questionnaires, 457 science teachers were included as the final sample (Group 2; recovery rate:
74.1%), consisting of 172 males and 285 females. Given the instrument’s success in passing validity testing,
the research conducted the third round of distribution and collection in 2020, in which 519 science teachers in
Zhejiang province were randomly invited to participate in the evaluation of self-perception towards teaching
competencies. Among them, 393 valid questionnaires were finally analyzed (Group 3; recovery rate: 75.7%),
with 188 urban teachers and 205 rural teachers.
All science teachers who participated in this study were informed of their rights and volunteered to
undertake the research. They were assured that all personal information would be treated confidentially and
anonymously and that the survey would contribute to the improvement of rural science teachers’ teaching
competency.
Statistical Analysis
The statistical analysis of this research comprised EFA, CFA, the chi-square test, and independent sample
t-tests. The questionnaires were finalized with the support of EFA and CFA. Using SPSS 22.0, the EFA was carried
out to clarify the factor structure. The AMOS 26 software was then utilized to execute the CFA test in order to
determine whether the actual data matched the teaching competency model. On the basis of the final instru-
ment, the research deployed the chi-square test to examine the variations in demographic characteristics
between urban and rural teachers and independent sample t-tests to explore the rural-urban differences in
teaching competency.
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Figure 1
The Specific Steps for Instrument Development, Validation and Application
Table 1
Dimensions and Measuring Items of the Initial Version of TCRST (21 Items)
Dimensions Items Measuring Items Literature Resources
I can analyze the teaching materials’ content composition, connectivity, and educative
PD 1
value.
PD 2 I can analyze pupils’ knowledge, experience, cognitive and emotional development.
I can design instructional objectives based on curriculum standards, textbook materials, Beyer and Davis (2012)
PD 3
Pedagogical and learner traits.
Design I can design, arrange, and orchestrate teaching processes and sessions based on
PD 4
essential themes and challenges.
PD 5 I can design science learning activities depending on tasks and challenges. John (2006)
I can choose teaching tactics, materials, and media technologies for a given content
PD 6 Zhang et al. (2017)
and lesson style.
TI 1 I can motivate students’ motivation to learn through vivid, concrete lessons. Wu et al. (2018)
I can create authentic learning settings by choosing resources and background informa-
TI 2 Alake-Tuenter et al. (2012)
tion based on content and students’ experiences.
I can correctly operate, demonstrate, and guide experiments and I can improve or
TI 3 Forbes and Davis (2010)
Teaching innovate teaching experiments.
Implementation I can organize science-based inquiry-learning activities and encourage students’
TI 4
participation.
TI 5 I can use information technology and multimedia. Simpson and Brown (1977)
I can create an open learning environment, let students communicate, and stimulate
TI 6
cooperation and discussion.
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LE 1 I can track students’ learning and assess students’ performance using varies methods. Bell and Cowie (2001)
LE 2 I can scientifically analyze students’ learning after a unit. Tulloch (1986)

Learning
Evaluation LE 3 I can systematically evaluate the students’ practical inquiry process and results.
I can provide timely feedback, guidance, and correction to students, based on academic Hensiek et al. (2016)
LE 4
quality and performance in classroom.
TR 1 I can recognize my teaching deficiencies and raise research issues. Zhu et al. (2013)
TR 2 I can search, collect, and analyze the relevant literature for the problem.
Teacher I can select proper methods based on study objectives and issues, construct research Dobber et al. (2012)
TR 3
Research plans, and analyze the feasibility.
TR 4 I can conduct research using a protocol and a scientific method.
Castle (2006)
TR 5 I can articulate my research findings and opinions by writing research reports.
Research Results
Exploratory Factor Analysis
The research employed EFA to identify and interpret the latent factors of the instrument. The sample of 286
science instructors was suitable to perform EFA analysis with the high KMO value (.93), and the value of Bartlett’s
test was significant (χ2 = 2657.55, df = 210, and p < .001). Subsequently, the rotated component matrix could be
used to discover the prominent factors, which showed that 21 items were classified into four factors with factor
loadings ranging from .40 to .79, indicating the 21 items could all be retained. As can be seen in Table 2, the total
variance explained is 58.80%, the Cronbach’s alpha for the four factors is .87, .77, .79, and .78, respectively, and the
overall alpha is .92, suggesting the four factors have highly acceptable reliability. According to the EFA results, the
four factors were extracted as PD, TI, TR, and LE.
Table 2
Indices of EFA on the TCRST Instrument
Factor 1 Factor 2 Factor 3 Factor 4
Factor 1: Pedagogical Design (PD), α = .87, M = 4.48, SD = 0.33

PD 1 .71
PD 2 .64
PD 3 .77
PD 4 .79
PD 5 .70
PD 6 .58
Factor 2: Teaching Implementation (TI), α = .77, M = 4.31, SD = 0.42
TI 1 .69
TI 2 .57
TI 3 .57
TI 4 .61
TI 5 .40
TI 6 .55
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Factor 1 Factor 2 Factor 3 Factor 4
Factor 3: Teacher Research (TR), α = .79, M = 3.92, SD = 0.55

TR 1 .57
TR 2 .74
TR 3 .78
TR 4 .74
TR 5 .54
Factor 4: Learning Evaluation (LE), α = .78, M = 4.33, SD = 0.37
LE 1 .57
LE 2 .63
LE 3 .58
LE 4 .71
Eigenvalues 8.20 1.75 1.35 1.05
% of variance 18.44 14.21 14.09 12.06
% of cumulative 18.44 32.65 46.74 58.80
Confirmatory Factor Analysis
Different from EFA, CFA seeks to clarify the structure of the four-factor model (Figure 2). The fitness of the
items (χ2 = 462.582, df =179, RMSEA = .06, GFI = .91, NFI = .94, RMR = .02) showed that the four-factor model was
a satisfying structure, as seen in Table 3. In addition, the factor loadings and t-values range from .65 to .89, show-
ing significance at the .05 level, indicating that the construction has good convergent validity. The values of AVE
are all accessed to be larger than .50. Besides, the values of CR range from .89 to .91, higher than .70 (Hair et al.,
2010). Table 4 provides specific details. There was no denying that adequate evidence was presented to support
the convergent validity and reliability of TCRST to evaluate science teachers’ perceptions of teaching competency.
Figure 2
The TCRST Model with 21 Items
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Table 3
Model Fitting Index of the TCRST Instrument
Absolute Fit Indices Relative Fit Indices

Goodness-of-Fit
χ /df
2
Indexes
RMSEA GFI RMR NFI RFI CFI IFI TLI
Calculated Values 2.58 .06 .91 .02 .94 .93 .96 .96 .96
Fit Criteria ≤3 ≤ .08 ≥ .90 ≤ .08 ≥ .90 ≥ .90 ≥ .90 ≥ .90 ≥ .90
Table 4
Indices of CFA on the TCRST Instrument
Factors Items Standardized Factor Loading AVE CR
PD 1 .76
PD 2 .76
PD 3 .80
PD .64 .91
PD 4 .79
PD 5 .83
PD 6 .85
TI 1 .78
TI 2 .80
TI 3 .74
TI .57 .89
TI 4 .75
TI 5 .65
TI 6 .81
TR 1 .78
TR 2 .84
TR TR 3 .89 .66 .91
TR 4 .85
TR 5 .70
LE 1 .86
LE 2 .81
LE .68 .89
LE 3 .85
LE 4 .78
Differences in Demographic Variables
In order to verify the distribution of urban and rural science teachers, the research examined the variations in
demographic factors using the chi-square test. Regarding gender, educational background, as well as title, there
were significant differences between urban and rural science instructors (p < .05, p < .01, p < .01). Moreover, there
was no significant difference in teacher training (p > .05). The specific results are shown in Table 5.
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The results showed that there were considerably more male teachers than female teachers in rural areas. The
distribution of science instructors with master’s degrees and junior college degrees (experts with extensive teaching
experience) was much higher in urban schools. Additionally, in rural schools, second-level and third-level teachers
were more common than advanced and first-level teachers, who were more prevalent in urban schools. Although
the indicator of teacher training didn’t approach statistical significance, it was clear that scientific teachers who
completed education courses were more concentrated in urban areas.
Table 5
Demographics of Science Teachers in the Phase 3
Variable Category Urban (%) Rural (%) χ2 p
Male 41.9 58.1

Gender 333.87 .049*
Female 59.5 40.5
Teacher More 53.5 46.5

1.641 .117
Training Rarely 45.0 55.0
Junior college 77.0 23.0
Educational Bachelor 40.6 59.4 595.481 .007**
Background
Master 80.9 19.1
Advanced 66.1 33.9

First-level 60.3 39.7
Title 715.326 .004**
Second-level 32.8 67.2
Third- level 32.9 67.1
Notes: * < .05, ** < .01; The title is reduced from top to bottom.
Differences in School Region
In addition to examine the validity of the TCRST, the study further conducted a comparative analysis to
explore the differences in teaching competencies between urban and rural teachers. The research revealed that
urban teachers scored higher than rural teachers on all dimensions of teaching competencies, demonstrating a
significant disparity between urban and rural teaching standards. Teaching implementation receives the greatest
scores from both urban and rural teachers, the scores are 8.30 and 8.02, respectively. Likewise, the lowest scores
for both urban and rural science teachers are in the same dimension, teacher research, where they score 7.43 and
7.13, correspondingly. Regarding pedagogical design and learning evaluation, urban science teachers obtain scores
of 8.13 and 8.19, whereas rural science teachers receive scores of 7.92 and 7.82, respectively. Further conducting
independent sample t-tests, the results showed that there were significant differences between urban and rural
science teachers on certain dimensions, which were teaching implementation (p = .017< .05) and learning evalu-
ation (p = .004< .01), as shown in the Figure 3.
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Figure 3
Differences between Urban and Rural Science Teachers on Each Dimension
** Note: * < .05, ** < .01 *

10
0
Rural Urban Rural Urban Rural Urban Rural Urban
Learning Evaluation Pedagogical Design Teacher Research Teaching Implementation
Discussion
The study aimed at measuring the self-perception towards teaching competency of Chinese rural science
teachers and exploring the rural-urban differences using the instrument developed in this research. For RQ1, the
survey constructed an initial theoretical framework based on the literature review. The EFA was then employed to
discover what factors emerged from the data, with the construct validity and reliability of the initial instrument
being reported. Subsequently, the convergent validity of the TCRST model was evaluated using CFA. On the whole,
TCRST was demonstrated to be a valid and reliable instrument.
For RQ2, the research was divided into two parts to examine the differences between urban and rural teach-
ers. Part 1: The study examined the rural-urban differences across demographic characteristics, results indicated
significant differences in gender, educational background, and title. Firstly, the study addressed the disparate
gender distribution among urban and rural teachers. The immense pressure of teaching in rural schools mandates
that male teachers shoulder the responsibility. The second finding was that teachers with master’s degrees and
extensive teaching experience were primarily situated in urban schools. This may be due to the fact that teach-
ers with great educational background prefer urban schools with superior teaching environments. Lastly, urban
schools were found to have a greater proportion of teachers with the higher title. In China, urban schools continue
to lure outstanding rural teachers for more promotion quotas than rural areas. Additionally, significant opportuni-
ties for professional development contribute to the advancement of urban teachers (Peng et al., 2014). Part 2: The
rural-urban differences of teaching competency of Chinese science teachers were explored using TCRST. There is
a critical role for teachers in providing meaningful and equal science learning for both rural and urban students,
which requires a focus on science teachers’ competency. Yet the survey still perceived significant differences be-
tween urban and rural teachers, which was in line with existing research (He et al., 2021; Liu & Onwuegbuzie, 2012).
The research revealed that teachers in urban and rural areas showed strikingly different teacher competencies on
these two dimensions: teaching implementation and learning evaluation, which was consistent with the existing
studies (He et al., 2021).
When referring to teaching implementation, the uneven distribution of resources is the main reason un-
doubtedly (Zhou et al., 2004). To cope with this problem, substantial educational resources are allocated to rural
areas, including the incorporation of digital educational resources into teaching practices and the construction of
information and communications technology (ICT) policy. Nonetheless, due to a lack of experience in technological
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learning, the majority of rural teachers fail to use these tools skillfully (Wang et al., 2019). Moreover, the Science
Curriculum Reform of Compulsory Education of China (Ministry of Education, 2022) aims at reorienting the idea
from emphasizing test scores to encouraging sustainable development and lifelong learning. When faced with
increased class sizes and limited time, it can be challenging for rural science teachers to implement innovative
teaching strategies (Wang, 2011).
The establishment of the National Assessment of Educational Quality (NAEQ) also illustrated the importance
of evaluating students’ learning. The differences between urban and rural teachers’ teaching evaluations may
be closely related to the following factors: teacher shortages in rural areas force science teachers to teach many
subjects, and the pressure of large class sizes also makes it extremely difficult to assess (Li et al., 2020). In contrast,
urban teachers are not only free of these concerns but are also offered more opportunities for professional devel-
opment (Sargent & Hannum, 2009). Consequently, they are generally equipped with advanced concepts, such as
theoretical knowledge and implementation methods of learning evaluation. When rural teachers remain stagnant
in evaluating students’ final grades, urban teachers have been able to replace the traditional ideas with multiple
methods and perspectives to systematically assess students’ learning processes, scientific inquiry processes, etc.
The pedagogical design is an essential prerequisite for the successful implementation. How can teachers
assess their success if teaching goals are not clearly established from the start? It is impossible to implement
teaching without first going through the logical cycle of setting goals, deciding on methods, choosing resources,
arranging activities (Tyler, 1949). However, the results revealed that the pedagogical designs of both urban and
rural teachers were inferior to their teaching implementation. Even if rural teachers are in short supply, each sci-
ence teacher should nevertheless devote considerable time and effort to lesson plan preparation. Although the
planned procedures may not always correspond with instructional activities, teachers need occasionally be flexible
and adaptable in the classroom (Hatch & Clark, 2021).
The results showed that urban and rural teachers needed to make the most progress in the fourth dimension,
teacher research. It was obviously evident that science teachers failed to reflect the lengthy history of the teacher
research movement. Even though science teachers are aware of the value of teacher research, it is still challeng-
ing to make a difference (Lunenberg et al., 2007). Ermeling (2010) discovered that significant improvements were
more likely to occur when instructors worked in teams in stable contexts, employed inquiry-based procedures, and
were directed by qualified leaders. Furthermore, several studies have discovered that a professional community
in which teachers communicate their findings or collaborate to undertake research is an essential prerequisite for
teacher research (Cochran-Smith & Lytle, 2009; Lunenberg et al., 2007).
Conclusions and Limitations
Rural education has always been a hot topic and a challenging one in all countries. In comparison to previous
studies of science teachers, less attention has been paid to the comprehensive teacher competencies required of
rural science teachers. This study constructed a competency structure for rural science teachers that included 21
items and four dimensions: pedagogical design, teaching implementation, teacher research, and learning evalu-
ation. Using TCRST with good reliability and validity, the research analyzed differences in teaching competencies
between rural and urban teachers. Science teachers in rural areas as well as educational researchers can greatly
benefit from this study. On the one hand, rural science teachers can undertake a self-assessment of their competence
based on the four dimensions. On the other hand, the TCRST model is expected to inspire educational researchers
to propose competency criteria for rural science teachers. Additionally, this research is dedicated to drawing the
attention of educational researchers and education authorities to the need to establish effective policies and pro-
vide competence-based training for rural teachers to eliminate the disparities between rural and urban teachers
(especially the aspects of teaching implementation and learning evaluation).
The limitations of this research should be acknowledged. Further qualitative strategies or mixed methods,
such as observing rural science teachers in the classes or conducting in-depth interviews, should be employed to
acquire a real picture of their competencies. Moreover, since there is lack of particular documents and criteria spe-
cifically for rural science teachers, the construction of TCRST model relies more on competence documents issued
by other nations. Given this, the research is considered to promote the establishment of professional standards
for Chinese rural science instructors.
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Acknowledgements
This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC) under grant number
[72004166].
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Cite as: Li, M., Cai, L., Chen, D., &Ye, J. (2022). Measuring Chinese rural science teachers’self-perception towards teaching competencies:
Instrument development. Journal of Baltic Science Education, 21(6), 1026-1039. https://doi.org/10.33225/jbse/22.21.1026
Mengmeng Li Master Student, College of Chemistry and Materials Engineering,

Wenzhou University, Zhejiang 325035, China.
E-mail: mmlxkhx@163.com
Le Cai Master Student, College of Chemistry and Materials Engineering,

E-mail: 460060111@qq.com
Dimei Chen Master, Professor, College of Chemistry and Materials Engineering,

E-mail: cdm8203@163.com
Jianqiang Ye PhD, Associate Professor, College of Chemistry and Materials

(Corresponding author) Engineering, Wenzhou University, Zhejiang 325035, China.
E-mail: yjqyszj@163.com
1039
NARRATIVES OF THREE NOVICE

IN-SERVICE SCIENCE PRIMARY
SCHOOL TEACHERS: THEIR
JOURNEY OF ACHIEVING
TEACHER AGENCY AND
TEACHER BELIEF
Abstract. This study explores the

phenomenon of ‘school adaptation of
novice primary school teachers’ in the
process of entering their actual primary
Sungman Lim,
school field. This study also studies the Soyoung Yun
achievement of teacher agency and their
teacher belief establishment procedure
as novice teachers, not only in the actual
teaching context but also as teachers
who faced a special situation where their
given role was different from what they Introduction
learned from their university life. This study
used a ‘narrative’ methodology. Narrative Novice teachers experience a rapid role shift due to the actual gap be-
inquiry starts with ‘researcher’s narrative’, tween the theory acquired in training and the school field, and the problem
which begins with the researcher’s own of teaching adaptation was left to the accumulation of individual trials and
story. The participants joined in interviews errors and experiences due to the lack of a systematic process for novice
and submitted their teaching diaries. teachers in terms of entering the teaching profession (Kim et al., 2021).
The participants of this study were three Rather frequently, early experience in teaching leads some novice teachers
novice in-service teachers who were newly to evacuate from teaching due to professional frustration, strengthening
assigned to their primary schools. The the individualistic and conservative teaching culture by adapting to the
research results are as follows. First, the existing order, or, on the contrary, others establishing a positive teacher
novice primary school teachers achieved identity by spending a passionate period. It is necessary to pay attention
teacher agency while adjusting themselves to that it can bring about changes in academic achievement and school
to the school for a year. Second, novice innovation (Kim et al., 2021). The role of teachers is very important, and in
primary school teachers did their best in terms of facilitating their roles in a teaching context, teacher belief and their
terms of preparing for their classes in the subjectivity play a key role.
process of being familiar with their schools’ There are several ways to view teachers as an educational subject. One
culture and system. This study highlighted of them is the ‘Teacher Agency’. Teacher agency is a new perspective for
the need for dual support of teaching and understanding teachers from a practical point of view. It is a perspective
administrative tasks for novice primary that connects and integrates elements dispersedly explained in terms of
school teachers. subjectivity, professionalism, and competence as an educational subject (Lee,
Keywords: designing science lesson, 2020). Teacher agency was reconceptualized by relating the agency to the
novice teacher, science education, teacher teacher’s practice as an essence rather than a tool (Kim, 2019). It has emerged
agency, teacher education to overcome the current understanding of teacher behavior and practice,
which sees teachers’ subjectivity as a discourse that supports educational
policy (So & Choi, 2018). In particular, teacher agency tends to be seen as
Sungman Lim
Korea National University of Education,
an independent variable or factor in the teacher’s behavior as an actor, but
South Korea from an ecological point of view, the focus of discussion is on the ecological
Soyoung Yun environment in which agency is achieved (Lee, 2020). In other words, the
National Youth Policy Institute, South Korea
teacher’s agency is a phenomenon that arises from the interaction of the
teacher and the teacher’s belonging context (Priestley et al., 2015).
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Regarding teacher agency, Priestly et al. (2011) suggested that the research focus should be on the matter
of ‘How is agency achieved’ rather than ‘What is agency’. In other words, it is more important to understand how
teachers are achieving their own agency in the environment of school sites. In addition, the role of the teacher’s
beliefs is essential for teachers in terms of achievement of agency (Lim & Yun, 2021). According to Priestley et
al. (2015), it is argued that the teacher’s beliefs should be understood in advance to understand the teachers’
recognition, decision-making, and personal or group discourse that assigns motivation. Teachers’ educational
beliefs vary widely, just as teaching methods differ from teacher to teacher, including learners (e.g., beliefs about
inclusion and diversity), knowledge (epistemological beliefs), and teaching methods (beliefs about the curricu-
lum, beliefs about essential elements of learning content). In addition, educational media, teaching strategies,
beliefs about evaluation, etc.), parents, educational contexts, and educational organizations (Sang et al., 2009;
Tondeur et al., 2008) are also included in the boundary of teachers’ educational beliefs.
On the other hand, novice teachers who take their first steps in the school field are required to cope with
various roles at the same time. They need to teach, manage the class, and handle administrative tasks like other
experienced teachers from the moment they are assigned to the school (Kim et al., 2016). In this situation, due
to the role and tasks that the novices need to cope with, it may be difficult to establish one’s identity and edu-
cational beliefs, and therefore it will influence the path of achieving agency. Due to these reasons, many studies
(Eurydice, 2009; Kim et al., 2011) asserted the importance of proper assistance for newcomers. They also reported
that various types of support measures for novice teachers could help them overcome difficulties in the early
stages of employment and help them to adapt to teaching life smoothly. In particular, recently, studies related
to the strengthening of novice teachers’ competency have been conducted. According to Jeong et al. (2014),
various themes, such as ‘subject guidance’, ‘comparative subject guidance’, ‘life guidance and counseling’, ‘class
management’, ‘school administration support’, ‘connection with parents and the local community’, ‘professional
development’, ‘understanding educational policy’, and ‘teaching knowledge’, etc., were studied. In addition, they
analyzed to what level the participants of their study possessed professional competence. These items are the
teacher’s job and require the teacher’s agency.
The purpose of this study was to explore the Korean school culture, novice teachers’ experience in Korean
schools and development in the school setting. The procedure of their achievement of teacher agency through
the actual allocation into Korean schools will be studied, and through it, the importance of establishing a
systematic framework for novice teacher training not only Korean setting, but also universal setting could be
identified. This study also examined not only the achievement of teacher agency of novice teachers at their
new school, but also the formation of educational beliefs of newcomers in the process of school adaptation of
novice primary school teachers in charge of science-subject. In the Korean primary school context, the teacher
allocating system has been operated for practical and functional reasons in order to enhance the professionalism
of teachers in a specific subject and to reduce the class hours of upper-grade teachers (Ministry of Education,
1992). At the primary school site, subjects such as science, music, physical education, and English are operated
and those are the subjects that require subject specialized teachers. In particular, science is a subject with low
teacher efficacy (Kim, 2010), and many schools operate a subject-only teacher system.
In a study of immersion and alienation in primary school subject teachers’ school life, Kim (2004) found
those subject teachers improved the quality of their subject classes by focusing on their own classroom. On
the other hand, a loss of motivation or lethargy exhibition was also reported. It can be said that it shows the
reality of the school field of the subject-only system, which was implemented with an emphasis on improving
teaching efficiency and learning effect.
From this perspective, this study explored the phenomenon of ‘novice teachers adapting to their school
and the school’s acceptance of them’. In particular, the various actions and practices of a teacher entering the
field as a novice teacher in the specific situation of being a science-subject teacher rather than a homeroom
teacher would provide various implications for teacher training as well as the story of the Korean educational
context. Therefore, the specific research questions of this study were as follows.
First, how do novice primary school teachers in charge of science-subject achieve teacher agency in the
school adaptation process?
Second, how are the educational beliefs of novice primary school teachers in charge of science-subject
formed during the school adaptation process?
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General Background
A narrative is a structure that organizes a series of events into one complete story and gives meaning to each
individual event in light of the overall story. This narrative structure reveals the meaning of individual experiences
by showing how they function as parts of the whole life (Polkinghorne, 1988). The narrative should often be used
separately from the story people know, whereas a story refers to an anecdote about a specific situation, whereas
a narrative refers to life events that occur over a long period of time (Clandinin & Connelly, 1990). In this way, the
narrative becomes a framework that provides temporal continuity to the discontinuous world of experience by
revealing the relationships that exist between a series of events that appear to have occurred chaotically and
meaninglessly (Connelly & Clandinin, 1988). The narrative is structured around a series of questions, such as what
happened, who was in the world of experience, and why they acted in the way they did (Park, 2006). The narrative
is the process of interpreting the experiences of the research participants based on this information and in the
process of analyzing the data, it constructs the meaning of the experiences. In other words, the narrative process
is an interpretive work. It should include a thought process to explore how the research participants’ experiences
could be interpreted and what their meanings are. The narrative inquiry follows the in-depth process that attempts
to understand reality by structuring and relating various data related to research participants and synthesizing
seemingly heterogeneous events (Robinsin & Hawpe, 1986).
Sample Selection
In this study, three novice teachers were invited. They all graduated from a teacher training university located
in the central region of South Korea. At the time of participating, they were working as teachers in the primary
school field from the very following year. For the study, one preliminary interview with the study participants,
three autobiographical essays, and one in-depth virtual interview were conducted. On-site participation observa-
tions and face-to-face interviews were initially planned, but they could not be performed due to COVID-19. The
collected data were classified and analyzed according to the narrative inquiry procedure, and the features of study
participants’ educational beliefs and teacher agency were summarized as they were adjusting themselves to the
school as new science-subject teachers. As narrative inquiry proceeds through ‘narrative thinking’ throughout
the entire research process (Clandinin & Connelly, 2000; Clandinin, 2013), the researchers tried to understand the
phenomenon through narrative thinking throughout the study. The researchers composed the life experiences of
the study participants in the form of a narrative, that is, a story retold through narrative thinking. This was because
the experiences of the study participants were continuous, relational, and social.
Table 1
Research Participants
Name of the
Location of
participants Gender Major Assigned role Year of allocation
allocated schools
(Anonymized)
Lee Shin-Gyu Female Science

Science-subject A large city in South
Kim Cho-Im Female Science-Music-Science March, 2021
teacher Korea
Min Shin-Im Female Science
All three study participants were female and were novice science-subject teachers assigned in March and April
2021, respectively. All cities to which their assigned school belonged were large cities in Korea, but they work in
small schools in the area. All of the research participants majored in advanced science courses at the university, and
they liked science not as teachers but as students as well. Lee Shin-Gyu, with a lively personality, was a challenging
and questionable student, majoring in the Advanced Science Course at the university. She then transferred to the
Advanced Music Course in the second year and then studied in the Advanced Science Course in the third year again.
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Kim Cho-Im was a student who was active and cultivated leadership in many areas. She served as a representa-
tive of the university. She also travelled to new places, frequently. Min Shin-Im had the personality to actively ask
questions, and although she was studying an advanced science course at the time of research participation, she
was a student who majored in liberal art in high school. So, she was a bit hesitant to take science major lectures.
All of the study participants were very active and challenging at the given tasks. They prepared more thoroughly
for the entrance examination compared to other students preparing for the examination, then, all of the study
participants were assigned to schools in a large city in March 2021.
Instruments and Procedures
As mentioned earlier, the data were collected in various ways. Firstly, field texts were composed through one
preliminary interview with the participants. Secondly, autobiographical essays from the three participants were
collected. Thirdly, one in-depth interview was conducted. Participation observations and interviews, which were
originally planned for the school visit, were not conducted due to the COVID-19 situation. Alternatively, interviews
were conducted via video call using Zoom. The preliminary interview was conducted on the topic of current feel-
ings and life at the time of the assignment, and the in-depth interview was conducted on the topic of the working
environment and business processing at the school. The three autobiographical essays consisted of the themes
of ‘The thrill of dispatch, the image of the school I drew’, ‘Work environment and work handling at school’, and ‘A
year as a novice teacher’. Data were collected between March 2021 and February 2022.
Data Analysis
All interviews were transcribed, and the research text was composed based on the interview transcripts and
the participants’ essays. To increase the credibility of the study, all of the collaborators participated in the composi-
tion of the study text. For the consistency of the field texts, the research texts were constructed after all field texts
were completed. In order to prevent the sense of presence and distortion of the field text, the research text was
constructed by interpreting the meaning carefully while all the researchers were aware of the context of the field
text. After the research text was completed, a plot was constructed based on it. The plot was constructed by rein-
terpreting the meaning and significance of the narratives of the research participants. The plots were constricted
by finding thoughts and actions related to the establishment of educational beliefs and achievement of teacher
agency. The three participants' gradual change into field teachers over time were shown through the data analysis
procedure. The constructed plots were sent to the study participants to be reviewed for errors in meaning and
interpretation, and then finally confirmed.

Research Results
The researchers shared the feelings of the participants’ narrated experiences in the process of interpreta-
tion and organization of the meaning of the field texts to compose the research text. The difficulties experienced
by the participants as novice teachers in newly allocated schools touched the researchers’ hearts.
Excitement and worries about ‘Secondment’
OO Primary School was like an imaginary school, preparing for the second exam and having the ideal school scene in
various books. It was the image of the school I had envisioned, that is, a school where all school members cooperate for
education, teachers’ autonomy is guaranteed, class activities are free, and they do not spare support and effort for children.
I even felt fortunate to have started my teaching career at a school like this, admiring, ‘There are schools that really do this.’
So, on March 2nd, I went to school with high expectations. (Kim Cho-Im)
Kim Cho-Im received the assignment and went to work in February to prepare for the start of school in March.
The excitement and anticipation for her secondment to the school were seen through the written impressions
shown above. Like Kim Cho-Im, Min Shin-Im was preparing for an examination and understood that the school
atmosphere was more student-centered rather than teacher-centered. She imagined students would be happy
at the school atmosphere. She also imagined a context where students in the classroom have fun learning while
playing in nature. Min Shin-Im, who likes children, talked about ‘worry’ as she talked about the difference between
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loving children and teaching them. However, she also expressed the expectation that, once an issue arises, she will
solve it through self-study or cooperation with fellow teachers, then develop gradually as a teacher.
I don’t know if it’s unfortunate or fortunate, but I don’t have any fantasies about the original school. Perhaps that is why,
rather than the excitement of Balyeong (secondment), I was filled with worries. This is because I felt that my competency
was very insufficient to become a teacher while preparing for the entrance exam, especially during the second interview
and class demonstration. With doubts about whether it would be okay to go out on the field as it is and fear of what would
happen if students were harmed with insufficient skills, I waited for the release in March. I would rather have a one-year
waiting period to gain experience. (Lee Shin-Gyu)
Unlike Kim Cho-Im and Min Shin-Im, who talked about excitement, Lee Shin-Gyu said that after receiving
the secondment, worries preceded excitement. She said that while preparing for the second interview and class
demonstration, she had doubts and fears, ‘Can I go out to the field like this?’ She also said that when it comes to
school work, she has a certain sense of self-confidence, ‘Something will be fine’, so it wasn’t a big deal. However, in
an interview at the end of the school year, Lee Shin-Gyu replied, ‘After all, work was the biggest problem.’ She also
mentioned that despite such worries, ‘I can’t change anything, so I’ve decided to resign and think positively.’ And she
said she was thankful that she could be assigned as a science-subject teacher instead of a homeroom teacher, so
she didn’t have to prepare for many subjects and life guidance that she had to do if she was a homeroom teacher.
Kim Cho-Im and Min Shin-Im, who were equally assigned as science-subject teachers, also reported that it was
good that they did not work as homeroom teachers like Lee Shin-Gyu.
Lee Shin-Gyu said that school was a place full of ‘flutter’, unlike the ‘worries’ she had when she started going
to school.
Maybe it was because I had no expectations in the first place, and unlike what I was worried about in advance, the school
was a place full of excitement rather than worry. (Lee Shin-Gyu)
Many teachers, like the three participants, must have had mixed feelings of excitement and anxiety before the
secondment. However, at the same time as the secondment, the feelings of excitement and worry seemed to fade
away. In reality, it would have been unfamiliar to novice teachers because it was the first time they encountered
the actual realities at school. The school was a harsh reality for novice teachers who only experienced the teacher’s
path through lectures, books, and short training sessions at their university.
I just became a teacher, and it is difficult to teach, but I always wanted to work, so I always left work after the sun went
down, and I went to work until the weekend and worked for a month. (Kim Cho-im)
The Actual School System & Atmosphere that Novice Teachers Faced
All three novice teachers had to deal with science-subject-related tasks in school work as well. Kim Cho-Im
and Lee Shin-Gyu’s given responsibilities were more information-related tasks. However, in the case of Min Shin-Im,
she was assigned additional tasks besides science subject related work. Min Shin-Im was saying that the tasks were
so huge so that in the case of large schools, the same tasks given to the three novice teachers would be shared by
several people. However, in the case of the three novice teachers, they had to be in charge of it alone.
If there are many other schools with a large number of teachers, there will be a director and assistants, but in our school,
there are few teachers, so everyone is a director, and each is in charge of a major task. Among them, I was in charge of two
heavy tasks: science and information. (Lee Shin-Gyu)
In a large school, if there is a large department, it seems to be divided and taken care of. I just took on the three big ones
ones: science, physical education, and safety education. (Min Shin-Im)
Last year, when I heard that it was a task shared by one administrative practitioner and two dedicated teachers, it was very
burdensome that I had to take on all the tasks alone. (Kim Cho-Im)
Due to this heavy workload, three novice teachers recalled that they had a very difficult year. It was tough,
but still, it was the process of the three novice teachers’ teacher agency achievement and educational beliefs
establishment.
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Novice Teachers Teacher Agency Achievement
Kim Cho-Im said that at first, she did not know anything about the work, so she could not determine whether
the work was appropriate or excessive. However, researchers were belatedly aware of the fact that Kim Cho-Im’s
work was shared by one administrative officer and two dedicated teachers last year. Researchers asked about that,
and she said she felt it was unfair to not do it. She said that she couldn’t understand the work because of the heavy
workload and even the explanation for takeover the task conducted less than 10 minutes. In a situation where even
a proper handover was not done, Kim Cho-Im had no choice but to stay at work until sunset for a month, and it was
said that she had to go to work even on the weekend. This was also the case for Min Shin-Im. Compared to other
novice teachers, she was in charge of three major tasks. This later became a huge burden. She was expressing her
daily routine, by saying that ‘I can’t see the end of my workday by day.’
Lee Shin-Gyu reported a similar experience as below:
When I first received the Nice Certificate and opened the business portal (teachers’ working messenger program), there
were as many as ten official documents. I struggled here and there to deal with four, but somehow the number of official
documents was ten. In the meantime, four more came. In this way, I had to check the work portal from time to time, and
time. Whenever I logged in, I felt fear how many official messages would come. (Lee Shin-Gyu)
As Lee Shin-Gyu said, the official document must have been a fearful existence for the novice teacher. From
figuring out the content to getting things done, someone should have been helping the newcomers. For novice
teachers, too much work was a problem, but handling the work was also a big deal.
At first, he told me to ask if there was anything I didn’t know, so I asked because I really didn’t know everything, but every-
thing I can do is listed in the official document. And there are many teachers who are not in charge of this task, but there
are many teachers who do not know. ' Just look for the official document on your own and do it '. It’s just how I did it. But he
told me to think about it first, then ask. Then I got a little schocked. I already thought about it and asked, so now I have to
figure it out on my own. I think about it, and after that, I take care of it by myself. (Min Shin-Im)
As Min Shin-Im said, at first, she would have dealt with the matter by asking questions. However, as with all new
learning, the exact same task was not given. Every day, the school site is overflowing with other official documents
and work. Before a year had passed, everything would have been new for novice teachers. However, not only the
previous teachers but also experienced teachers around them did not wait for novice teachers. Min Shin-Im was
satisfied with little help from co-workers, and still, the novice teachers had no choice but to learn on their own.
Due to the heavy workload, Kim Cho-Im said that at some point, she was handling the work roughly accord-
ing to her own will. She said that when she asked for help or explanation to do and complete the task, the only
answer she got back was that they didn’t know. It is said that she could not do what she thought was unnecessary
in her own judgment, and only had to handle tasks in the way they had have being done for many years as the task
outcome could be audited by higher authority of the school. As in the responses of Min Shin-Im and Kim Cho-Im
presented below, in this process, it is judged that the two novice teachers achieved agency as far as school affairs
are concerned. As Biesta and Tedder (2006) argued, it can be seen that the two novice teachers developed agency
through interaction with members of the school during the flow time of one year as a novice teacher. In other
words, it can be said that they have achieved subjectivity in judgment and execution of their actions with the pas-
sive help of other teachers of the school. The current school culture expects novice teachers to play the role of the
public official who has to deal with heavy tasks, rather than as a teacher in charge of education, due to the rigid
limitations of handover of duties and the culture that demands standing alone.
(These days) If there is something I don’t know, I just do my best by looking at the document management ledger or data
collection of last year’s documents. Regarding something important, money, etc., I ask questions to the vice principal or the
principal, and if it’s not that much enough, I ask the manager and take care of it. (Min Shin-Im)
Seeing other schools running Science Day, I thought that it would be good to try it at our school as a manager, but I did
not have enough time, and I gave up because I could not put an additional burden on the school with many educational
programs such as projects being implemented. (Kim Cho-Im)
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Unlike Min Shin-Im and Kim Cho-Im, who had to decide on their own with insufficient help from those
around them, Lee Shin-Gyu handled the work according to the active advice and instructions received from the
vice-principal. The vice-principal was a meticulous person, and he cared for the novice teacher as shown in the
interview presented below.
The vice-principal is very meticulous, so he is well aware of all the work of the school, so he instructs the person in charge
of the official inquiry about the direction and method of work. (Lee Shin-Gyu)
But that doesn’t mean you do what your manager tells you to do. The first thing I do is ask my intention and guide me to
make my own decisions. It’s almost like a business academy. (Lee Shin-Gyu)
Like Min Shin-Im and Kim Cho-Im, Lee Shin-Gyu could be considered to have achieved teacher agency by
ultimately deciding for herself and handling the work. However, it was confirmed that such a process was differ-
ent from the other two novice teachers. As such, it was found that the process of achievement of the agency in
acquiring and processing tasks according to the surrounding environment was different. In this respect, as Priestly
et al. (2011) argued, teacher agency requires an understanding of the personal context in which the teacher exerts
agency and an understanding of the environment in which change occurs.
As can be seen in the following content, the achievement process of teacher agency related to school work
divided the evaluations and impressions of novice teachers’ work at the time of one year. While Lee Shin-Gyu ex-
pressed pride and confidence, Min Shin-Im reflected on the episodes that she could not handle in a timely manner.
In the case of Kim Cho-Im, she mentioned errors in the school site related to work. She felt skeptical feeling about
the teaching profession and fellow teachers due to heavy work.
Seeing that my work for a year was organized, I was proud that I had accomplished these things, even though I was not
able to receive official documents at first. Rather, I think it’s fortunate that I learned the job hard when I was new when I
didn’t know anything. Because I now have the confidence to be good at any other job. There was a lot of work, but it was
enough for me to handle, and thanks to this, I was able to have professionalism. (Lee Shin-Gyu)
The amount of work was too much for me, so I dealt with things that had to be (processed) quickly. As a result, when I was
faced with a task that required a lot of time, I was pressed for time. (In the process of doing this) I felt sorry that the teachers
asked me to inform them sooner next time. This year, I write a deadline on my calendar and try to finish my work at least
a week before the deadline. (Min Shin-Im)
Even though the takeover (in 2021) has already been completed, the information audit is scheduled for March, so he is
spending his time working on information every day. (ellipsis) I felt a lot of skepticism about the teaching profession dur-
ing my one year of information work. I was constantly asked whether it was right for me to handle these related tasks, as
I had no information-related education and a low understanding of work, and furthermore, is this what a teacher should
do? The teachers who did not cooperate no matter how much they gave guidance were also resentful. I had no idea that I
would grow as a teacher after being in charge of information work for a year. Even while working, I didn’t even understand
what I was doing. Next time, I hope to at least take on a job related to education. (Kim Cho-Im)
Educational Beliefs of Novice Teachers
All three novice teachers had difficulties adjusting to school due to heavy schoolwork. However, in the pro-
cedure, they were learning the school work in their own way. In other words, teachers’ agency was being achieved
whilst they were struggling and coping with the given school work. The science-subject teachers in this study
taught only the science subjects that they were assigned. In this situation, the novice teachers were doing well
on their own in the ‘class’, which was their duty as teachers. They constantly thought about ways to create their
class more enjoyable and good. The novice teachers were establishing a firm teacher belief in education. In the
case of Min Shin-Im, she worked hard for an active and perfect class creation, then she even wrote the classroom
teaching script and memorized it.
I did my best as a teacher. I went to work an hour early to prepare for classes, and if I had a lot of work, I would prepare for
work and classes after leaving work or on weekends. In order to have a normal class, I studied the instruction book and
wrote the class script and memorized it when I went to work or during breaks. (Min Shin-Im)
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Kim Cho-Im recalled that despite the stress from work, salary, and relationships with managers, the class
was very enjoyable, and the time spent with the children in her classroom was good. As a teacher, she held well-
established educational beliefs that she, as an educator, was enough to devote her passion to teaching materials
and teaching itself in order to have a school life that is not shameful. In addition, she was concerned about her
enthusiasm and losing people, and she recognized the importance of having a heart for children for the future of
her career as a teacher.
The things that bothered me were mostly stressed from outside the class, such as work, salaries, and relationships with
school teachers and administrators. But the class time was so much fun, and I enjoyed spending time with the kids. It’s so
pretty to see the children listening to my story with their eyes shining. I studied textbooks and classes so passionately that
I could confidently say that I had a hard year. If my passion or love for classes and for children fades, I think the job of a
teacher will be very difficult. I hope that my feelings toward the children will not change so that I can endure various difficult
situations in the future. (Kim Cho-Im)
Like Min Shin-Im and Kim Cho-Im, Lee Shin-Gyu prepared diligently for the class. In particular, Lee Shin-Gyu
was preparing independently for her classes as she went through trial and error procedure. She expressed herself
as a highly desirable teacher by preparing her classes and reorganizing textbooks in consideration of the level of
her students and her abilities. In terms of teaching compared to her school work, all three novice teachers were
highly desirable and enthusiastic teachers. They had desirable educational beliefs, and they were constantly striv-
ing to uphold these beliefs.
I judged the activities, experiments, and evaluations to be performed every day. At first, I did not know the level of the stu-
dents and I had never taught them, so I used textbooks and indie school contents as they were. However, at the end of the
first semester and the second semester, various materials were modified to suit the level of the students I teach and to me
as a teacher. I also tried to reorganize the textbook by changing the order of the textbooks and adding experiments that
were not found in textbooks by taking advantage of my special skill in deepening science. (Lee Shin-Gyu)
Adaptation and Growth of Novice Teachers
At the end of the year, the testimonials written by novice teachers revealed their adaptation procedure, that is,
their growth process. Lee Shin-Gyu said, ‘It was a lot of work, but I could handle it, and thanks to that, I was able to
have professionalism in my work.’ She also expressed her educational beliefs to her students, with a commitment to
becoming a developing teacher as follows. One year was a very meaningful time for Lee Shin-Gyu. She also recalled
the past when she was unsure about her teaching profession and wondered about choosing a teaching position.
I wish I could grow up every year just like I have grown up this year. I want to become a teacher who always develops with-
out being complacent with an attitude of learning. I also want to exert a positive influence on students by continuing my
teaching career with a grateful heart and a positive attitude. (Lee Shin-Gyu)
Above all, it was the first year that I became convinced that the teaching profession was the right fit for me. I have a high
level of job satisfaction to the extent that it is funny that I wondered whether this path was right for me before I was as-
signed. (Lee Shin-Gyu)
Not only Lee Shin-Gyu, but Kim Cho-Im also expressed her future expectation to walk the path as an educa-
tor progressively in the future, saying that when the children were happy, she was also happy and could feel the
meaning of her existence. The passion and ambition that the teachers hold, and their continuing articulation in
the school context would be the strength to shed the light on the future of school education, system, and culture.
Min Shin-Im was also proud of the year she has been running passionately, and she has made up her mind
to become a hard-working teacher.
I am happy when my children are having fun when I feel rewarded in the classes I have prepared hard for, and when I feel
meaning in my existence as a teacher. As long as I am in the teaching profession, I will work hard to prepare for classes to
be happy in the future, love children, and live progressively. (Kim Cho-Im)
I want you to think that you have been running passionately. Because the future self is what the present self is made of.
In the future, I want to enjoy the present, live hard, and have an attitude of learning. Even if there are still a lot of clumsy
things, it is natural. I expect that if I try my best by going through failures and finding things to improve on, I will have a
better teaching life. (Min Shin-Im)
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Min Shin-Im, Kim Cho-Im, and Lee Shin-Gyu, three novice teachers, experienced the hardship of school life
and a different teaching profession they did not know when they were pre-service teachers through heavy work
in their one-year school life. Such joy may become the driving force for novice teachers to live today and tomor-
row. During the one-year period, novice teachers achieved teacher agency and established educational beliefs. In
other words, novice teachers were grown up.
Discussion
The teacher’s perspective on education, which contains the teacher’s teaching method, language, and belief in
education are very important factors in achieving the teacher’s agency. In addition, it is possible to grasp the current
situation of teachers through the vocabulary used by teachers when explaining their perspective on education and
the value and vision of education (Priestley et al., 2017). From this point of view, looking at the vocabulary used by
the three novice teachers when they talked about their school life over the course of a year, ‘don’t know’, ‘mistake’,
‘asking one by one’, ‘a lot of it’, ‘tolerable’ ‘, ‘difficult’, ‘stress’, ‘work comprehension’, ‘to be bothered’, ‘huge burden’,
‘help’, ‘busy’, etc. were used to construct negative sentences. On the other hand, regarding classes, words such as
‘undeserved love’, ‘delight’, ‘achievement’, ‘happy’, ‘passion’, ‘love’, ‘hard work’, ‘preparation’, ‘motivation’, ‘laughter’,
and ‘fun’ were observed. Moreover, there were many positive words such as ‘good class’. Looking at this part alone,
it could be seen that the novice teachers experienced difficulties related to work within the one-year time period.
In terms of class, they tried to design a good class for the students, and they felt proud through such a class. The
novice teachers experienced the actual school field and faced different and not expected situations related to work.
It was not an easy path to walk, but through walking, they achieved teacher agency. Lopes and Ambrosio (2016)
stated that teachers’ agency is not only to improve their professionalism but also to reflect and make judgments
about teaching practices that are helpful to students. From this point of view, it can be said that all three novice
teachers who participated in this study achieved teacher agency in not only improving work processing but also
reforming teaching practice; especially in their classes.
Leijen et al. (2019) said that there is something that teachers should not overlook in the process of achieving
agency, and this is the perception of ‘context’. This means that it is important to understand the environment in
which change occurs, and the phenomenon that occurs through interaction with the environment in which the
teacher is placed was an agency accumulating scene. In this context, novice teachers had to take on a heavy task
in a situation where they were not prepared for any work and task processing, so they had to bear it themselves.
It was hard enough, but in the process, they achieved agency. On the other hand, in the process of achieving
agency, Lee Shin-Gyu came to know the work she was responsible for could be completed with the help of those
around her. With small assistance, she could finally be able to handle task independently. However, the remaining
two novice teachers did not receive any help from their surroundings, so they had to experience trial and error.
Even from these results, it can be confirmed that the environment has a large influence on the achievement of
those two novice teachers’ teacher agency. In addition, it was confirmed that if the process of achievement of the
agency is achieved gradually and positively, like Lee Shin-Gyu, the thoughts of the new task to be assigned in the
new school year will also have a positive and challenging attitude. So and Choi (2018) stated that specific teacher
behavior is practiced in the context of the structure and culture surrounding the teacher, and that understanding of
the teacher’s behavior and practice would be very limited while ignoring these structures and cultural aspects. As
has been shown in this study, it is important to understand the structure and context surrounding novice teachers,
such as the assigned heavy work, school context, and lack of interest in assistance surrounding novice teachers.
Still, the novice teachers presented the passion to prepare well and perform well in classes, and they could hold
their own initiative as teachers. It is possible to understand the complex behaviors, emotions, and achievements
of teacher agency by considering the complex aspects of the context and structure surrounding the school. Based
on these considerations, we could have a better understanding of the behavior of novice teachers.
Priestley et al. (2012) said that agency often means some kind of freedom from external restraints and that it
is impossible to distinguish conceptually from ‘autonomy’. Novice teachers were constrained by their freedom of
work. In particular, rather than a large amount of work, it was the arrest that came from not knowing how to handle
the work. As time went by, novice teachers were getting out of this restraint by themselves (Kim Cho-Im & Min Shin-
Im) or with help from others (Lee Shin-Gyu). On the contrary, all three novice teachers were free in class, in terms
of curriculum design and teaching performance. They prepared everything they thought for their children and
conducted it in the practice. They could feel the true meaning of education and establish their educational beliefs.
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The knowledge learned in previous education at teacher education institutions is not as useful as expected
(Choi, 2006) because it assumes generality that is comprehensively applied to various educational situations (Seo,
2009; Hiebert et al., 2002). In this study, it was confirmed that novice teachers were experiencing many difficulties
in relation to their work. To assist their development in their newly allocated schools, a detailed training scheme
related to the actual official work process should be carried out.
Recently, research on the practical knowledge of teachers has been actively conducted. Lee et al. (2009) called
practical knowledge as accumulated through one’s own experience that could be immediately used in teaching
practice. It was also said that practical knowledge could be influenced by the beliefs of teachers. In other words,
practical knowledge is something formed according to the teacher’s beliefs. The practical knowledge of teachers
differs depending on how they understand the nature of school and education, and whether the experiences
accepted by the local teachers were rather positive or negative in a given context. This might be the reason why
it is important for teachers to establish the appropriate educational beliefs. The practical knowledge of novice
teachers that is formed by experiencing the school field was the knowledge that could be continuously used in
practice (Kim, 2010) and is the knowledge that is constantly reconstructed. In this regard, the experience of novice
teachers in the school content is very important. In addition, it is very important to achieve teacher agency and
establish educational beliefs. In this study, this point was also confirmed in the small meeting of the novice teach-
ers during the year. The three novice teachers said that teaching is their path, and when children are happy, they
would feel the meaning of their existence and teach with enthusiasm. One year for novice teachers was a time to
solidify their beliefs about education.
Leijen et al. (2019) stated that actors perceive, interpret and act in the present situation, influenced by
past beliefs, values, experiences, and future aspirations. Novice teachers have recognized, interpreted, and
acted in their own situations based on their experiences over the past year, educational beliefs acquired in the
process, and values for school life. As time goes by, novice teachers would possess more experience, and this
would lead them to define their teacher beliefs and it would also influence to the change of an individual’s
teacher agency.
This study explored the phenomenon of ‘school adaptation of novice teachers’ taking the first step to the
primary school field, and the achievement and education of teacher agency as a novice teacher faced a special
situation as a science-subject teacher instead of a homeroom teacher. It was a narrative inquiry into the process of
establishing beliefs. The achievement of the teacher agency of three Korean novice teachers at their new school
has been also studied. The formation of their educational beliefs and achievement of teacher agency in the process
of school adaptation was vary.
First, the novice primary school teachers in charge of science subjects achieved teacher agency while adjusting
to the school for one year. The achievement process of their teacher’s agency differed for each individual, which
was due to the difference in the help of those around him. Two novice teachers who did not have support from
the surrounding area established teacher agency through trial and error, and a novice teacher who had the help of
continuous attention would be able to think positively about future tasks as they gained confidence. The school was
expecting a role as a public official who had to handle heavy tasks without learning the skills in detail. The novice
teachers who had to be in charge of classes due to inefficient handover of work and a culture that required standing
alone were handling the situation on their own. This raised the need of not only Korean Educational Department,
but also Educational Departments in nations would always have to think about the primary role of a teacher in a
school. The gap between the knowledge the novice teachers achieved in their university life was somewhat differ-
ent from the actuality after they allocated to their school. The school work system should be reorganized so those
novice teachers as well as teachers can fully spend time with students and classes.
Second, the novice primary school teachers in charge of science played their role as teachers through prepa-
rations for classes. At the same time, they were adapting to the school culture. They were carefully observing the
system and the work process then tried to do their job properly. It was not an easy task, but they were coping with
the administrative work and teaching at the same time. In the end, they could confidently say that they could firmly
establish an educational belief and based on the experience, they would strive to grow every year.
In the long path of teaching, the year was the first impression of the teaching profession. But at the same
time, it was a period to reflect on the meaning of the profession. Some novice teachers in this study even thought
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about changing jobs due to excessive work and irrational work processing. However, they hold positive thoughts
about classes with students.
In this regard, support or cooperation from educational institutions is necessary from the dual point of view
of work and class for novice teachers to adapt and be accepted into a school. In reality, teachers in Korea have to
handle various tasks related to school administration as well as classes. The limitation of this study is its focus on
Korean schools, but this study shows high authenticity in terms of delivering the Korean school culture and the
scheme of Korean novice teachers undergo when they are allocated to a primary school. Further studies of other
countries’ school cultures and novice teacher training schemes at their secondment school are required. Based on
the studies, key elements for novice teacher adjustment schemes would rather significantly be identified and it
would influence to many nations’ systematic supporting program designing and implementation.
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by the Ministry of Education of the Republic of Korea and the National Research
Foundation of Korea (NRF-2021S1A5B5A17058184).
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teacher agency and teacher belief. Journal of Baltic Science Education, 21(6), 1040-1051. https://doi.org/10.33225/jbse/22.21.1040
Sungman Lim PhD in Education, Professor, Korea National University of Education, 250
Taeseongtabyeon-ro, Gangnae-myeon, Heungdeok-gu, 28173, Seoul,
Chungcheonbuk-do, South Korea.
E-mail: elektee@naver.com
Soyoung Yun PhD in Education, Associate Research Fellow, National Youth Policy
(Corresponding author) Institute, Sejong National Research Complex, 370 Sicheong-daero,
Sejong-si, 30147, South Korea.
E-mail: soyoungyun0725@gmail.com
1051
EXPLORING EFFECT ON
PRIMARY SCHOOL STUDENTS’
STEM ATTITUDE DETERMINED
VIA STRUCTURAL EQUATION
MODELING
Abstract. As STEM (Science, Technology, Si-Jia Liu,

Engineering and Mathematics) education
Shao-Na Zhou,
gets more and more attention from society,
students’ attitudes towards STEM are
Shao-Rui Xu,
increasingly concerned. However, there
Hua Xiao
was scant research that has empirically
documented the relations among
STEM attitude, learning motivation
and metacognition. This research used
Structural Equation Modeling to examine Introduction
the above relations. Data were collected
from 845 primary school students from Driven by the complex policy, economic, social, and environmental
grade 4 to 6, regarding their STEM attitude, issues today, STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics)
learning motivation, metacognition, and education is a comprehensive and interdisciplinary solution. STEM educa-
their sociodemographic characteristics tion aims to equip students with 21st-century skills such as problem-solving,
(family socioeconomic status). The results critical thinking, logical thinking, communication (Bybee, 2010; NRC, 2010).
showed that metacognition played a In STEM teaching activities, students’ positive attitude towards STEM plays
mediating role in the effect of learning an important role in the achievement of STEM educational goals and acquisi-
motivation on STEM attitude. The family tion of skills (Tseng et al., 2013). Studies have attributed active engagement
socioeconomic status played a moderating in STEM activities to positive STEM attitude which has a significant effect on
role in the effect of metacognition on STEM students’ skill development for the 21st century (Luo et al., 2019).
attitude, and students with higher family In recent years, several countries around the world have reported the
socioeconomic status had a stronger leakage problem of the current STEM pipeline, and many students in these
effect on STEM attitude. This research also countries do not like STEM related disciplines or do not choose the STEM
suggested that it is worth considering related career after graduation (Ball et al., 2017; Doerschuk et al., 2016). The
the improvement of students’ learning STEM pipeline is a commonly used metaphor for articulating the flow of
motivation to facilitate STEM attitude students through the education system, culminating in a STEM-based career
through promoting their metacognitive (Allen-Ramdial & Campbell, 2014). Specifically, in the pipeline students enter
skills, meanwhile balancing the gap primary school at the beginning and then flow through various intersections
between students under the difference of (for example, graduating from high school or choosing a STEM major in col-
socioeconomic level in STEM education. lege). However, students often flee the STEM pipeline for various reasons. To
Keywords: learning motivation, maintain and increase the flow of young students through the STEM pipeline,
metacognition, STEM attitude, Structural the potential means is to enhance students’ positive STEM attitude and active
Equation Modeling participation in STEM activities (Ball et al., 2017). Therefore, it is important to
study the effect on STEM attitude.
Si-Jia Liu, Shao-Na Zhou Previous studies (Mujtaba et al., 2018; Sheldrake, 2016) provided evi-
South China Normal University, China dence for the important role of learning motivation to STEM attitude. The
Shao-Rui Xu
Guangdong Mechanical and Electrical findings highlighted the strong correlation between students’ motivation to
Polytechnic, China learn, especially intrinsic value and self-belief, and STEM attitudes. Several
Hua Xiao researchers have pointed out that students maintained a negative STEM
South China Normal University, China
attitude, which is associated with inadequate metacognition (Akerson &
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ISSN 2538–7138 /Online/ (pp. 1052-1068)
Donnelly, 2008). Many studies focused on the effect of different sociodemographic characteristics on students’
STEM attitude, including family economic level (Martin et al., 2016), and parental education level (Alexander et al.,
2012). As students’ STEM attitude may be complicated and affected by multiple factors, the present study aimed
to clarify the effect on students’ STEM attitude and their pathways.
Literature Review
General social-cognition model of motivation
Motivation works by motivating human beings to initiate and sustain their goal-directed activities (Lasaga-
baster, 2016; Pintrich & Schunk, 2002). Students’ motivation to learn is mainly reflected in their engagement and
contribution to the learning environment (Skinner & Belmont, 1993). Positively motivated students always instinc-
tively participate in activities without expecting external encouragement to complete a challenging task. In contrast,
negative motivation indicates that the behavior is motivated by expectation and fear of failing to achieve the goal.
Research showed that there is a high correlation between learning motivation and learning attitude, and learning
attitude is conditioned by learning motivation (Chang & Chang, 2013). It means that better learning motivation
would lead to a more positive learning attitude.
Based on Pintrich’s general social-cognition model of motivation, the structure of motivation generally includes
three components: (1) expectancy, (2) value, and (3) affect (Pintrich et al., 1994). The first component of motivational
beliefs is expectancy. Expectation value theory (EVT) suggests that individuals are motivated to engage in various
tasks and activities by their expectation of the possibility of success and the value assigned to the task (Wigfield
& Eccles, 2000). Expectation is related to self-efficacy, which is defined as an individual’s belief in their ability to
perform learning tasks (Rittmayer & Beier, 2008). Rittmayer and Beier (2008) stated that students with a high sense
of self-efficacy in science would motivate themselves to set challenging goals and strive to achieve them. Shel-
drake (2016) proposed that the science self-efficacy belief of students with high self-confidence had significantly
affected their STEM career expectations (Sheldrake, 2016). The second component of the motivational structure
is the value. Value is specifically considered as intrinsic value, including students’ identification of scientific values
and judgment of scientific self-ability in Pintrich’s model (Pintrich, 1989). Research stated that the intrinsic value
beliefs had a significant predictive effect on students’ scientific career expectations (Mujtaba et al., 2018). The third
motivational component in the model is the effect. Of the effect in the field of learning and teaching, anxiety is
the most widely studied form, which illustrates the feeling of uneasiness and anxiousness when facing the situa-
tion, especially in the uncertainty of outcome situation (Jackson, 2018). Learning motivation is closely related to
students’ test anxiety (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Therefore, the present study is to consider self-efficacy, intrinsic
value, and test anxiety collectively as motivational indicators.
The association of motivation with STEM attitude
There may be some association between learning motivation and attitude. Attitude is a set of beliefs while
motivation is a reason for performing a task or achieving a goal (Tadayon, 2012). The Self-Determination Theory
(SDT) refines the relation between motivation and attitudes by suggesting that students can undergo a process of
internalizing motivation into attitudes (Deci & Ryan, 1985). Some researchers have demonstrated that motivation
has an effect on attitudinal outcomes such as future behavioral intentions and persistence (Deci & Ryan, 2000; Val-
lerand & Ratelle, 2002). The more motivated the students were, the more positive their adherence to STEM course
participation and their willingness to learn STEM in the future (Vallerand et al., 1997). Highly motivated students
not only have positive attitudes towards STEM courses and are more inclined to choose a STEM related field in the
future (Eccles et al., 1983; Meece et al., 1990). Therefore, it is assumed that learning motivation affects students’
attitude towards STEM to some extent.
The metacognition and its associations to STEM attitude and learning motivation
Metacognition is the process of cognition about thought. Flavell (1979) described it as follows: Metacogni-
tion focuses on one’s knowledge concerning his cognitive processes, or anything related to them (Flavell, 1979).
Flavell argued that metacognition explained why children of different ages dealt with learning tasks in different
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ways. Other researchers stated that metacognition refers to a person’s thought processes, and the monitoring or
control of thought (Bogdanovic et al., 2015). There are two frameworks that previous study usually used for study-
ing children’s metacognition. Flavell initiated the first framework which included metacognitive knowledge and
metacognitive experience (Flavell, 1979). The second framework, proposed by Brown (1978), includes cognitive
knowledge and self-regulation (Brown, 1977). Cognitive knowledge focuses on students’ cognitive skills that stu-
dents possess and their cognitive strategies for solving problems in different contexts (Flavell, 1979). Self-regulation,
on the other hand, is the process of using cognitive knowledge to regulate and control cognitive behavior, which
can help control and regulate an individual’s thinking and learning activities (Bandura, 1986; Özsoy et al., 2017).
The framework of Brown was chosen for the present study, as metacognition was more inclined to rely on an in-
dividual’s self-awareness, including the knowledge and control of individual students in the cognitive field. Also,
the framework of Brown includes both static knowledge and dynamic regulation, and students’ learning process
should be a combination of static knowledge and dynamic regulation.
The association of metacognition with STEM attitude
Studies have shown that the level of metacognition was significantly correlated with learning attitude (Ak-
erson & Donnelly, 2008). Students may encounter negative academic emotions and even end up in an attitude of
refusal towards the decline or block thinking processes, causing them to have a negative STEM attitude (Buxton,
1981). It was reported that some students who experience more severe anxiety during the learning process tend
to put in less effort, their learning strategies tend to be more superficial, which makes them more likely to give
up in the face of difficulties (Pintrich & Schunk, 2002). Meanwhile, students with high self-regulation ability can
locate and correct their mistakes in the learning process by combining their learning content, learning objectives,
and tasks performance. That is, they express a positive attitude towards STEM and participate in the learning of
STEM contents actively. Sungur (2007) suggested that students with high metacognitive ability tend to approach
difficult tasks as challenges to master rather than threats to avoid and exhibit a more positive STEM attitude in the
face of difficulties and distractions (Sungur, 2007). Therefore, it is assumed that metacognition affects students’
attitude towards STEM to some extent.
The association of metacognition with learning motivation
The Social Cognitive Learning Theory (SCLT) which was put forward by Bandura (1986) points out that behav-
ior is directed towards particular goals and eventually becomes self-regulated (Bandura, 1986). Metacognition is
considered as one component of self-regulation (Schraw et al., 2006). Hong and O’Neil (2001) made a three-order
factor model, which further proved the relation between self-regulated metacognition and motivation (Hong &
O’Neil, 2001). Students with high metacognitive ability were more willing to use their efforts and adopt effective
strategies (Zimmerman & Risemberg, 1997). Also, previous studies showed that learning motivational beliefs
significantly affected the effectiveness of metacognition (Al-Ansari, 2005; Neber & Schommer-Aikins, 2002). Hoy
(2004) pointed out that students with strong learning motivation and belief would find other new strategies and
make more efforts when faced with problems (Hoy, 2004). It is necessary to further explore the specific relation
between learning motivation and metacognition and how they affect STEM attitude through their interaction.
The association of family socioeconomic status with STEM attitude
Regarding socioeconomic status of the family, studies take family income and parental education level as
the main measurement criteria (Bradley & Corwyn, 2002). According to the data from TIMSS 2015, students whose
families have more financial resources (such as books, private rooms, and Internet connections) are likely to exhibit
a better attitude to science (Martin et al., 2016). Bronfenbrenner (1994) reported that students’ home environment
(such as resource availability) might play a role in their development and learning (Bronfenbrenner, 1994). The
researchers found that the availability and number of household resources played an essential role in students’
attitude towards science learning (Beck, 2010). Moreover, family habits directly affect students’ recognition of the
practical value of STEM subjects (Archer et al., 2012). Also, parental educational levels may have direct or indirect
effects on students’ STEM attitude. Studies showed that parental ability to answer children’s science questions at
home will affect children’s attitude towards science (Alexander et al., 2012). Parental help with children’s home-
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work is associated with children’s metacognitive ability (Pomerantz et al., 2007). As seen in the literature, family
socioeconomic status seems to affect students’ learning attitude (Ali et al., 2013). Based on the above literature, the
present study took family economic resources and parental educational level as moderating variables to analyze
their effects on students’ STEM attitude.
Research Hypotheses
STEM attitude generally has a significant and direct impact on students’ future STEM pipeline choices. Based
on social psychology, there may be some associations among learning motivation, metacognition, and STEM
attitude. According to the above review, the first two research questions are proposed in this study: What is the
effect of motivation to learn on attitudes towards STEM? Whether learning motivation affects STEM attitude not
only directly, but also indirectly affects STEM attitude through the mediating role of metacognition? In addition,
the study considered taking family economic resources and parental educational level of family socioeconomic
status as moderating variables to analyze their effects among learning motivation, metacognition, and students’
STEM attitude. The third research question in this study was: How motivation and metacognition affect STEM
attitudes with the moderating role of Family Socioeconomic Status. Then, the following hypotheses were listed.
Figure 1
The Hypothesized Model of Effect on STEM Attitude
H1: Learning motivation directly and positively affects STEM attitude.

H2: Metacognition plays a positive mediating role between learning motivation and STEM attitude.
H3: Family Socioeconomic Status plays significant moderating roles in the pathway of H1 and H2.
Research Design
To explore the effect of learning motivation and metacognition on STEM attitudes, and the moderating roles
of the family socioeconomic status in the pathway, the structural equation model was conducted for the analysis.
First, instruments were carefully chosen, including scales measuring students’ STEM attitudes, learning motivation,
metacognition, as well as the socioeconomic status of their family. Second, the instruments were distributed in
primary schools and data were obtained for the study. Third, the structural equation model was applied to analyze
the data and test the hypothesized model in Figure 1. In this section, the fit of the measurement model and the
reliability of the indicators of students’ STEM attitudes, metacognition, and learning motivation were verified. The
relations among the above variables in the model were examined. In addition, the moderating effect of family
socioeconomic status was also tested in the pathways of hypothesis 1 and hypothesis 2 in the hypothesized model.
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Instruments
Student Attitudes toward Science, Technology, Engineering, and Math (S-STEM) The S-STEM chosen
in the present study was developed by Faber et al. (2013) and verified by Unfried et al. (2015) (Faber et al., 2013;
Unfried et al., 2015). The S-STEM was used to determine junior students’ STEM attitude. It is a 5-point Likert-type
scale that consists of 37 items in the 4-factor theoretical structure covering 4 dimensions (mathematics, science,
engineering, and technology, twenty-first century skills).
Junior Metacognitive Awareness inventory (Jr. MAI) The most commonly used metacognitive measure for
adults with 52 items is the Metacognitive Awareness Inventory (MAI), which was first developed by Schraw and
Dennison (1994). Building on the MAI, Sperling et al. (2002) developed the Junior Metacognitive (Jr. MAI) specifi-
cally for a younger sample of students (Sperling et al., 2002). Then, version B (Jr. MAI version B) with 18 items was
modified for the minimum age of 11 years old (Ning, 2019). Therefore, Jr. MAI version B was selected in the present
study. Sperling’s model structure covers 2 dimensions, respectively. They are cognitive knowledge and cognitive
regulation.
Motivated for Learning Questionnaire (MLQ) The motivational strategies for learning questionnaire (MSLQ)
used in this study were developed by Pintrich et al. (1994). It is a self-reported 44 item inventory with a 7-point
Likert form designed to assess students’ motivational orientations for the course. The MSLQ was adapted to Chi-
nese by Lee et al. (2010). The researchers reported the item response characteristic curves indicating that the items
discriminated well. The principal component analysis of each scale showed that the dominant eigenvalues for the
Self-efficacy (9 items, alpha value was .88), Intrinsic value (9 items, alpha value was .81), and Test anxiety (4 items,
alpha value was .77), accounted for 44.70%, 34.90% and 46.14%, respectively (Lee et al., 2010). Initially, MSLQ was
initially developed for college students, but it has proven suitable for use in primary and secondary schools, high
schools, college students or adult learners in various countries to determine learning motivation (Jackson, 2018;
Jakesova & Hrbáčková, 2014). In this study, the translation and slight rewording of the MSLQ were made to make
it suitable for the present participants of upper primary students. Since the inventory was used among younger
learners, the first part of the inventory (namely MLQ) was selected with 22 items and 3 factors in the form of a
5-point Likert scale.
Family Socioeconomic Status Regarding the socioeconomic status of the family, studies usually take family
income and the education level of the parents as the main measure (Bradley & Corwyn, 2002). Since family income
is considered relatively private and students cannot accurately estimate, family income is often chosen to reflect the
family’s economic situation to some extent. In the present study, family income was used as one of the indicators
of family socioeconomic status. It was divided into five categories, including (1) cell phones, (2) TVs, (3) computers,
(4) cars, and (5) bathrooms. Besides, parental education level was used as another indicator to evaluate students’
family socioeconomic status.
The above questionnaires were distributed to students by research assistants in students’ self-study class.
One questionnaire was carried out per day, but the total time range was not more than four days. Each question-
naire took a student about 30 minutes to complete and was tagged with the student ID. At the beginning of each
questionnaire, students were required to read an informed consent to understand that the questionnaire was for
study purposes only, and their names and personal responses would not be disclosed. Students who could accept
the informed consent form confirmed with their signature and completed the questionnaire.
Participants and Procedure
This study took the 4th, 5th, and 6th grade students as the participants under the background of senior primary
school in People’s Republic of China. The participants were selected based on the following considerations. In
primary school, students are not under much learning pressure and have fundamental interests in STEM content.
Students at upper primary school start to have relatively stable self-knowledge and can make relatively independent
judgments on the present survey items. The participant sample consisted of 900 primary school students from
3 different public primary schools. After carefully sorting out and deleting the invalid questionnaires, 845 were
effective. Of the participants 43.8% were girl students (N=370) and the other 56.2% were boy students (N=475).
They were 23.6% in the 4th grade, 49.0% in the 5th grade, and 27.5% in the 6th grade. The detailed information
is given in Table 1.
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Table 1
The Detailed Information of Participants
N
The percent
Grade Totally
(%)
Girl Boy
4th grader 123 76 199 23.6
5 grader
th
212 202 414 49.0
6th grader 140 92 232 27.5
Totally 475 370 845 -
The data were collected from December 2021 to February 2022. The questionnaires were distributed by the
research assistant with the help of teachers in the primary school. The research assistant read out the instructions
to explain the aims of the test. Students are informed that their names will not appear in the study and their privacy
will be protected. Then, students were given 30 minutes to fill out the questionnaires. Those who did not complete
the test or failed the polygraph question were not included in the following analysis.
Data Analysis
The relational screening model can be used to determine the variation between two or more variables and
the extent of this change (if any) (Karasar, 2012). In this study, the model was tested with Structural Equation Mod-
eling (SEM) with Mplus 8.0 software. The maximum likelihood estimation technique (ML) was used for parameter
estimation analysis, in which CFI, TLI, RMSEA, and SRMR fit indices were used to evaluate the model’s fit. Accord-
ing to the standardized path coefficient in the Structural Equation Model, the study analyzed the direct effect of
learning motivation and metacognition on STEM attitude. Then, with the help of the Bootstrap mediating test, the
study also confirmed the mediating effect of metacognition in the model through the scope of 95% confidence
interval. In addition, the maximum likelihood robust estimator (MLR) was used to test the moderating effect with
the convergence of .01.
Research Results
Descriptive Statistics for the Variables
Table 2 presents descriptive statistics including skewness values (-1.237 ~ .889) and kurtosis values (-1.283 ~
1.315), which indicate that the model satisfies the univariate normality assumption (Kline, 2015).
Table 2
Descriptive Statistics of Measurement Items
Item Minimum Maximum Mean Variance Skewness Kurtosis
Mathematics 1.000 5.000 3.215~3.712 1.229~1.69 -.585~.011 -1.009~-.42
Science 1.000 5.000 2.789~3.309 .641~1.402 -.188~.257 -.623~.811
Engineering & Technology 1.000 5.000 3.143~3.641 1.011~1.37 -.644~.012 -.921~.003
21st century skills 1.000 5.000 3.575~4.06 1.014~1.185 -.952~-.246 -.658~.239
Self-efficacy 1.000 5.000 3.334~4.207 .86~1.095 -1.223~-.176 -.482~1.315
Intrinsic Value 1.000 5.000 3.574~4.18 .982~1.385 -1.237~-.449 -.483~1.087
Exam anxiety 1.000 5.000 2.179~2.77 1.764~2.128 .255~.889 -1.283~-.474
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Item Minimum Maximum Mean Variance Skewness Kurtosis
Cognitive knowledge 1.000 5.000 3.651~4.039 .861~1.37 -1.076~-.208 -.867~.397
Cognitive regulation 1.000 5.000 3.464~3.979 1.008~1.574 -.988~-.388 -.822~.268
Measurement Models
CFA established the fit of the measurement model and the reliability of the indicators. Figures 2 and Figure
3 present the results of CFA performed to determine whether the original factor structures of the S-STEM, Jr.MAI
(version B) and MLQ were validated in the context of this study. As shown in Figure 2, the original four dimensions of
S-STEM were well maintained, and the factor loading values of the topics in each dimension in the sub-dimensions
were greater than 0.55. Although there were some items with lower factor loading values, they were still retained in
order to keep the original structure of the scale. For instance, the factor loading values of item 7 of science dimension
and item 11 of twenty-first century skills dimension were lower than 0.6, but the deletion process is not adopted
in the analysis. The CFA results of the Jr. MAI (version B) and MLQ are displayed in Figure 3 (a) and (b). The scale was
well structured with each question having factor loading values greater than 0.6 on its respective dimension. Thus,
the structure of the three scales was demonstrated to support the next step of the analysis.
Table 3 shows the goodness-of-fit values obtained by the CFA regarding the validity of the scales. The goodness-
of-fit values obtained by the CFA regarding the S-STEM, Jr.MAI (version B), and MLQ suggest that all the theoretical
structures were acceptable (Hu & Bentler, 1999; Kline, 2015).
Table 3
Goodness of Fit Values for Variables to be Included in Mode
2
χ2 df df SRMR CFI TLI RMSEA
S-STEM 1591.968 615 2.588 .043 .926 .920 .052
Jr.MAI 379.068 130 2.916 .048 .960 .953 .033
MLQ 619.106 202 3.065 .049 .943 .935 .049
Table 4 illustrates the composite reliability, convergence validity and discriminate validity for measurement
models. As shown in Table 4, almost all factor loadings approached or exceeded .6 and are significant in the model,
indicating the correspondence with excellent quality (loading >.6). Reliability was examined by applying Cronbach’s
alpha, and the values of S-STEM, Jr.MAI and MLQ were .911, .923, and .880. After testing the overall fit between
the variables, the composite reliability (CR) and average variance extracted (AVE) of the model were validated.
The results indicated a good convergence of the multi-indicator potential constructs. However, the AVE was not
greater than 0.50 for most dimensions, suggesting variance among their indicators in excess of residual variance.
Additionally, the square roots of AVE value were used to measure the discriminant validity among the dimen-
sions of the scales. It was to ensure that each dimension had independent validity. If the marked number is larger
than its adjacent number, it can prove that the dimension discrimination validity is good. As shown in Table 4, the
square roots of all AVE in the S-STEM, ranging from .650 to .678, were greater than the correlations between each
pair of two latent constructs (.264 to .483). The square root values of the mean number of extracted variances
among the constructs were greater than the correlation coefficients between different constructs measured,
indicating good discriminant validity in four dimensions. In the Jr.MAI, the two square roots of AVE were .657 and
.663, and the correlation between each pair of two latent constructs was .847. It indicated that the questionnaire
had general discriminate validity. In the MLQ, the square roots of AVE (.635 to .774), were below the correlations
between the self-efficacy and intrinsic value. It indicated that the item distinction validity of these two variables
was not significant. In terms of exam anxiety, its correlation value with other variables was negative, indicating
that it was contrary to the effect of other variables on the whole.
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Figure 2
Confirmatory Factor Analysis for STEM Attitude Scale
Note: mat:Mathematics, sci:Science, e&t:Engineering & Technology, cs:21st Century Skills.
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Table 4
Composite Reliability, Convergence Validity and Discriminate Validity for Measurement Models
ITEM Composite Convergence

Discriminant
Reliability Reliability Validity
Dimension
Std.Loading Cronbach’s α CR AVE Mat/KNOW/SE Sci/REGU/IV Eng/-/EA CS/-/-
Mat .604-.831 .877 .868 .454 .674

Sci .581-.728 .872 .872 .432 .264 .657
S-STEM
E&T .623-.747 .886 .884 .460 .332 .483 .678
CS .585-.695 .892 .889 .423 .372 .270 .410 .650
Jr. KNOW .632-.734 .874 .872 .431 .657

MAI REGU .604-.760 .873 .876 .440 .847 .663
SE .586-.709 .872 .871 .429 .655
MLQ IV .563-.730 .859 .858 .404 .797 .635
EA .667-.885 .840 .855 .599 -.149 -.089 .774
Note: Mat:Mathematics, Sci:Science, E&T:Engineering & Technology, Cs:21st Century Skills, KNOW: Cognitive Knowledge, REGU:
Cognitive Regulation, SE:Self-Efficacy, IV:Intrinsic Value, EA:Exam Anxiety
Figure 3
Confirmatory Factor Analysis for Junior Metacognitive Awareness Inventory (the Jr. MAI) and Motivated for Learning Question-
naire (the MLQ)
(a) The Jr. MAI (Version B) Scale (b) The MLQ Scale
Note: know: Cognitive Knowledge, regu: Cognitive Regulation, se:Self-Efficacy, iv:Intrinsic Value, ea:Exam Anxiety
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Structural Modeling
In the second stage, the relations among students’ STEM attitude, metacognition, and learning motivation in
the model were examined. In the present study, there were many latent variables in SEM, and each latent variable
was presented by several observation variables. Therefore, this study adopted Item Parceling, taking the average of
several indicators as new indicators when modelling. Compared with the method of using a single indicator, Item
Parceling had many advantages, such as high reliability and commonality (Little et al., 2002), making data closer
to the normal distribution, easier to converge, and better model fitting results. Table 5 shows the values obtained
for the confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). The standardized model is represented in Figure 4. The results of CFA of
2
the scale were  df =2.671 (<3, indicating a good fit), RSMEA=.053 (<.05, indicating a good fit), and the goodness
of fit index close to .90 (CFI=.903, TLI=.894). It suggested an adequate fit to the data.
Table 5
Structural Equation Model Fit Indices
Fit index Structural model values Criterion
χ2 1634.457
df 612
2
 Good below 3.0
2.671
df Acceptable below 5.0
CFI .903 Greater than .90

TLI .894 Greater than .90
SRMR .044 Below .05
Good below .05
RMSEA .053
Acceptable below .08
Figure 4
The Structural Model of Effect on STEM Attitude
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Direct Effects and Indirect Effects
The path coefficients of the relations among variables were examined and the results for the model are shown
in Figure 4. Paths estimated in the model were significant (p < .05). Metacognition had high correlations between
leaning motivation and STEM attitude. As seen in Figure 4, more favorable learning motivation was significantly
associated with stronger STEM attitude and higher metacognition. Higher metacognition was significantly associ-
ated with stronger STEM attitude.
Table 6 shows the results for total direct and indirect effects. The results indicated that the learning motiva-
tion had a direct effect on the students’ STEM attitude. The point estimate and p-value showed that learning
motivation had a significant predictive effect on STEM attitude (β learning motivation →STEM attitude = .228, p < .01), with 95%
confidence interval [.098, .382]. Indicators of the direct effect of favorable learning motivation on STEM attitude
could be considered: one standard deviation unit increase in favorable learning motivation was associated with
a .228 increase in STEM attitude.
Table 6
Direct Effects and Indirect Effects of the Statistical Model
BOOTSTRAP 1000 TIMES 95% CI

Product of
Point Coefficients
percentile bias corrected
Estimate
S.E. Est./S.E. p Lower 2.5% Upper 2.5% Lower 2.5% Upper 2.5%
INDIRECT EFFECT
Learning Motivation→ .433*** .070 6.181 < .001 .313 .587 .357 .679
Metacognition
→STEM Attitude
DIRECT EFFECT
Learning Motivation→ .228** .072 3.151 .002 .098 .382 .016 .313
STEM Attitude
*p < .05, **p < .01, ***p < .001;
Results for indirect effects indicated that students’ metacognition level mediated the pathway between their
learning motivation and STEM attitude. The nested alternative full mediation model was tested with Chi-square test,
the result showed no full mediating effect, and the alternative model was a good fit for the data. The indirect effect
of learning motivation on students’ STEM attitude through metacognition was .433, and its 95% confidence interval
was [.313, .578] without containing zero. The results showed that metacognition played a partial mediating role in the
effect of learning motivation on STEM attitude. The positive indirect effects via students’ metacognition level could
be interpreted as follows: through the positive effect of metacognitive level, increasing favorable learning motiva-
tion by one standard deviation unit resulted in a .433 increase in STEM attitude. Therefore, through the mediation
of metacognition, the correlation between learning motivation and STEM attitude was strengthened. Compared
to the direct effect (β Learning Motivation →STEM Attitude = .228,), the indirect effect (β Learning Motivation→Metacognition→STEM Attitude = .433)
was more significant. Specifically, the effect of learning motivation on STEM attitudes was enhanced through the
mediating role of metacognition.
Moderating Effect
Family socioeconomic status, which was used as a moderation variable, included family economic resources
and parental educational level. The two variables were packaged together and divided into three groups based on
average scores: high, medium, and low in the present study. The moderating effect was tested in relation between
Learning motivation and STEM attitude. From Table 7, the result showed that there was no significant difference
(pDIFF1 = .334, pDIFF2 = .485, pDIFF3 = .490) in the effect of learning motivation on STEM attitude among students
with different family socioeconomic statuses.
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Table 8 shows the moderating effect of family socioeconomic status between metacognition and STEM at-
titude. The result suggested that students with higher family socioeconomic status had a stronger effect on their
attitude towards STEM (β high = 1.200; β medium = 1.098; β low = .910). Therefore, it was proved that the mod-
erating effect of family socioeconomic status in hypothesis 2 existed. There was a significant difference between
highly representative students and low representative students (p < .001), and between medium representative
students and low representative students (p < .01). While there was no significant difference between high and
medium representative students (p = .101).
Table 7
Moderating Effect of the Statistical Model (Hypotheses 1)
Product of Coefficients BOOTSTRAP 1000 TIMES 95% CI

Point Estimate
S.E. Est./S.E. p Lower 2.5% Upper 2.5%
Moderating Effect
High .686* .080 8.520 .019 .526 .849
Medium .743*** .048 15.435 < .001 .651 .841
Low .525*** .223 2.355 < .001 .006 .952
Contrast
DIFF1 (M-L) .218 .226 .967 .334 -.210 .714
DIFF2 (H-L) .160 .229 .698 .485 -.264 .677
DIFF3 (H-M) -.058 .084 -.690 .490 -.219 .108
*p < .05, **p < .01, ***p < .001
Table 8.
Moderating Effect of the Statistical Model (Hypotheses 2)
Product of Coefficients BOOTSTRAP 1000 TIMES 95% CI

Point Estimate
S.E. Est./S.E. p Lower2.5% Upper2.5%
Moderating Effect
High 1.200*** .057 15.863 < .001 1.058 1.350
Medium 1.098*** .048 22.784 < .001 1.004 1.190
Low .910*** .075 16.064 < .001 .811 1.045
Contrast
DIFF4 (M-L) .188** .055 3.439 .007 .066 .287
DIFF5 (H-L) .289*** .077 3.740 < .001 .132 .434
DIFF6 (H-M) .102 .062 1.639 .101 -.015 .222
*p < .05, **p < .01, ***p < .001
Discussion
This study explored the relations among students’ learning motivation, metacognition, and STEM attitudes,
and examined the moderating effect of family socioeconomic status in these relations. The findings have shed
light on some interesting insights.
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The Effect of Students’ Learning Motivation on STEM Attitude
In the present study, it was found that learning motivation could significantly impact their STEM attitude,
which verified previous hypothesis 1 (Lasagabaster, 2016; Wigfield & Eccles, 2000). According to the results of direct
effects, students’ STEM attitude was primarily affected by self-efficacy, intrinsic worth, and test anxiety. However,
many previous studies focused on the impact of motivation on scientific attitude and career expectations (Mujtaba
et al., 2018; Sheldrake, 2016), instead of integrating engineering & technology attitude and 21st century skills. The
expression and measurement of STEM attitude in this study could easily reflect the situation between primary
school students’ learning motivation and learning attitude.
When students have a relatively positive learning motivation, they are more willing to participate in STEM
courses or related informal course activities. Enrichment activities can spark students’ interest in learning STEM and
make them gain higher confidence in science and a sense of self-efficacy, leading to a positive emotional experi-
ence of STEM. High levels of test anxiety proved to be harmful (Wolf & Smith, 1995). But reasonable treatment of
anxiety, which can further optimize students’ STEM learning experience and improve their learning motivation, is
ultimately manifested as a positive attitude towards STEM. The results of the present study showed that learning
motivation has a positive result on students’ STEM attitude.
Students’ Metacognition Mediated the Pathway between Learning Motivation and STEM Attitude
Based on the research result, the mediating effect value of metacognition was significant in the mechanism
between learning motivation on STEM attitude, indicating that metacognition is effective in mediating the effect of
learning motivation on STEM attitude. It can be seen that metacognition is an important mechanism that cannot be
ignored in affecting students’ attitude towards STEM. The result verified Hypothesis 2 of this study. Studies showed
that metacognition can strengthen students’ learning motivation. If students fail to achieve their learning goals,
they will process their cognitive knowledge in the cognitive system and conduct self-regulation (Jackson, 2018),
which forms the metacognitive process of students (Schraw et al., 2006). When students have a relatively positive
learning motivation, it is more likely for them to find solutions or learning strategies to solve their problems. In this
process, students intentionally or unintentionally carry out the process of metacognition. Through multiple cycles,
these self-regulation processes will in turn strengthen the level of students’ learning motivation.
On the other hand, metacognitive strategies are considered to be related to STEM attitude (Akerson & Don-
nelly, 2008). Students who have a good command of metacognitive ability can better complete STEM tasks and
bring a positive STEM experience. With a high metacognitive level, students will be more confident when facing
STEM disciplines, and engage in learning with a positive attitude. Metacognition plays an essential role in enhanc-
ing students’ STEM learning attitude (Thiede & Anderson, 2003). Therefore, metacognitive should be the key link
needed to establish the connection between learning motivation and STEM attitude.
The Considerations Relating to Family Socioeconomic Status Difference
Through multi-group path analysis, it was found that there was no significant difference in the direct effect
of learning motivation on STEM attitude among students with different family socioeconomic statuses. While the
family socioeconomic status played a moderating role in the effect of metacognition on STEM attitude. Students
with higher family socioeconomic status had a stronger effect on STEM attitude. Also, family socioeconomic status
significantly promoted metacognitive ability (Maric & Sakac, 2020). The higher family socioeconomic status was, the
higher the metacognitive ability was. Researchers have suggested that parental guidance and encouragement to
children in family education positively impacted the development of metacognition (Pappas et al., 2003). Higher
socioeconomic status was associated with better academic preparation and more opportunities (Alexander et al.,
2012; Pomerantz et al., 2007). Family culture and parental expectations are of great significance to the generation
and change of students’ STEM attitude. Family material and economic investment provide children with various
material supports, such as rich learning resources, a comfortable learning environment, and varied learning op-
portunities. These supports lay the foundation for students to participate in STEM activities and develop positive
STEM attitude. The metacognitive transformation of positive STEM attitude has a higher conversion rate among
students with rich family resources and parents with higher education levels. Blickenstaff (2005) had linked poor
attitude towards STEM to the absence of scientists/engineers as role models. It can be seen that students’ family
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socioeconomic status is an essential factor that moderates metacognition and affects STEM attitude (Blickenstaff,
2005).
Conclusions
In the present study, students’ learning motivation affected and could predict their STEM attitude. Students’
metacognitive level played a positive mediating role between learning motivation and STEM attitude. Thus, students’
metacognition appears to play a more critical role than their learning motivation in improving students’ STEM at-
titude. In addition, family socioeconomic status played a moderating role in the effect of students’ metacognition
on STEM attitude. It is believed that the support from parents and students’ metacognition can be important to
enhance their STEM attitude.
This study supported the view that learning motivation and metacognition were related to STEM attitude.
When considering the positive effect on students’ STEM attitude, appropriate metacognitive intervention objec-
tives should be included in STEM teaching. Prior research literature has illustrated that metacognition does not
automatically develop in all students (especially students at the low-end) without support. Identifying students
with lower levels of metacognition and targeting them for early intervention efforts may be helpful in increasing
students’ motivation and STEM learning and thus reducing STEM pipeline leaks. In teaching practice, it is necessary
to take metacognition as an important approach to STEM education and ensure that students’ metacognitive skills
play a role in improving STEM attitude and enhancing STEM learning. In addition, socioeconomic status is also
a concern to improve children’s STEM attitudes. Although parental educational background is difficult to break
through, they can strive to have rich family resources, such as borrowing books from the library and spending
more time with their children.
Limitations
There are several limitations that should be considered in the present study. First, as the current study was
conducted in two typical types of primary schools, it is difficult to generalize the results to the entire population
as the number of learners includes 845 primary school students. Follow-up research would address this limitation
to adopt a well-designed sample, such as the two-phase hierarchical cluster design. Second, another limitation is
that the survey was conducted by several different research assistants, and the support they provided to primary
school students may have been slightly different, even though they had received targeted training. Third, although
this study provides static analysis support for understanding the effect on students’ STEM attitudes, it does not
track the dynamic development and change of STEM attitudes during the growth of students. In order to avoid
STEM pipeline leakage to a greater extent, a variety of dynamic comparison designs are needed in further studies.
Acknowledgement
The authors would like to acknowledge the help of the Editor and reviewers. The research is supported in part
by the 2022 Guangdong Educational Science Planning Project (Special for Higher education) under the Grant No.
2022GXJK175, and 2020 Guangzhou Philosophy and Social Science Planning Fund of P.R. China under the Grant
No. 2020GZQN20.
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Received: September 17, 2022 Revised: November 04, 2022 Accepted: December 01, 2022
Cite as: Liu, S., Xu, S. R., Xiao H., & Zhou, S. (2022). Exploring effect on primary school students’ STEM attitude determined via
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Si-Jia Liu PhD, School of Physics and Telecommunication Engineering, South

China Normal University, Guangzhou 510006, China.
E-mail: lius.j@outlook.com
Shao-Na Zhou Associate Professor, School of Physics and Telecommunication
(Corresponding author) Engineering, South China Normal University, Guangzhou 510006,
China.
E-mail: zhou.shaona@m.scnu.edu.cn
Shao-Rui Xu Researcher, School of Electronics and Communication, Guangdong
Mechanical and Electrical Polytechnic, Guangzhou 510550, China.
E-mail: jayxee@hotmail.co.uk
Hua Xiao Professor, School of Physics and Telecommunication Engineering,
South China Normal University, Guangzhou 510006, China.
E-mail: xiaoh@scnu.edu.cn
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INNOVATION IMPLEMENTED ISSN 1648-3898 /Print/
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STRATEGIES FOR PBL-STEM

SELF-EFFICACY
Abstract. This research used mixed effects

King-Dow Su to construct a PBL-STEM (problem-based
learning with STEM) questionnaire with
high validity and reliability. The benefits
of PBL-STEM focused on cross-disciplinary
and longitudinal research to analyze
students’ self-efficacy in life science. All
175 university students who attended this
Introduction course as an elective participated in this
research. The purpose was to evaluate
The concept of cross-disciplinary STEM education through curriculum students’ performance in the cake-baking
integration originated from an initiative of the US government. Recently, practice experiential course and to use
increased STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics) educa- unpaired samples t-test, one-way ANOVA,
tion and value have received attention on a global scale (Honey et al., 2014; and feedback analysis as quantitative
Ng & Fergusson, 2019). STEM education is a cross-disciplinary integrated and qualitative data. The following are
educational field that blends rigorous academic principles with real-world noteworthy results: The t-test showed that
curriculum, according to Tsupros et al. (2009). It would encourage students five stimulated scales were significantly
to apply their understanding of science, technology, engineering, and math- different and better after the cake-baking
ematics to the connections between school, community, employment, and PBL-STEM activity. In one-way ANOVA,
business. There was widespread agreement on the definition’s shift from to engage with more students in STEM
disciplinary to cross-disciplinary applicability (Mizell & Brown, 2016; Moore activities, improve conceptual learning,
& Smith, 2014; Vasquez et al., 2013). Researchers (English & Gainsburg, 2016; and close achievement gaps. The more
Marginson et al., 2013) held that STEM education in the twenty-first century enthusiastic students are, the more actively
places a heavy emphasis on abilities such as topic knowledge and the process they study and think, and the more
of inquiry problem-solving, systemic, logical, and critical thinking, creativity, effectively they improve their PBL-STEM
and innovation. Therefore, in the face of life science and technology in the learning. Students’ feedback analysis of this
educational environment of the new era, STEM is an educational strategy teaching activity is beneficial for improving
worthy of promotion. technology, student-teacher engagement,
STEM is a research field in education that applies and incorporates process comprehension, and learning
science-related concepts, strategies, and procedures into students’ everyday interest. The light of this research will
tasks and abilities. The purpose is to give students hands-on cross-disciplinary foster a disposition of learning, enhance
cooperative learning, systematic thinking, open communication, and ethical cake-baking skills, and encourage problem-
values through knowing and experiencing the world. STEM education is an solving based on their thinking.
integrated, multidisciplinary model of higher-order thinking that empha- Keywords: cross-disciplinary, life science,
sizes problem-solving, communication, and ethical principles (Tsai et al., PBL-STEM, self-efficacy
2018; York et al., 2019). According to academic research (Alan et al., 2019),
STEM education is an essential and significant cross-disciplinary subject
for students that integrates several fields. Although disciplines can provide King-Dow Su
better products, integrating four disciplines is difficult. Therefore, promoting Hungkuo Delin University of Technology &
learning throughout the STEM practice process is meant. Students increase Chung Yuan Christian University, Taiwan
self-efficacy and develop a comprehensive understanding and appreciation
of how content, skills, and mindsets interact to ensure continued interest in
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learning. They integrate STEM learning experiences, apply technology and scientific reasoning to challenges, and
relate what they have learned to real-world experiences (Honey et al., 2014; Mohtar et al., 2019).
According to Christensen et al. (2014), teachers must use successful methodologies to link STEM education and
future employment by integrating classroom learning with real-world experiences. Although STEM offers a variety
of opportunities and contributions, its significance is recognized by academics and businesses both domestically
and worldwide. The purpose and goals of education are unclear, there are still many challenges to be addressed
in the integration, and there are many other possible issues in STEM, according to Williams et al. (2015). There is
currently a lack of research on effective STEM communication and instructional design. ElSayary (2020) and Hal-
linger (2020) found that when using pedagogies, such as inquiry-based teaching, problem-based learning (PBL),
and project-based learning, to active STEM education. Technology and a combination of content philosophies are
presented in STEM education to help students modify their thinking and adapt to various interests.
PBL-STEM Education Enhances Learning
Researchers (Cedillo, 2018; Grangeat et al., 2021; Kim et al., 2018; Schmid & Bogner, 2017) found that the con-
nected PBL-STEM teaching paradigm consisted of student-centered STEM education principles and inquiry-based
creative teaching. According to some experts, choosing STEM instruction that is problem- or project-based learning
can enhance their creativity (Lou et al., 2017; Siew et al., 2015). PBL emphasizes real-world problem-solving and
context-designed STEM cross-disciplinary learning, allowing students to experience the authenticity of learning
problems through hands-on experiences and then find the answer to the problem from new knowledge (English
et al., 2017). This approach also helps students become excellent or expert problem solvers (Çalışkan et al., 2010;
Gerace & Beatty, 2005).
PBL-STEM education can increase students’ interest and learning effectiveness, continuing the description from
above. The social implications and background knowledge of STEM practical skills will aid students in connecting
with pertinent knowledge domains and navigating contemporary society. The purpose is to examine advanced
technology integration challenges, consider modern citizens, and have the appropriate PBL-STEM education inte-
gration strategies when faced with technology conflicts and decision-making. In light of this, the research aims to
integrate their practical abilities in creative cake-baking courses with PBL-STEM activities. Cross-disciplinary learn-
ing generates a new innovative literacy, fosters interest in hands-on learning, and improves technology through
example learning and active interaction, thereby enhancing external performance. In other words, we combine
STEM learning cognition with the practical experience of learning by doing and trigger learning interest through
the PBL process. The learning impact of PBL-STEM self-efficacy stimulated strategies in the cake-baking course
can be investigated in the future.
PBL-STEM Self-Efficacy Motivating Strategy Practice
Burwell-Woo et al. (2015) found an approach that encouraged students to think out two structures for STEM
work projects. The first is to increase knowledge and enthusiasm in STEM fields, and the second is to raise students’
self-efficacy. According to academic descriptions of self-efficacy (Burwell-Woo et al., 2015; Rittmayer & Beier, 2008),
a person’s confidence in their learning is determined by how well they perform a specific task. Rittmayer and Beier’s
(2008) research proposed students who have high self-confidence in their ability to perform scientific tasks inde-
pendently, and who would be motivated to take on the assigned difficulties and work toward the end objective. In
summary, STEM self-efficacy is better equipped to believe in their performance and reach their learning objectives
earlier. As a result, the capacity to engage in tasks is related to students’ STEM self-efficacy and interest (Lent et al.,
2018; Rittmayer & Beier, 2008). Researchers Dökme et al. (2022) and Patrick et al. (2016) examined their findings
and discovered that learners’ self-efficacy influences whether or not they sustain crucial factors in the STEM area.
PBL-STEM is a hands-on experiential activity, according to academics (Dökme et al., 2022; Kassaee & Rowell, 2016;
Sahin et al., 2014; Sahin et al., 2017; Tsai et al., 2018; York et al., 2019). Student self-efficacy in STEM instruction is
crucial to hands-on operation, which is the key to the learner’s task’s success.
The involvement of students in practical activities may inspire them to pursue more specialized STEM career
sectors (Dökme et al., 2022; Russell et al., 2007). Theoretically, doing it is based on Kolb’s experiential learning (1984)
and Dewey’s learning by doing (1933). Li et al. (2019) indicated that experiential learning could evidence feedback,
provide thinking opportunities, solve problem skills, and construct self-efficacy. ElSayary (2021) drew attention
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that the PBL-STEM teaching by doing is frequently required in creative curricula, and experiential learning can
apply to real-world contexts. Students combine practical knowledge with effective experience fostering learners’
curiosity and self-assurance, incorporating creativity, design, and product testing, and enhancing their learning
motivation (Appianing & Van Eck, 2018; Irvine, 2018; Dökme et al., 2022). Through trial-and-error experience learn-
ing, students can promote their understanding of the value of creative thinking, problem-solving techniques, and
group collaborative learning (Shieh & Chang, 2014). Sahin et al. (2017) discovered that STEM majors were more
excellent in science and math learning effectiveness than non-majors. Furthermore, Mohtar et al. (2019) also found
that students’ STEM self-efficacy influenced their interest in the subject.
To summarize, applying the PBL-STEM self-efficacy stimulated strategy as an evaluation tool in this research
to incorporate into the STEM system of the students’ creative cake-making course in life science throughout the
practice exercise, the impact on college students’ abilities to understand STEM subjects and discuss the best ways
to raise students’ self-efficacy.
Research Purpose and Questions
The purpose of this study was to use mixed effects to construct a PBL-STEM questionnaire with high valid-
ity and reliability for self-efficacy for motivated strategies, to use the tool through cross-disciplinary experiential
learning and longitudinal studies to examine students’ practice effectiveness. They have changed my role models
demonstrating beneficial interactions, practical experience, technology advancement, and external efficacy. The
research intends to respond to the following questions:
1. How might a life science course material be developed to support students’ cross-disciplinary cake-
making learning?
2. What is the reliability and validity of the instrument for evaluating students’ self-efficacy for stimulation
strategies?
3. How can students examine and justify variations between their pretest and posttest knowledge of
PBL-STEM self-efficacy for stimulation strategies?
4. How do students’ gender, age, and disposition affect their use of PBL-STEM self-efficacy for stimulated
strategies?
5. What comments have you received from students who have learned the PBL-STEM self-efficacy for
stimulation strategy?
General Background
The research investigated how to teach PBL-STEM learning methodologies to university students at Hungkuo
Delin University of Technology (HDUT) during the 2021–2022 academic year. A PBL-STEM blended plane included
quantitative and qualitative methods to help students comprehend life science research concerns (Alan et al., 2019;
Creswell et al., 2007). The contribution of this research encouraged STEM role model learning, hands-on practice,
advanced technology, and stimulating their external effectiveness in class. Most students showed that the learn-
ing effects of PBL-STEM techniques mirrored learning goals in life science. The practice activity of cake-baking
enhanced their self-efficacy by using PBL-STEM education in three classes.
Participants and Ethical Requirements
Participants in the cake-baking teaching site’s three classes in HDUT, which educated college students from
Grades 13 to 19, served as the basis for quantitative and qualitative research. As a representative sample of Tai-
wanese university students, all 175 university students who attended this PBL-STEM cake-making course as an
elective participated after passing two qualification exams in this research. In the first year, 70 students conducted
the pilot test to engage in research for the PBL-STEM education developments at the initial stage. The participants
ranged in age from 18 to 22 and included 51 males and 19 females. The second stage of this hands-on research
used PBL-STEM self-efficacy stimulated methodologies, and 105 more individuals (38 males and 67 females) with
strong cognitive practice skills were the research sample. Students participated in practical cooperative learning and
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discussion with a group size of 4-5 in the Department of Hospitality Management’s professional baking classroom.
Students informed consent for the acceptance of the experimental procedures in this research complied with
all ethical requirements (Su, 2022). Five experts, including one professor of science education, two professors of
technical communication, and two professors of STEM education, took part in this research. In order to create the
experts’ surface and content validity, they logically edited and reviewed the understandability of the PBL-STEM
self-efficacy for stimulated strategies questionnaire draft and their applicability to the participant level.
Designing of PBL-STEM Activity
This study created PBL-STEM learning tools using the ADDIE teaching paradigm (Su, 2011). Analyzing, de-
signing, developing, implementing, and evaluating were all phases of the approach. For integrating the PBL-STEM
textbook into life science, the analysis process involved the relevant field literature, prior experience, expert inter-
views, student interviews, and media reports. In the designing step, assess, examine, and create the S, T, E, and M
corresponding to the STEM activity unit based on the knowledge content compiled for the PBL-STEM cake-baking
module. Corresponding to research question 1, Table 1 indicates the STEM knowledge analysis assessment for the
cake-baking implementation curriculum.
This research is primarily quantitative in the development stage, with some qualitative components. This
research creates PBL-STEM cake-baking module textbooks to educate students and increase their learning effective-
ness in PBL-STEM self-efficacy for stimulated strategies. They engage in innovative courses to include machine oper-
ating and material handling techniques in lessons through practical teaching activities. To construct the PBL-STEM
Table 1
STEM Knowledge Analysis Assessment for the Cake-Baking Implementation Curriculum
Subject S T E M
Batter Time Control, Temperature Design of egg whites Raw material weight,
Fermentation, control, Water volume control, (foaming, wet foaming and Cardinality,
Cake-baking Cocoa powder Oven-baked, Finished product, dry foaming and other calculation
Hands-on Formula stirring (Flour, Water, use and familiarize with other state)
oil, Sugar, Salt, baking soda), functions
Energy
Teaching activities, to help students develop their capacity, and to combine theory and practice:
(1) To conduct the experimental research paradigm with the idea that it shouldn’t interfere with regular
instruction. All 24 experimental discussion groups (4-5 persons each) formed to discuss issues. Create
a research model for the cross-disciplinary PBL-STEM integration of instructional activities involving
cake-baking, as illustrated in Table 2. Conduct tests and labels by VT and questionnaire tests before and
after the teaching activity, submitting to the experimental treatment of PBL-STEM cross-disciplinary
integrated cake-baking teaching activities by ET.
Table 2
The Research Model of PBL-STEM Cross-Disciplinary Integration Cake-Baking Teaching Activity
Experimental
Group Pre-test Post-test Questionnaire Feedback
treatment
E1-E24 VT1 ET VT2 VT3 VT4
(2) The construction of the STEM self-efficacy stimulated strategy questionnaire and the tool for measuring
learning efficacy. The initial part of the questionnaire includes general information about the respond-
ent, such as gender, age, and disposition toward taking baking lessons. The assessment test items make
up the second section and help students discover how to increase the effectiveness of their learning.
(3) In the experimental procedures, this research conducted a cross-disciplinary PBL-STEM teaching experi-
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ment to use cake-making during the second semester of the 2021 academic year. There were 300-minute
classes overall, held twice a week for three weeks. The pre-test and teaching activities for PBL-STEM
during the research period took place in the second semester of the 2021 academic year (from March
to May 2022). After the hands-on, the administration of a post-test was conducted using the assess-
ment tool. Students’ free online feedback was received because the Covid-19 pandemic interfered with
the last stages of the activity. The PBL-STEM textbook design, use, learning, and opinions regarding
instruction were all part of the feedback content. All feedback acted as the basis of the evaluation for
qualitative analysis of educational activities.
Instrument Development
The first draft of the questionnaire referenced the thinking from Çalışkan et al. (2010), Chan (2022), and Patrick
(2016) for the construction of research tools, according to the 5-point Likert scale compiled into a STEM self-efficacy
stimulation strategy questionnaire with 30 test items. Five specialists looked over and changed the initial manu-
script. The expert’s triangular correction recommendations led to the deletion of one exam question, which was
illogical. The expert verification’s content and face validity had a mean score of 95.0% and a standard variation of
8.5%, yielding a CVI (Content Verification Index) value of .950. It surpasses the highly regarded expert CVI value of
.78 (Polit et al., 2017), which is a score that experts highly recommend. All 70 students will test the questionnaire on
November 30, 2021. After gathering the data from the pilot study, it was subjected to internal consistency checks
and exploratory factor analysis, and one question was deleted with a subpar Cronbach’s α value.
All experts conducted appropriate reviews and corrections of the content for the questionnaire, such as the
subscale content and teaching method. Following statistical analysis, the information was combined into a formal
exam question and developed into an acceptable questionnaire, totaling 28 items with five different aspects. The
website was https://forms.gle/nnWCmAVV9KwgdetF7. The five subscales of the questionnaire were listed as follows:
A1, use of positive role models; A2, positive interaction implementation; A3, practical application; A4, technical
adequacy; and A5, external performance. Table 3 displays the descriptive statistical findings for the five aspects.
The total questionnaire had an average Cronbach’s alpha of .939 and a degree of internal consistency reliability
above the ideal level accepted by specialists (Salta & Tzougraki, 2004; Su, 2018).
Due to the COVID-19 epidemic’s effects, this research provided online feedback to participants freely. Feedback
on the design, application, learning environment, difficulties encountered during practice, and general opinions
on teachers’ teaching appeared in the feedback content for the PBL-STEM textbook. These comments acted as the
evaluation basis for the qualitative analysis of teaching experiments to promote further understanding. After the
instructional activities, organized the learning input students as qualitative research materials. This research invited
five experts to undertake a substantive analysis of the material in this feedback test to construct expert content
validity. There were a total of three feedback questions.
Table 3
Descriptive Statistical Analysis of Student Self-Efficacy Strategies in STEM Questionnaire
Dependent Variable
Score Total
A1 A2 A3 A4 A5
M 4.114 4.123 3.486 3.733 2.603 3.625

SD .626 .624 .614 .566 .846 .747
Cronbach’s α .960 .952 .608 .902 .863 .939
Research Procedures
The research designed PBL-STEM cake-making teaching activities to describe the implementation stage in
the ADDIE system. This research study used the same teacher to teach the same material for as many hours as
possible in the control variables to minimize the interference of experiments. Additionally, because all assessment
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methods were uniform, it was possible to regulate factors like instructional qualities, working hours, and teacher
assessment methods. Teachers used group practice activities to guide the PBL-STEM cross-disciplinary cake-baking
motivating strategy. After the instructional activities, this research used a post-test administration as an assessment
tool. Students’ background characteristics, such as gender, age, and disposition for cake-baking classes, acted as
independent variables. Teachers examined students’ pre-test questions from the assessment tool before the PBL-
STEM cross-disciplinary integration cake-baking teaching activity. The results of the pre-test questions were the
total variable in the covariant.
Data Analysis
In the evaluation stage, all data gathered anonymously by the students in each group before and after
the PBL-STEM cross-disciplinary integration cake-baking teaching activity were sorted by computer and coded in
English to comply with ethical standards (Taber, 2014). The Cronbach’s α test questionnaire with internal consis-
tency reliability, t-test, and one-way ANOVA acted as statistical techniques. SPSS for MS Windows 25.0 software
was employed. In Cronbach’s α, the internal consistency reliability of each scale was tested using Cronbach’s α,
the basis on which the STEM self-efficacy for motivated strategies evaluation tool was produced in this research.
In t-tests, conduct t-tests before and after PBL-STEM teaching sessions using the STEM self-efficacy for stimula-
tion strategies, any significant differences are identified and talked about.
In one-way ANOVA, this research uses the gender, age, and disposition for cake-baking courses of students
with various backgrounds as independent variables to explore effect factors in PBL-STEM strategies. Students should
use five subscales as their dependent variables for a one-way ANOVA, analyze the results and provide feedback on
the independent and dependent variables.
Research Results
PBL-STEM Cake-Baking Practical Experience Teaching Material
Knowledge and action framework of baking education was used (Miller, 1990) to build the learning objectives
of the PBL-STEM cake-baking experience in this research, in order to create curriculum teaching resources that
aided in the cross-disciplinary practice learning of cake baking. This PBL-STEM instructional material was based on
Ausubel’s theory (1968, 2000) to construct a real cake-baking practical experience. The outline from the practical
experience textbook of PBL-STEM cake baking was as follows:
Science discipline: From scientific content knowledge such as fermentation, Caramelization, Maillard
reaction, etc., to help students explore the functional changes of materials and product structures in
the baking process.
Technology discipline: During this exploration process, use related technological equipment to help
students construct literate on temperature control, stirring time, process control, oven baking tem-
perature, etc.
Engineering discipline: Develop engineering designs that guide students to explore the effects of protein
foaming stages and whipping levels on products.
Mathematics discipline: Apply mathematics information guides for students to explore content such as
material measurement, milk, and juice concentration configuration, etc.
Thus, teachers serve as facilitators and mentors in the PBL-STEM cake-baking curriculum as the foundation
for the design of the instructional materials. The PBL teaching process model (Su, 2022) was used to direct stu-
dents in group interaction learning so that they encountered the cake-baking problem. The cake-baking practice
included a problem-solving plan, self-learning, and data collecting. Therefore, they tried to establish problem-
solving consensus and proposed solutions from group discussions to finish the experience task of cake-making
by fundamental concept in life science.
In class displays, the photographs taken by the actual students while they participated in the PBL-STEM cake-
baking activity are shown in Appendix 1.
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T-test of PBL-STEM Learning Effectiveness
In response to research question 3, in the context of PBL-STEM cake-baking experience learning, based on
students’ self-efficacy, stimulated strategies were developed. What is the difference in learning results? This project
conducted 90 valid samples (recovered rate, 85.7%) pre-test and post-test and performed a t-test before and after
PBL-STEM teaching activities by the PBL-STEM self-efficacy stimulated strategy questionnaire. When the Levene
test F value of the variance equation does not reach significance (aspects A1, A2, and A4), an independent samples
t-test indicated equal variance. However, when the F value is significant (A3 and A5), an independent sample test
revealed equal variance. Table 4 displays the employment of mean scores (M) and standard deviations (SD) offer
a meaningful instrument to assess students’ self-efficacy for stimulated strategies in PBL-STEM. The post-test out-
performed the pre-test and in every measure was substantially different (p < .05) according to the findings of an
independent sample t-test conducted by pre-test and post-test of the questionnaire.
Table 4
Students’ t-test in PBL-STEM Self-Efficacy for Stimulated Strategies Questionnaire
Pre-test Post-test
Subscale t p
M SD M SD
Role model learning 4.17 .66 4.37 .68 -2.036 .043*

Positive interactions 4.11 .68 4.37 .70 -2.514 .013*
Hands-on practices 3.66 .62 4.05 .82 -3.624 <.001***
Technical refinement 3.81 .59 4.14 .68 -3.430 .001**
External performance 3.11 .83 3.68 1.09 -3.978 .000***
Note: *, p<.05; **, p<.01; ***, p<.001
One-way ANOVA
In response to research question 4, the PBL-STEM self-efficacy stimulated strategy produced significantly
different learning outcomes for students in the context of PBL-STEM learning background on the post-test. There-
fore, this research used one-way ANOVA to examine impacting elements for three independent variables, including
gender, age, and disposition of cake-baking experience courses.
Table 5 displays the findings of the one-way ANOVA of the PBL-STEM self-efficacy for stimulated strategy.
The variance analysis of the independent variable gender and the five dependent variables in Table 5 shows no
significance between males and females. Cohen’s (1988) effect size (f) is small or less. Furthermore, the analysis
between the independent variable age and the five dependent variables revealed no significant difference among
the ages of 16-18, 19-21, and 22-24. Thus, Cohen’s effect sizes (f) are small to medium. Lastly, the variance analysis
between the five dependent variables and independent variable disposition of the cake-baking experience course
presents four dependent variable (A1, A2, A3, and A4) significances. Three sub-variables, including very positive,
positive, and neutral, are included in the independent variable. Cohen’s effect sizes (f) were also above big (>.4).
The four dependent variables all demonstrated that very positive is preferable to positive and preferable to neutral
in a further Scheffé post-hoc analysis. Furthermore, the three dependent variables A1, A2, and A4 demonstrate
that the positive is preferable to the neutral. Depending on the experimental effect, dependent variable A5, there
is no significant change, and small to medium effect sizes (f).
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Table 5
One-way ANOVA of PBL-STEM Self-Efficacy for Stimulated Strategies (N=90)
Efficacy Measure
Locking Analysis of
Variable Variance
A1 A2 A3 A4 A5
Gender F-ratio .003 .199 1.436 .077 1.297
1. Males, 33 p-value .956 .657 .234 .783 .258
2. Females, 57 f .l05 .095 .071 .100 .055
Age
1. 16-18, 38 F-ratio .274 .341 .357 .656 2.040
2. 19-21, 48
p-value .761 .712 .701 .521 .136
3. 22-24, 4
f .l32 .123 .123 .090 .153
Disposition F-ratio 89.309 66.145 37.353 23.662 1.636
1. Very positive, 41 p-value .000 .000 .000 .000 .201
2. Positive, 37 f 1.409 1.210 .526 .908 .119
3. Neutral, 12 Scheffé 1>2; 1>3 1>2; 1>3 1>2; 1>3 1>2; 1>3
2>3 2>3 2>3
Students’ Feedback Analysis
This research represented students’ learning feedback (the code names are S1, S2, …) in the PBL-STEM self-
efficacy stimulated strategy in response to study question 5. The overall analysis of the three items was as follows.
The analysis of the three items was as follows.
Question 1, Using PBL-STEM cake-baking technology course teaching, does the teaching material design help
you understand baking technology? Please give an example.
S1: The course design allowed me to recognize and learn different techniques, such as cake-making.
S2: The integrated PBL-STEM education enhanced a profound understanding of my learning in the practice process.
Such as the kneading force of the dough.
S3: The PBL-STEM baking technology course could promote interaction between teachers and students. They made me
want to ask questions and understand the solution to problems. Such as temperature control during the roasting
process in technical tasks. The process would promote detailed knowledge of baking production.
Question 2, Does the PBL-STEM problem-solving approach help you apply it in your cake -baking technology
course? Please give an example.
S4: I think the PBL-STEM problem-solving approach is helpful for me to solve the problems in the baking technology
course, such as the fermentation time in the dough, because it will indirectly affect the softness and elasticity of
the product.
S5: This PBL-STEM problem-solving approach applying mathematical operation skills in the process, helped me improve
the success rate of cake baking and increase my confidence in STEM education.
S6: This PBL-STEM problem-solving approach allows me to experience the production of baked products at home and
share the products with my family.
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Question 3, What is your overall evaluation and feeling about the PBL-STEM cake-baking technology course?
Please give an example.
S7: I think it is good to participate in the PBL-STEM cake-baking technology course. It allows me to learn cross-disciplinary
knowledge. The method is different from the traditional teaching method. Under the PBL-STEM education, I
find the cake-baking learning to rich content diverse, broaden my vision, and promote my learning value in life
science.
S8: I love learning by participating in the PBL-STEM cake-baking technology course, which has produced three -move-
ment learning for me. It includes the mobile learning process of the course experience, the interaction learning
between teachers and students, and the impresses learning for students in problem-solving.
S9: Using the PBL-STEM cake-baking technology course to enhance my skills, such as making dough and mixing cake
batter.
Discussion
This research gave teachers a sense of how student demand for instructional resources was moving in terms
of construction theory. To construct the learning objectives of the self-efficacy for stimulated strategy into the PBL-
STEM cake-baking teaching materials in line with the demands of the students. As mentioned by academics (Kim
et al., 2018; Schmid & Bogner, 2017), the PBL-STEM teaching approach was related to inquiry-oriented teaching. It
involved practical experience learning. It focused on the experiential learning process to change teaching strate-
gies into behavioral theory and moved away from cognitive and constructivist models of instruction toward STEM
education (Cedillo, 2018). Knowledge is just the start of a top-notch learning process. You must put our knowledge
to use if you wish to learn. Curriculum and teaching came together to form learning. PBL-STEM textbooks that
are engaging and practical can arouse students’ curiosity about what they are learning (Chan, 2022). Use the PBL
framework to execute STEM experiences and construct this textbook. Teaching can help students learn meaning-
fully and solve problems (Mundilarto, 2018; Su, 2022).
T-test for the PBL-STEM Self-Efficacy for Stimulated Strategy
The t-test results of the pre-test and post-test for the experience practical teaching activity of cake-baking
were presented using the PBL-STEM self-efficacy for stimulated strategy. The A1 (role model learning), A2 (imple-
menting positive interactions), A3 (hands-on practices), A4 (technical refining), and A5 (external performance)
aspects of the PBL-STEM self-efficacy stimulated strategy all showed significant differences. They demonstrated
that students’ five stimulated scales were significantly different and better after the cake-baking PBL-STEM activity.
In role model learning, there is a noticeable improvement in the learning effect from before the activity.
Gladstone and Cimpian (2021) noted that STEM role models can inspire students to take a significant step toward
a diverse STEM field and that student exposure to role models is a successful strategy for achieving diversity. Thus,
according to Dökme et al. (2022), role models in STEM fields inspire students’ curiosity about the subject matter. In
light of Margot and Kettler (2019), teachers’ perspectives on effectiveness and their emphasis on STEM education
may influence students’ motivation to enroll in and apply for STEM courses. In the STEM self-efficacy for stimulated
strategies of this research, the arguments of scholars reaffirm the significance of providing STEM role model learn-
ing, with STEM teachers successfully influencing their positive role models.
Positive STEM educator viewpoints will influence classroom teaching strategies and contribute to learner
perceptions by modeling interactions. Researchers (Aslam et al., 2018; Watermayer & Montgomery, 2018) discov-
ered that teachers serve as the primary gatekeepers for the implementation of STEM in many countries worldwide
(Carpenter & Lubinski, 1990; Relich et al., 1994; Shahali et al., 2015). As a result, the STEM self-efficacy for stimulated
strategies, demonstrating positive interaction between teachers and students, highlighting the scholars’ arguments,
and reaching a substantial difference called out the learning effect was better than before the activity.
In hands-on practice, Kassaee and Rowell (2016) noted that STEM is a hands-on experience in the process of
practice operation. It is about practice experience in life science. PBL-STEM self-efficacy stimulated strategies are
crucial to learners’ practice activities during the learning process. In addition, Aeschlimann et al. (2016) described
this method as offering students a good education and individualized support knowledge about STEM education.
Students’ motivation to learn may also influence their decision to pursue careers in STEM fields. As a result, the
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learning effect after the practical experience activity is better than before. The difference is substantial in STEM
self-efficacy for stimulated strategies.
In technical refining, Chang et al. (2017) called for the advanced development of STEM technology, which is
indeed related to the psychological level of learners with technical refinement. This evidence supports the findings
of this research that the PBL-STEM cake-baking experience practical teaching activities have a substantial impact
on significant variations between the pre-test and post-test of their STEM self-efficacy for stimulated strategies.
In terms of external performance, the post-test results of the PBL-STEM cake-baking experiential activities
in terms of external efficacy are better than those of the pre-test, and there is a discernible improvement. Shahali
et al. (2015) pointed out that STEM educator attitudes influence learners, making students feel pressure to finish
and do well on learning activities and making them want to give up when they haven’t. They also find practical
STEM cake-baking technology courses, which are simpler to understand and similar to Kassaee & Rowell’s (2016)
research, echoing the claim that STEM education belongs to real-world experience.
In keeping with the description above, this research discovered that five STEM self-efficacy strategies for
stimulating the environment were significant when students undertook the PBL-STEM cake-baking experience. All
five strategies indicated excellent and notable improvement before the activity. Thus, the findings of this research
also confirmed the researchers’ claims.
Analysis of one-way ANOVA
The results of a one-way ANOVA revealed that there was no significant difference between gender and age
in the PBL-STEM self-efficacy stimulated strategies, but there was a difference in disposition. Chan’s research (2022)
confirmed that enriched STEM curriculum design could close the gender gap in STEM education. Zhao and Perez
Felkner’s research (2022) found that they have strong aspirations for STEM careers and may be better able to close
the gender gap in post-secondary STEM education. Scholars (Kogan & Laursen, 2014; Laursen et al., 2014; Theobald
et al., 2020) have noted that engaging in STEM activities with more students can improve conceptual learning and
decrease achievement gaps. The cross-disciplinary PBL-STEM cake-baking practical activities make no significant
difference between gender and age in this research, as indicated by scholars. According to the author’s research
(Su, 2022), actively participating in information understanding is out of a disposition for the subject, which can
enhance academic performance.
Affected by the initiative, Shahali et al. (2015) also thought that it improved students’ disposition toward
STEM fields and enhanced higher-order thinking abilities. In keeping with the previous reasoning, it could present
a considerable contrast between the PBL-STEM cake experience course and the student’s disposition toward it.
Students Feedback
When teaching life science courses in cake-baking technology, PBL-STEM self-efficacy for stimulated strate-
gies is beneficial, according to an examination of student feedback. Most students think that all tactics promote
process comprehension, teacher-student engagement, and technical advancement. The cake-baking technology
integrates PBL-STEM self-efficacy for stimulated strategies to solve problems. Most students are satisfied with
the product success rate, assisting their families in simplifying complex issues and enhancing technical abilities,
improving their confidence in practice, and developing a passion for their future profession.
In their overall assessment and perception of the PBL-STEM cake-baking practice education, they believe
that the cross-disciplinary learning of PBL-STEM, broadening horizons and enhancing values, is distinct from
traditional teaching. Some students believe that the PBL-STEM cake-baking technology course makes learning
more enjoyable because of the three-motion learning of mobile, interaction, and mobility. Most students think
that this motivational strategy, as stated by academics (Aeschlimann et al., 2016; Kassaee & Rowell, 2016; Shahali
et al., 2015), has advantageous effects on learning.
This research created educational materials that meet students’ learning for PBL-STEM cake-baking practical
activities. The purpose was to report on participating t-test and one-way ANOVA results, evaluating how the PBL-
STEM self-efficacy for stimulated strategies affected their learning. The study discovered that the outcomes of the
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immersive, hands-on PBL-STEM teaching activities led to the following seven conclusions:
First, the results of this research help plan potential PBL-STEM education follow-up studies in the future. Second, the
experience of PBL-STEM textbooks encourages problem-solving through essential engaging, hands-on activities that
arouse the curiosity of most students about what they are studying. Third, this research increased students’ enthusiasm
for learning about careers and their capacity for comprehension, problem-solving, self-efficacy, and group cooperation.
STEM teachers use students’ thinking to improve learning outcomes and help them develop their teaching expertise.
Fourthly, this
research implements PBL-STEM self-efficacy for stimulated strategies, such as role model learning, encouraging
engagement, hands-on practice, technical advancement, and external effectiveness. Role models are instruments
for helping learners practice diversification, and STEM teachers have a beneficial role in students’ choosing future
work in the STEM area by modeling their technological proficiency and initiative. Therefore, STEM self-efficacy for
stimulated strategies is critical.
Fifth, this research prospectively enhances their learning effectiveness in PBL-STEM. Students’ attitudes, peer-
to-peer message interpretation, collaborative discussion, self-reflection, learning motivation, conceptual learn-
ing, understanding of the effectiveness of PBL-STEM learning, development of higher-order thinking skills, and
academic performance are all influenced by teachers’ positive attitudes in life science. Sixth, the diverse PBL-STEM
cake-baking experience-based curriculum planning and students’ aspirations for STEM can close the gender gap,
in order to engage with more students in STEM activities, improve conceptual learning, and close achievement
gaps. The more enthusiastic students are, the more actively they study and think, and the more effectively they
improve their PBL-STEM learning. Seventh, using the PBL-STEM cake-baking experience-based curriculum, students’
feedback analysis of this teaching activity is beneficial for improving technology, student-teacher engagement,
process comprehension, and learning interest.
Use of technology to aid problem-solving and foster students’ appreciation, enthusiasm, and confidence for
this subject, additionally motivates students to explore STEM education in terms of their future job, as most stu-
dents are mobile, interaction, and mobility by three-movement learners throughout total evaluation and feeling.
Thus, this research will foster a love of learning, enhance cake-baking abilities, and encourage problem-solving
based on their thinking.
The challenges or impediments encountered in carrying out the research process and how to overcome
them are described in the dilemma as follows:
Firstly, during the experimental teaching process, students’ preconceived notions about the scientific subject
and the amount of time invested in the STEM practice are experienced in cake-baking. It is necessary to resolve
this problem through careful time management and STEM curriculum design. Secondly, because of the short
amount of class time, it cannot develop in-depth PBL-STEM cake-baking skills. Exercise requires additional time
to acquire this literacy. To help students make career decisions, short-, medium- and long-term career planning is
essential. Thirdly, some students think PBL-STEM has weak problem-solving abilities and will combine animations
with emerging technologies to improve their motivation to learn in the future.
In other words, overcoming the challenges or impediments faced throughout the implementation phase
is crucial to ensuring the sustainable viability of future courses. In implication, since PBL-STEM is a new curricular
integration in the department, future teaching trials will address a change in the demographic restrictions, such
as gender, age, and disposition for the course. Additionally, we proposed that if the PBL-STEM education can be
expanded to samples in the future, such as cross-school and cross-departmental research, the choice will enhance
the accuracy.
Acknowledgement
The author would like to thank the Ministry of Science Education for funding their study in Taiwan (under Grant
No. MOST 110-2511-H-237-001). And thanks to Prof. Hsih-Yueh Chen for her help on teaching and questionnaire.
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Appendix 1
Photos Excerpt from the PBL-STEM Cake-Baking Experience Learning in Class
(1) Group collaboration (2) Discussion and problem-solving (3) Baking in the oven
Cite as: Su, K.-D. (2022). The effects of cross-disciplinary life science innovation implemented by students’ stimulated strategies
for PBL-STEM self-efficacy. Journal of Baltic Science Education, 21(6), 1069-1082. https://doi.org/10.33225/jbse/22.21.1069
King-Dow Su PhD, Professor, Department of Hospitality Management and Center for

General Education, Hungkuo Delin University of Technology; NO.1, Lane
380, Ching-Yun Road, Tu-Cheng District., New Taipei City, Taiwan 23646, &
Center for General Education, Chung Yuan Christian University, 200 Chung
Pei Road, Chung Li District, Taoyuan City, Taiwan 32023.
E-mail: su-87168@mail.hdut.edu.tw
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SCHOOL STUDENTS:
CONCEPTUALIZATION, Abstract. Geographical practice power is
a key competency essential for students’
CONTEXTS, AND CONTENT overall development. It is, therefore,
important to understand its concepts,
contexts, and content. Practical activities
following scientific and operable principles
in real geographical situations would
enable students to unleash their potential
Yanhua Xu, across the curriculum. The primary aim
Zile Liu, of this study was to design and validate
a conceptual, contextual, and content
Peiying Lin
framework for geographical practice
power competency (GPPC) of primary
and secondary school students in China.
The study used a three-step mixed-
method research design with expert
opinions collected through interviews and
questionnaires. The dimensions of GPPC in
Introduction
this study included the mental processes
of cognition, awareness, attitude, and
Fieldwork in geography is considered an integral part of the geography
behavior. A compilation of the attributes
curriculum in many countries. For instance, the U.S. National Geography
of GPPC for primary and secondary school
Standards explicitly address “doing geography” and recommend that stu-
students was proposed. There was a
dents go out with teachers to learn (Gallagher & Downs, 2012). In England,
general consensus among the evaluators
competency-oriented fieldwork in geography is part of the curriculum
regarding the conceptual, contextual, and
framework (Department for Education, England, 2013, 2014). Similarly, in
content framework of GPPC. When the
Australia, geography fieldwork is expected to develop students’ skills in ob-
weight values of the four dimensions and
serving, questioning, planning, collecting, recording, evaluating/presenting,
sub-dimensions of GPPC were calculated, it
interpreting, analysis, and summarizing (ACARA, 2015). Curriculum initiatives
was found that they played different roles in
in these countries emphasize the importance of a curriculum framework for
the framework. Contrary to the expectation
geography fieldwork and a competency orientation of such a framework. By
that scientific argumentation would be the
September 2020, geography fieldwork had been incorporated into the cur-
most important dimension of GPPC, this
riculum in many countries and regions of Asia, Europe, Africa, North America,
study found that information acquisition
and Oceania (e.g., ACARA, 2015; Department for Education, England, 2013,
was rated the most important. In each
2014; Gallagher & Downs, 2012; Ministry of Education, New Zealand, 2015;
GPPC sub-dimension, consciousness
Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China, 2012, 2018; Depart-
received the highest weighting.
ment of Basic Education, Republic of South Africa, 2011a, 2011b).
Keywords: geographical practice power
There is a need to consider not only the key competencies that learners
competency, primary school students,
should possess when participating in field trips but also the qualities that
secondary school students
they already have because these innate attributes can be very significant. For
example, the level of engagement, attention, curiosity, and willingness that
people show when they are engaging in fieldwork may influence the quality Yanhua Xu
of their work. As mentioned in the International Charter for Geographical Jiangxi Normal University, China
Education (1992), geography helps citizens appreciate and understand the Zile Liu, Peiying Lin
Capital Normal University, China
world so that they might contribute to solving problems faced by humanity
(CGE, 1992). Awareness of and competence in taking action to alleviate or
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resolve these problems need to be improved through practical training in authentic situations. Moreover, to some
extent, the contribution of geography to decision-making is enhanced by certain personal qualities (National Re-
search Council (U.S.), 1997). While the importance of personal qualities for geographical practice activities such as
fieldwork cannot be overemphasized, it is unfortunate that currently no geography curriculum has incorporated
personal characteristics with regard to such activities, except that of mainland China.
China’s geography curriculum standards include geographical practice power competency (GPPC) that en-
compasses skills and personal qualities (Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China, 2018), an asset also
referred to by some scholars as “acting competence”. Although acting competence, to some extent, also embodies
“action competence” (Muñiz, et al., 2017), it does not reflect motivation, perseverance, and other personal qualities.
Since the term “power” denotes the importance of both personal qualities and competencies in learning power,
the term “Geographical Practice Power Competency” (GPPC) is used to describe the learner’s motivation, persever-
ance, and competence in geographical practice, and is recognized as an important component of the geography
curriculum (Xu & Lin, 2018). Because of the role of GPPC in developing learners’ skills and personal qualities, a
number of Chinese scholars have focused their attention on it. Their research on GPPC has seen it being included
in curriculum development (Wu, et al., 2019; Xie, 2020; Zhang, et al., 2019; Zhao, et al, 2020), along with the creation
of GPPC indicators (Li & Ding, 2019; Sheng & Lu, 2019; Xu & Lin, 2018; Yao & Liu, 2020) and the evaluation of GPPC
(Luo & Yu, 2018; Xu & Lin, 2018).
However, in China, given that geography is integrated into the science or the social studies curriculum at the
primary level (grades 1–6), and that the regional geography curriculum standards at the lower-secondary level
(grades 7–9) are being revised, most research on the conceptualization, contexts, and content associated with GPPC
is limited to the upper-secondary level (grades 10–12). The components of GPPC at the upper-secondary level have
been analyzed by scholars from the perspectives of conceptualization, contexts, and content (Ding, 2019; Luo &
Yu, 2018; Xu & Lin, 2018; Yao & Liu, 2020; Zhang & Scholten, 2019). Little attention has been paid to the mental
processes associated with GPPC, such as curiosity, interests, emotions, imagination, and appreciation, and to the
weighting of each dimension and sub-dimension of this competency (Luo & Yu, 2018; Xu & Lin, 2018; Zhai, et al.,
2018). In terms of research methods, many scholars have drawn from the literature to explore the components
of GPPC, while other scholars have adopted a Delphi expert questionnaire to do so (Yao & Liu, 2020). Few studies
have used a combination of qualitative and quantitative methods to explore the conceptualization and content
of the competency, even though such a design could enhance reliability.
Therefore, in this study, a mixed-method approach was adopted to explore the components of GPPC for
primary and secondary school students from the perspectives of conceptualization, context, and content. In the
following section, the definitions of fieldwork in geography and GPPC, and a brief discussion of previous research
on GPPC are presented.
Literature Review
Concepts of Fieldwork in Geography
Several similar terms exist for fieldwork (e.g., “field studies” or “field teaching”), all sharing a common meaning
that indicates work in authentic situations outside the classroom. This concept encompasses “a variety of teaching
methods and experiences” (Gold, 1991).
According to current educational literature, three different connotations of “fieldwork” exist, namely “the
acquisition of experience” (Davis, 1993; Good, 1973), “a research method” (Boehm & Kracht, 1974; Bogdan & Biklen,
1998; France & Haigh, 2018; Kent, et al., 1997; Rice & Bulman, 2001; Schwandt, 1997; Zhao, 2017), and “a specific
educational activity” (Boehm & Kracht, 1974; Bogdan & Biklen, 1998; France & Haigh, 2018; Kent, et al., 1997; Rice
& Bulman, 2001; Schwandt, 1997; Zhao, 2017). Within the field of geography, scholars have a similar view of the
phrase “fieldwork in geography”, basically considering it as a research method, learning activity, and experience
(Chen, 1981; Shi, 1989; Wei, 2002). Some scholars have also defined fieldwork as the use of field observations, mea-
surements, interviews, etc. outside the geography classroom or research laboratory to obtain information related
to teaching and research (Chen, 1981; Shi, 1989). Other scholars view fieldwork in geography as an important
experience in learning the subject (Wei, 2002).
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Concepts of GPPC
As mentioned earlier, similar to fieldwork in geography, GPPC for upper-secondary school students has three
connotations. First, GPPC is similar to fieldwork in geography because it also includes learning activities and research
methods. In particular, experimentation, field trips, and investigation are considered important learning activities
and research methods in geography. Second, GPPC also consists of experiences, including acquiring information,
exploring, problem-solving, planning and implementing geographical practice activities. Third, GPPC is unique
in that it explicitly includes personal qualities of individual will and action that one possesses or should have in
geographical practice.
The qualities of will and the competencies required to act comprise two aspects of GPPC. The first aspect
concerns the qualities of will expressed during practical geography activities, which are endogenous in nature.
Luo and Yu (2018) propose that qualities of will include aesthetic interest, will power, and other attributes. Wang
et al. (2017) consider them to be the sum of various elements that constitute human will, including independence,
self-awareness, decisiveness, self-control, and resilience. Yao and Liu (2020) suggest that qualities of will include
attitude, will, emotion, and morality. Sheng and Lu (2019) maintain that qualities of will encompass consciousness,
decisiveness, persistence, and self-control.
The second aspect of GPPC comprises competencies required during geographical practice activities (Li, 2017;
Luo & Yu, 2018; Sheng & Lu, 2019; Xu & Lin, 2018; Zhai, et al., 2018), which are exogenous in nature. Li (2017) believe
that these competencies should include identification of orientation, route planning, disaster prevention and
avoidance, and independent survival in the wilderness. Luo and Yu (2018) expand GPPC to include competencies
such as reading, observation, communication, ability to operate tools for mapping, geographic production, and
geographic technology use. According to Sheng and Lu (2019), GPPC should include ability to use technology for
information processing, using tools for practice, design, creation, observation, etc. Xu and Lin (2018) emphasize
the importance of spatial orientation, access to and sharing information and scientific argumentation. Zhai et al.
(2018) stress geographic charting ability, observation ability, and geographic manipulation ability.
As both qualities of will and competencies for acting are present in learning activities, research methods, and
experiences, the Chinese education sector categorizes them as follows:
(1) the ability to collect and process geographical information, which includes (a) methods applied to
collect and process geographical information, (b) consciousness of obtaining information, and (c)
consciousness of problem-solving.
(2) the ability to prepare and implement a plan for a geographical practice activity, which includes (a)
cooperative attitude, (b) design creativity, and (c) tool use.
(3) the ability to implement geographical practice activities, including the implementation of activities
and experiential reflection (Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China, 2018).
Currently, most international curriculum documents include competencies in through-developmental stages
(e.g., ACARA, 2015; Department for Education England, 2013, 2014; Gallagher & Downs, 2012; Department of Ba-
sic Education, Republic of South Africa, 2011a, 2011b). However, researchers have yet to investigate GPPC at the
primary school level or at the through-developmental stages of primary, lower-secondary, and upper-secondary
school. Hence, the conceptualizations of GPPC described above provide a basis for this research.
Existing Framework of GPPC
Several researchers have refined the content framework of GPPC for upper-secondary school students based
on the concept as discussed above (Luo & Yu, 2018; Xu & Lin, 2018; Yao & Liu, 2020). Findings regarding contexts
are largely agreed upon in the literature; field trips, social surveys, and geography experiments are all considered
to be contexts for GPPC (Luo & Yu, 2018; Xu & Lin, 2018; Yao & Liu, 2020).
While many scholars have explored the various components of GPPC, their findings are inconclusive, with
some even overlapping. As shown in Table 1, they generally agree that GPPC includes key competencies and
personal qualities. Key competencies include spatial orientation, access to information, scientific argumentation,
and shared communication while key personal qualities include awareness and attitude. Because the competen-
cies include aspects of cognition and behavior, GPPC may include the mental processes of cognition, awareness,
attitude, and behavior.
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Table 1
Existing GPPC Frameworks
Researchers Dimension Sub-Dimensions
Cognition of geographical practice Verbal information, intellectual skills, cognitive strategies

Methods of geographical practice Information acquisition, tool use, activity implementation
Yao & Liu (2020) Competencies of geographical

Abilities related to design cooperation, communication, and innovation
practice
Will and quality of geographical Attitudes, personal qualities, and emotions, environmental ethics related to geographical
practice practice
Consciousness of spatial positioning, cognition related to spatial positioning, attitudes
Spatial positioning
toward spatial positioning, and behaviors related to spatial positioning
Consciousness of information acquisition, cognition related to information acquisition, at-
Information acquisition
titudes toward information acquisition, and behaviors related to information acquisition
Xu & Lin (2018)
Consciousness of scientific argumentation, cognition related to scientific argumentation,
Scientific argumentation
attitudes toward scientific argumentation, and behaviors related to scientific argumentation
Consciousness of communication, cognition related to communication, attitudes toward
Communication
communication, and behaviors related to communication
Practical knowledge of geography Theoretical knowledge, practical knowledge
Li & Ding Geographical practice attitude Participation, scientific attitude, interest in learning, will quality
(2019) Geographical practice evaluation Practice process, practice results
Geographical practice behavior Design of geographical practice activities and their implementation
Sheng and Lu
Quality of thinking Thinking, values, attitude, will
(2019)
Ability to act Technology, ability
Knowledge Declarative knowledge, procedural knowledge
Expressive skills, reading skills, observation skills, communication skills, manipulative skills,
Luo & Yu (2018) Skills
mapping skills, geography production skills, skills in use of geographical technology
Motivation (curiosity, questioning, inquiry, factuality), practical qualities (ethics, aesthetic
Qualities
sensibility, willpower), practical intelligence (situational practicality, creativity)
Safety awareness; love, appreciation, gratitude, reverence, and other emotions; curiosity,
Competences
Huang & Chen passion, questioning, inquiry, factuality, and other scientific spirit
(2018) Safety awareness; love, appreciation, gratitude, reverence, and other emotions; curiosity,
Qualities
passion, questioning, inquiry, factuality
As mentioned earlier, the content of the geography curriculum at the primary school level in mainland China
is incorporated in science and social studies curricula. Not surprisingly, GPPC receives little attention at that level.
Furthermore, learners are more concerned about geography as an examination subject, and so GPPC receives rela-
tively more attention at the upper-secondary school level and less at the lower-secondary school level. However,
according to Piaget’s cognitive theory of occurrence, the development of an ability or a volitional quality occurs
from a lower to higher order (Piske, et al., 2017). Accordingly, since the acquisition of GPPC may also progress from
elementary school to secondary school, it is important that this study also explores the competency component
of GPPC from international curriculum documents.
Focus on GPPC in Selected National Geography-Curriculum Documents
The specific content of GPPC for primary and secondary school students is not easily evident from the cur-
riculum documents of most countries. However, by starting with the key competences associated with GPPC
and fieldwork common points, namely spatial positioning, information acquisition, scientific argumentation, and
communication, common characteristics can be identified. The geography-curriculum documents for primary and
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secondary schools in mainland China, Hong Kong, Taiwan, Macao, Singapore, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa,
England, Ireland, Germany, Finland, the United States, and Canada all basically overlap in terms of key competen-
cies (e.g., ACARA 2015; Boehm & Kracht, 1974; Department for Education England, 2013, 2014; Department of
Basic Education, Republic of South Africa, 2011a, 2011b, 2011c; France & Haigh, 2018; Gallagher & Downs, 2012;
Education Bureau, Hongkong, 2011, 2015; Ireland, 1999; Finnish National Agency of Education, 2016; Kent, et al.,
1997; Lock, 1998; Ministry of Education, New Zealand, 2015; Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China,
2012, 2018; Rice & Bulman, 2001; Rydant, et al., 2010; Zhao, 2017).
Based on past research, a compilation of the components of GPPC for primary and secondary school students
was proposed as a preliminary draft for this study:
(1) GPPC of primary and secondary school students can be defined as the ability to act and the qualities
of will that students possess in geographical practice activities.
(2) The contexts in which GPPC of primary and secondary school students’ practical geography compe-
tency can be applied are field trips, social investigations, and geography experiments.
(3) The four dimensions of GPPC for primary and secondary students are spatial positioning, information
acquisition, scientific argumentation, and communication.
Each dimension of the component can be divided into four sub-dimensions, viz. consciousness of spatial
positioning, cognition related to spatial positioning, attitudes toward spatial positioning, and behaviors related
to spatial positioning.
Study Aim
To bridge some of the gaps in GPPC literature mentioned above, the present study was undertaken to design
and validate a conceptual, contextual, and content framework for GPPC of primary and secondary school children
in China.
General Background
A mixed method research design was used to obtain expert opinions on the concepts, contexts, and content
of GPPC for primary and secondary school students in China. This study was undertaken in three phases, with
the results of one phase serving as a guide to the subsequent phase. In the first phase, qualitative data were col-
lected through interviews. After the data were analyzed, a quantitative questionnaire was designed for the second
phase during which the Delphi technique was applied to obtain reliable information through successive rounds
of round-robin participation. The questionnaires were distributed to the experts via WeChat, QQ, or e-mail. From
the quantitative data collected, a second quantitative questionnaire, viz. weighting questionnaire, was prepared
in the third phase and distributed to the authors’ peers by regular mail.
Participants
This study was conducted in mainland China. The research design was derived initially through exploratory
focus-group interviews conducted at the research institution. At a meeting in December 2018, five experts in geog-
raphy education were selected as focus-group members, including a participant in the development of geography
curriculum standards, two writers of geography textbooks, a member of the primary science quality control team,
and a professor of human geography.
According to these experts, it was feasible to classify the dimensions of GPPC as consciousness, cognition,
attitudes, and behaviors, specific content needed to be determined through qualitative interviews, a Delphi expert
questionnaire, and a weighting questionnaire involving as many experts in the area as possible. Similar to past
practice in the relevant literature (Dalkey, 1969), a Delphi sample size of at least seven was recommended, with
an ideal group size of ten to twenty. These experts saw the Delphi technique as a means of reaching consensus
among experts in cases where there was a difference of opinion. It may be used until consensus is finally reached
on a particular study. However, if consensus is reached in one round, it is possible to stop. Based on the results
of interviews, a Delphi expert questionnaire was developed, Delphi expert members were selected, and a Delphi
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expert survey was conducted. Among them, the Delphi expert members were selected to include expert scholars
related to geographic practice or people with practical experience. The sampling was based on the following prin-
ciples: (1) those with theoretical and practical experience; (2) researchers with communication and coordination
skills; (3) workers who contributed to solving the research problems; (4) workers who actively participated in this
study; and (5) high heterogeneity of the sample. A suggestion was made regarding the weighting questionnaire,
i.e., it should be represented by an equitable selection of teachers (from the eastern, central, and western regions
of China) who had participated in and organized applied geography activities. Accordingly, experts in geography
education including university professors and primary and secondary school geography teachers were invited
to reflect a representative sample. Also incorporated in the study were social studies and science teachers at the
primary school level, given that the geography curriculum had been integrated into the science curricula at the
primary school level. In order to ensure maximum variation within the sample, the experts in each part of the
sample were from different regions and also, they did not work together.
Twenty experts participated in the qualitative interviews, eighteen were selected to complete the Delphi expert
questionnaire based on the nature of the research topic and using the sampling principles described above, and one
hundred five responded to the weighting questionnaire. The participants in the qualitative interviews were from
educationally developed regions of China, viz. Shenzhen, Guangzhou, Beijing, and Shanghai. Twelve of them were
secondary school geography teachers while eight were primary school science specialists who had participated in
and organized geographical practice activities. The participants who completed the Delphi expert questionnaire
were from Nanjing, Beijing, Wuhan, Tianjin and other educationally developed regions. Three were involved in
the development of geography curriculum standards, four in the preparation of geography textbooks, nine were
experts in geography education in secondary schools, and two monitored the academic quality of earth science
in elementary schools. The participants who completed the weighting questionnaire were from Beijing, Kunming,
Harbin, Shanghai, Guangzhou, and Nanchang. Five were PhD students in geography curriculum and pedagogy,
twenty were expert teachers of elementary science, and one hundred were expert teachers of secondary geography.
Data Collection and Instruments
The data for the study were collected via qualitative interviews, the Delphi expert questionnaire, and the
weighting questionnaire. Three researchers from mainland China were invited to review and provide feedback (i.e.,
communication validation) on the strategies used. One expert was a developmental and educational psycholo-
gist with a background in curriculum studies in the United States, the second was a geography-curriculum expert
with a degree from Hong Kong, and the third, an expert in lifelong education and sustainable development. Their
expert opinions were taken into account when formulating strategies for all the three phases of data collection,
especially with regard to communication validation.
The interview outline was initially developed to identify the conceptualization, contexts, and the content re-
lated to GPPC. The draft outline had ten structured open-ended questions drawn from the literature. The interview
outline eventually contained eight questions as presented in Figure 1.
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Figure 1
Interview Outline
Delphi expert questionnaire
The Delphi expert questionnaire was designed to decide on the content associated with GPPC. After much
consultation, the questionnaire that was designed ultimately contained 95 items. A 5-point Likert scale was used,
ranging from completely agree (1) to completely disagree (5). In addition, there was provision for comments on
each item in the right-hand column of the questionnaire. An extract from the Delphi expert questionnaire is pre-
sented in Table 2.
Table 2
Sample Extract from the Delphi Expert Questionnaire
Indicator Completely Quite Somewhat Disagree Completely Modify

agree agree agree 4 disagree opinion
1 2 3 5 column
A. Spatial Positioning
A1. consciousness of spatial positioning
A1-1. Recognizing the importance of us-

ing positioning tools or reference points
for positioning
A1-2 Concerns about the need to use

positioning tools or references for
positioning
A1-3 Involvement in motivation to use

positioning tools or references for
positioning
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Weighting Questionnaire
A weighting questionnaire was developed to determine the weighting of each of the dimensions and sub-
dimensions of GPPC. The questionnaire, after being reviewed, ultimately contained five questions, as presented
in Figure 2.
Figure 2
Data Analysis
The three main steps of data analysis for this study were coding, consensus building, and weighting of the
dimensions and sub-dimensions of the content associated with GPPC.
Coding procedures were based on those of previous studies whereby a deductive qualitative content analy-
sis was conducted: either word by word or sentence by sentence. In the first step of the study (during the first
phase), 20 experts were interviewed, and their feedback was coded to initially establish the conceptualization and
contexts for GPPC.
In the second step (during second phase), to determine whether a statistical consensus was reached, means
and standard deviations were organized in tables. Consensus was reached if the mean was greater than 3.5 (out
of 5) and the standard deviation was less than one.
The third step (during the third phase) was the weighting analysis, during which the results of the first-level
dimension of GPPC (i.e., spatial positioning, information acquisition, scientific argumentation, and communication)
and the sub-dimensions (i.e., consciousness, cognition, attitudes, and behaviors related to GPPC) were entered
into equation (1), and the weight values for each indicator were calculated.
� �
𝑎� = � 𝛴 �� ; I, j=1, 2, 3……n. (1)
��
Research Results
Qualitative Interviews
From the coded data, the views on the conceptualization, contexts, and content of GPPC for primary and
secondary school students were summarized as shown in Figure 3.
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Figure 3
Summary of Interview Results
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There was a high degree of consistency in the preliminary views on conceptualization, contexts, and content
associated with GPPC for primary and secondary school students. These are summarized in eight statements as
presented in Figure 4.
Figure 4
Summary Statements on the Conceptualization, Contexts, and Content Associated with GPPC
Consciousness of GPPC refers to students’ awareness of, attention to, participation in, and satisfaction with their
individual experience of scientific experiments, field trips, or social investigations with regard to the dimensions
of spatial positioning, information acquisition, scientific argumentation, and communication. Cognition related
to GPPC refers to students’ understanding, application, analysis, evaluation, and planning and design of scientific
experiments, field trips, or social investigations, expressed through their understanding, application, analysis,
evaluation, and planning and design of spatial positioning, information acquisition, scientific argumentation, and
communication activities. Attitudes toward GPPC refer to students’ intrinsic feelings, emotions, and intentions
toward scientific experiments, field trips, or social investigations. These attitudes can be expressed in the form of
approval of, curiosity about, willingness, and courage to implement spatial positioning, information acquisition,
scientific argumentation, and communication. Behaviors related to GPPC refer to students’ behaviors pertaining
to application, analysis, evaluation, and creative behavior in relation to scientific experiments, field trips, or social
investigations, demonstrated by their application of analytical, evaluative, and creative behaviors related to spatial
positioning, information acquisition, scientific argumentation, and communication.
Delphi Expert Questionnaire
The results obtained from the qualitative interviews were used to design the Delphi expert questionnaire,
with each set of questions representing a theme. Consensus was reached on each dimension of spatial positioning,
information acquisition, scientific argumentation, and communication and their sub-dimensions (Figures 5 to 8).
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Figure 5
Consensus on Sub-Dimensions of Spatial Positioning
Figure 6
Consensus on Sub-Dimensions of Information Acquisition
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Figure 7
Consensus on Sub-Dimensions of Scientific Argumentation
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Figure 8
Consensus on Sub-Dimensions of Communication
The results obtained from the Delphi expert questionnaire helped in the design of the weighting question-
naire which required respondents to rank the relative importance of the four dimensions of GPPC and their sub-
dimensions. The results of the weighting questionnaire are presented in Figure 9.
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Figure 9
Weighting of the Dimensions and Sub-Dimensions of GPPC
Weighting of the Four Dimensions of GPPC.
Figure 9 shows that information acquisition received the highest relative weighting and was considered to
be the most important dimension of GPPC, followed by spatial positioning, scientific argumentation, and com-
munication.
Weighting of each sub-dimension of GPPC.
The results of the relative weighting of the sub-dimensions of each dimension are shown in the figure. For
all four dimensions, the sub-dimension of consciousness was rated the most important, with behavior the least
important.
Discussion
To the authors’ knowledge, this study is the first exploration of the components of GPPC for primary and sec-
ondary school students in China. It proposes the conceptualization, contexts, and content of GPPC derived from
existing literature, expert interviews, a Delphi expert questionnaire, and a weighting questionnaire.
First, the conceptualization of GPPC is consistent with that of other studies, i.e., GPPC or a similar concept of
fieldwork in geography essentially includes authentic situations. Information acquisition, problem-solving, activity
planning, and action skills highlighted in this study are also present in some of the national geographic curriculum
documents and in previous studies (e.g., ACARA, 2015; Department for Education England, 2013, 2014; Department
of Basic Education, Republic of South Africa, 2011a, 2011b, 2011c; Finnish National Agency of Education, 2016;
Gallagher & Downs, 2012; Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China, 2012, 2018). This finding implies
that, at any stage of schooling, GPPC comprise the abilities and personal qualities needed to identify problems,
solve problems, and plan activities in real situations. It also incorporates the threefold nature of fieldwork, viz. (a)
learning achieved by applying specific methods during an activity, (b) abilities and qualities of the experience
gained by the method of the activity and (c) essence of core competencies—the “key competences and essential
qualities” in authentic situations.
Second, the results related to the contexts for GPPC are also consistent with those of other studies. This sug-
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gests that real-world contexts for the acquisition of GPPC by primary and secondary school students, as reflected
in geographic experiments, field trips, and social surveys are common to most scholars (e.g., Huang & Chen, 2018;
Li & Ding, 2019; Luo & Yu, 2018; Yao & Liu, 2020). This agreement is reflected not only in the literature but also in
the interviews with the experts invited to participate in this study. A possible explanation for this is that traditional
geography comes from the field and presents the subject matter from experimentation. Fusion of the two forms
the current contexts for GPPC.
Third, the results for the content associated with GPPC are also broadly consistent with the findings of other
studies. From a geographical perspective, Chinese primary and secondary school students’ GPPC that includes
spatial positioning, information acquisition, scientific argumentation, and communication is not only consistent
with the geographic curriculum documents of many countries but also with current dimensions of GPPC (e.g.,
Huang & Chen, 2018; Li & Ding, 2019; Luo & Yu, 2018; Sheng & Lu, 2019; Xu & Lin, 2018; Yao & Liu, 2020). From a
psychological perspective, the awareness, cognition, attitudes, and behaviors of primary and secondary school
students are consistent with the conceptualization of core competencies, viz. key competencies, and essential
qualities (Luo & Yu, 2018; Xu & Lin, 2018).
Fourth, findings with regard to the weighting of the dimensions and the sub-dimensions of GPPC may not
quite align with the ideal outcome in terms of weighting. According to the conceptualization of GPPC and require-
ments in geography curriculum documents for activities that require the application of geographic knowledge,
“scientific argumentation” might be expected to be the most important dimension of this process (Ministry of
Education of the People’s Republic of China, 2018; Sheng & Lu, 2019; Xu & Lin, 2018; Yao & Liu, 2020). However,
the results of this study did not indicate the overarching importance of scientific argumentation. Information
acquisition was rated the most important, followed by spatial positioning, and then only scientific argumentation
and communication. This might be because information acquisition is considered the source and the most critical
aspect of geographical practice activities.
It can be inferred from the nature of geography (Hartshorne, 1939) and the conceptualization of GPPC (Min-
istry of Education of the People’s Republic of China, 2018) that behavior is likely to occupy the most important
position in each sub-dimension. In this study, however, consciousness received the highest weighting in each
sub-dimension, with behavior the lowest. This might be because it was felt that students were constrained by a
number of practical considerations (e.g., safety issues, shortage of time, and evaluation mechanisms) that pre-
vented them from conducting field trips and social research. Hence, there was more focus on awareness, concerns,
engagement, and satisfaction.
Overall, the results of this study are consistent with previous research related to GPPC and the conceptualiza-
tions found in international geography curriculum documents. The results are less consistent than expected only
for weighting. There are two possible explanations for this discrepancy: it may be related to the more restrictive
conditions under which the application of geographic knowledge currently occurs in many countries or regions, or
it may be related to the evaluation methods used, especially for the students who are preparing for post-secondary
studies.
Implications
In terms of theoretical contributions, this study is unique in employing a mixed-method research design to
explore GPPC for primary and secondary school students. By doing so, the reliability of the study was enhanced.
In addition, the study can serve as a theoretical foundation for the development of strategies to enhance GPPC
for primary and secondary school students.
In terms of practical contributions, the conceptualization, contexts, and content derived from this study can be
directly applied to geography and related curricula for primary and secondary school students, thereby improving
their GPPC as well as overall educational success. The framework developed in this study can also be used to assess
the ability of primary and secondary school students to apply geographical knowledge. In addition, this study can
provide a basis for the development of effective programs to improve students’ GPPC.
Limitations and Future Work
There are some limitations to this study. First, a more rigorous demonstration of content validity is required.
Second, the participants in this study were predominantly geography educators, a fact that somewhat diminished
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generalizability of the results. Third, this study was conducted in mainland China, and further research would be
needed to maximize its usefulness to geography educators worldwide. Nonetheless, future researchers can use
the outcomes of this study as a basis for developing tools for GPPC assessment and for implementing an applied
geography curriculum.
Conclusions
GPPC can be broadly defined as the quality and capacity that students possess or should have to engage
in geographical investigations and experimental activities. It is essentially the ability to act and the qualities of
will that students possess when they engage in geographic practical activities. The attributes of GPPC consist of
geography experiments, field trips, and social investigations. As practical activities following scientific and oper-
able principles in real geographical situations would enable students to unleash their full potential, it is important
that GPPC is incorporated across the curriculum to nurture desirable personal qualities, both innate and acquired.
The content associated with GPPC was agreed upon by the Delphi team, but may need revision upon actual
implementation. Moreover, the weighting of the dimensions and sub-dimensions of GPPC, while acceptable, must
be applied with flexibility. Overall, the results of this study were consistent with conceptualizations in previous
GPPC research. However, contrary to the expectation that scientific argumentation would be the most important
dimension of GPPC, this study found that information acquisition was rated the most important, followed by spatial
positioning, then only scientific argumentation, and communication. In each GPPC sub-dimension, consciousness
received the highest weighting and behavior the lowest.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank the experts who give useful suggestions for current research. The authors
would also like to thank those who assisted with language revision.
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Received: August 16, 2022 Revised: September 30, 2022 Accepted: October 05, 2022
Cite as: Xu, Y., Liu, Z., & Lin, P. (2022). Components of geographical practice power competency (GPPC) for primary and
secondary school students: Conceptualization, contexts, and content. Journal of Baltic Science Education, 21(6), 1083-1100.
Yanhua Xu School of Geography and Environment, Jiangxi Normal University,

China.
E-mail: yanhuaxuedu@foxmail.com
Zile Liu College of Education, Capital Normal University, Beijing 100048, China.
E-mail: lzl920@foxmail.com
Peiying Lin College of Teacher Education, Capital Normal University, Beijing
(Corresponding author) 100048, China.
E-mail: peilincnuedu@foxmail.com
1100
THE SCOPE OF SCIENCE

PROCESS SKILLS AND THE
5E EDUCATIONAL MODEL IN ISSN 1648-3898 /Print/
SCIENCE EDUCATION ISSN 2538-7138 /Online/
Seraceddin Levent Zorluoğlu, Abstract. Science education focuses on

the methods of thinking about and using
Eylem Yalçınkaya Önder,
process skills rather than memorizing
Betül Timur,
scientific facts. 5E educational model aims
Serkan Timur,
to learn by discovering scientific knowledge
Elif Güvenç, Ilgım Özergun,
and engaging students in learning
Muzaffer Özdemir
environments. The aim of this study was
to examine the articles in the field of
education related to the 5E educational
model and science process skills (SPS)
Introduction according to some criteria. The search in
databases was carried out to cover the
Science process skills (SPS), which are fundamental components of sci- articles conducted in the last twelve years
ence, have a great impact on students’ learning and optimal use of science (2010-2021). Over the last 12 years, 522
in their academic careers and personal lives, and lower-secondary school articles on the 5E educational model and
students have a high level of SPS (Rao, 2008). One of the ways of teaching science process skills have been examined.
science is the process approach. A process approach to science teaching relies In this descriptive content analysis study,
on examining what a scientist does. The processes are derived from the study randomized sampling came to the fore as
of what a scientist does and are called the process skills of science. Some of the preferred sampling method, lower-
these skills are observing, measuring, inferring, manipulating variables, stat-
secondary school students as the sample
ing hypotheses, constructing graphs and tables of data (Rezba et al., 1995).
type, 11-50 as the sample size, and studies
SPS are essential skills for mastering science (Prayitno et al., 2017). Raj
in which the effectiveness of a method
and Devi (2014) defined SPS as the methods and techniques needed to learn
science acquisitions, explore natural phenomena, and look at events from was tested as the research type, lower-
a different perspective. Monhardt and Monhardt (2006) defined these skills secondary school science as the research
as skills that are suitable for many science disciplines but can be adapted to discipline, quasi-experimental as a research
different situations. According to Carin and Bass (2001), these skills are the design, achievement tests as data collection
basic components of thinking. Individuals are expected to use and apply tools, and frequency/percentage/charts
these skills in situations they encounter in their daily lives (Huppert et al., were frequently used in data analysis.
2002). According to Nunaki et al. (2020), the application of SPS in the teach- Keywords: descriptive content analysis,
ing and learning process has critical importance due to the acceleration of 5E educational model, science education,
scientific change and confronting the difficulties of the problem (facing the science process skills
challenges of the problem). Gaining SPS to students is considered among
the main objectives of science education today (NRC, 2000). SPS is an impor-
tant purpose of education as well as being a tool for learning science and Seraceddin Levent Zorluoğlu
Süleyman Demirel University, Turkey
understanding scientific studies (Anagün & Yaşar, 2009). In this context, SPS Eylem Yalçınkaya Önder, Betül Timur,
forms the basis of science lessons, in which individuals come to conclusions Serkan Timur, Elif Güvenç,
by questioning and researching, it is very important to acquire these skills Ilgım Özergun, Muzaffer Özdemir
Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Turkey
in science lessons (Myers et al., 2004).
1101
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It is difficult for students to acquire SPS and science concepts learning in a meaningful way through direct
instruction. For this reason, students should be engaged in learning environments where they can use and develop
their SPS in activities and experiments (Turgut et al., 1997). Different methods and models can be used to gain
these skills. According to Colburn and Clough (1997), the 5E educational model is a well-known model for apply-
ing scientific processes and concepts to real situations. In classroom environments integrated with this model, it
becomes easier for students to learn science concepts and their SPS levels improve (Budprom et al., 2010). The
5E educational model got its name from the number and initials of the model’s stages. These stages are Engage,
Explore, Explain, Elaborate, and Evaluate. It is also called Rodger Bybee’s 5E Model because of the initials of words
(Bybee et al. 2006). The 5E educational model is built on the outcomes of research determined by national science
education standards (Boddy et al., 2003, p. 28). This model was included in the Turkish curriculum in 2004 and has
been gradually put into practice since 2005, and has been reflected in textbooks, student workbooks, and teacher
guidebooks (MNE, 2005). The 5E educational model included in the curriculum contributes to the development of
the skills necessary to think about basic information and to learn, analyze and synthesize this information (Yoon
& Onchwari, 2006).
SPS is very important for every person, not only in science activities but also related to the problems of human
life. Education should be a necessity in schools for the development of students’ SPS (Sukarno & Hamidah, 2013).
This study proposes the necessity of a recent review focusing on either SPS or 5E learning model which continu-
ously evolves and takes on a significant part in the science education field. Therefore, the purpose of this study was
to address a recent and comprehensive review of the literature on both the SPS and the 5E educational model in
science learning and teaching. Accordingly, this study summarizes what is currently known, possible gaps in the
current literature, and suggestions for future studies.
General Background
Descriptive content analysis was adopted in this study. Descriptive content analysis is a method with wide
applicability in educational research (Fraenkel et al., 2012). The main purpose of the descriptive analysis is to identify
tendencies (Cohen et al., 2007). As the name suggests, it refers to the design in which research is conducted using
descriptive statistics, mainly frequencies and percentages. In this study, WOS, ERIC, and ULAKBİM were chosen as
the databases to be researched. It was aimed to reach the articles browsed in the science citation index and social
sciences citation index with the web of science database, to reach the articles browsed in the education field index
ERIC database, and to reach the national articles in the ULAKBİM database. Of course, joint articles have been iden-
tified in these databases, in such cases, the WOS, ERIC, and ULAKBİM database order was followed in categorizing
the articles. It was known that there were articles on the topics browsed in these three different databases. For
this reason, it was desired to conduct a more comprehensive study by including other databases in addition to the
WOS. All the articles were browsed using the following keywords: “scientific process skills”, “science process skills”,
“5E model”, “5E learning model” and “5E educational model”. The scope of the research was limited to the 5E educa-
tional model and SPS, and the study period took approximately eight months for data collection and data analysis.
Data Collection
The essential steps involved in a review of the literature include defining the research problem as precisely
as possible; selecting the WOS, ERIC, and ULAKBİM as databases to be searched; deciding on the examination of
the articles conducted in the last twelve years; formulating search terms as “5E model”, “5E learning model”, “5E
educational model”, “scientific process skills”, “science process skills”. Search in databases was limited in the last
twelve years (2010 to 2021). Keywords in the articles were reviewed to decide whether the articles reached through
the relevant databases were on SPS and the 5E educational model. Articles on SPS other than the 5E educational
model and science subjects (i.e., language or geography) were excluded from the research, except for other related
STEM disciplines (technology and engineering). Applying the exclusion criteria left 522 articles, 136 from WOS,
149 from ERIC, and 237 from ULAKBİM. The total number of articles remaining to be analyzed is shown in Table 1.
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Table 1
Total number of WOS, ERIC, and ULAKBİM articles for 5E educational model and SPS
5E Educational Model Science Process Skills Total
WOS 67 69 136
ERIC 18 131 149
ULAKBİM 100 137 237
Total 185 337 522
Data Analysis

After examining the content of the articles covered in the study, ways to categorize the information presented
in each of the 522 articles were sought. The coding form (see Appendix) developed by researchers of the study
was based on 1) Research area, 2) Sampling Methods, 3) Sampling Type, 4) Sample Size, 5) Research Type, 6) Re-
search Discipline, 7) Research Methods, 8) Data Collection Tools 9) Data Analysis. Then, a total of 522 articles were
distributed to six experts in the field of science education. In order to check its reliability, first of all, the categories
and the criteria for these categories were agreed upon. Then, the researchers formed categories. Of course, there
were some discrepancies among the researchers regarding the determined categories. These discrepancies among
categories were resolved through discussions among researchers. Researchers met every week and discussed
the appropriateness of their coding for the categories discussed by using the coding form assigned to them. The
inter-rater kappa coefficient was found to be 0.84.
Research Results
Articles on the 5E educational model and SPS were analyzed according to the categories of the research area,
sampling methods, sampling type, sample size, research type, research discipline, research methods, data collec-
tion tools, and data analysis. Figure 1 shows the frequency distribution of the “research area” on the 5E educational
model and SPS articles in WOS, ERIC, and ULAKBİM databases.
Figure 1
Distribution of “Research Area” by 5E Educational Model and SPS according to Databases
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In the last 12 years, a total of 337 articles were identified about SPS, 69 of which were in the WOS, 131 in the
ERIC, and 137 in the ULAKBİM database. Regarding the 5E educational model, a total of 185 articles were identified,
67 of which were in the WOS, 18 in the ERIC, and 100 in the ULAKBİM database. It was noteworthy that the number
of articles published on SPS was higher than those on the 5E educational model in the last 12 years. In addition, it
was seen that the highest number of articles (n=237) related to these research areas were conducted in journals
browsed in the ULAKBİM database. It was also determined that the number of articles published in WOS journals in
both fields was almost the same. The number of articles on SPS browsed in the ERIC database (n=131) was consider-
ably higher than those on the 5E educational model (n=18) (Figure 1). Figure 2 shows the frequency distribution
of the “sampling methods” on the 5E educational model and SPS articles in WOS, ERIC, and ULAKBİM databases.
Figure
Figure 22
Distribution of “Sampling
Distribution of “Sampling Methods”
Methods” by 5E Educational
by 5E Educational Model
Model and SPS andtoSPS
according according to Databases
Databases
0 48 6 0 0 4 0
WOS
0 11 2 0 0 4 0
ERIC
5E
52 13 35 2 0 1 0
ULAKBİM
Randomized Convenience Purposeful Clustured Stratified

Unspecified Other
Sampling Sampling Sampling Sampling Sampling
60 19 42 1 1 1 0
ULAKBİM
29 25 31 0 0 35 1
SPS
ERIC
1 46 13 0 0 6 0
WOS
When Figure 2 was examined, convenience sampling was the most preferred sampling method in articles on
the 5E educational model (n=48) and SPS (n=46) in the WOS database. Likewise, convenience sampling was the
most preferred sampling method in articles on the 5E educational model (n=11) in the ERIC database and in articles
on SPS (n=25) in the ERIC database. Randomized sampling (n=52) was the most preferred sampling method in
articles on the 5E educational model in the ULAKBİM database. Correspondingly, randomized sampling (n=60) was
the most preferred sampling method in articles on SPS in the ULAKBİM database. Figure 3 shows the frequency
distribution of “sampling type” on the 5E educational model and SPS articles in WOS, ERIC, and ULAKBİM databases.
1104
Figure
Figure 3 3
Distribution of “Sampling
Distribution of “Sampling 5E Educational
Type” by Type” by 5EModel and SPS according
Educational Model andto Databases
SPS according to Databases
1 7 16 17 18 1 2 6 0 0 0
WOS
0 5 0 0 3 0 0 0
4 2 4
5E
ERIC
0 3 6 0 0 0
50 13 30 0 0
ULAKBİM
Pre-school Primary School Lower-secondary Upper-secondary Pre-service

Graduate Students Academics Teachers Parents Unspecified Other
Students Students School Students School Students Teachers
54 4 51 2 0 5 1 0 1
2 8
ULAKBİM
6 10 35 47 0 7 2
18 0 1 2
ERIC
SPS
2 27 4 0
3 17 16 1 3 0 0
WOS
(pp. 1101-1118)
EDUCATION
Figure 3 shows that articles browsed in the ULAKBİM database were mostly conducted with lower-secondary school students
(n=50), pre-service teachers (n=30), and upper-secondary school students (n=13) for the 5E educational model. When we look at the articles
1105
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Figure 3 shows that articles browsed in the ULAKBİM database were mostly conducted with lower-secondary
school students (n=50), pre-service teachers (n=30), and upper-secondary school students (n=13) for the 5E edu-
cational model. When we look at the articles browsed in the WOS database, it was seen that the articles on the 5E
educational model were mostly conducted with pre-service teachers (n=18), upper-secondary school students
(n=17), and lower-secondary school students (n=16). The number of articles on the 5E educational model browsed
in the ERIC database was much less than the articles browsed in other databases covered in the study and there
was no distinct difference in the number of articles published by sampling type.
In the ERIC database, it was determined that articles on the 5E educational model were conducted with pre-
service teachers (n=5), upper-secondary school students (n=4), primary school students (n=4), and lower-secondary
school students (n=2), respectively. Like the 5E educational model, it was seen that articles on SPS were mostly
conducted with lower-secondary school students (n=54) in the articles browsed in the ULAKBİM database and fol-
lowed by articles with pre-service teachers (n=51). On the contrary, in the ERIC database, it has been determined that
articles on SPS were mostly conducted with pre-service teachers (n=47), lower-secondary school students (n=35),
and upper-secondary school students (n=18), respectively. Similarly, it was determined that articles on SPS were
mostly conducted with pre-service teachers (n=27), lower-secondary school students (n=17), and upper-secondary
school students (n=16) respectively in the articles browsed in the WOS database. Figure 4 shows the frequency
distribution of “sample size” on the 5E educational model and SPS articles in WOS, ERIC, and ULAKBİM databases.
1106
Figure
Figure 4 4
Distribution of “Sample
Distribution Size” by 5E
of “Sample Educational
Size” by 5E Model and SPS according
Educational Model and to Databases
6 18 16 5 6 2 0 1 1 4 0
WOS
0 1 0 0 0 0 2 0
8 5 1
5E
ERIC
0 49 0 0 0 0
39 8 3 1 0
ULAKBİM
0-10 11-50 51-100 101-150 151-300 301-500 501-750 751-1000 more than 1000 Unspecified Other
39 15 10 6 5 1 1 0 0
4 44
ULAKBİM
12 46 24 5 2 3 4
13 11 2 3
ERIC
SPS
5 9 9 3 1 0 0 0
20 13 8
WOS
In Figure 4, it was seen that the most preferred sample size on both the 5E educational model and SPS in all databases covered in the
study was between 11-50, followed by the sample sizes between 51-100 and 101-150. For the 5E educational model, it was seen that the
sample size was mostly preferred between 11-50 in the articles browsed in the ULAKBİM database (n=49), in articles browsed in the WOS
(pp. 1101-1118)
EDUCATION
1107
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In Figure 4, it was seen that the most preferred sample size on both the 5E educational model and SPS in all
databases covered in the study was between 11-50, followed by the sample sizes between 51-100 and 101-150.
database (n=18),model,
For the 5E educational and itinwasarticles
seen that browsed inwas
the sample size themostly
ERIC database
preferred between(n=8),
11-50 in respectively.
the articles Furth
were
browsed mostly preferred
in the ULAKBİM databaseto(n=49),
be published in articles
in articles browsed browsed
in the WOS in the
database (n=18), andULAKBİM
in articles browseddatabase (n=
and articles browsed in the WOS database (n=20). Figure 5 shows the frequency distributi
in the ERIC database (n=8), respectively. Furthermore, it was determined that the articles on SPS were mostly pre-
ferred to be published in articles browsed in the ULAKBİM database (n=44), articles browsed in the ERIC database
and
(n=46)SPS articles
and articles in WOS,
browsed ERIC,
in the WOS and(n=20).
database ULAKBİM databases.
Figure 5 shows the frequency distribution of “research
type” on the 5E educational model and SPS articles in WOS, ERIC, and ULAKBİM databases.
Figure
Figure 5
5
Distribution of “Research
Distribution of “Research Type”Model
Type” by 5E Educational by and
5ESPS
Educational Model and SPS according to Databas
according to Databases
41 17 1 8 0
WOS
14 0
2 0 1
ERIC
5E
80 19 0 2 0
ULAKBİM
Effectiveness of Determination of Document

Test Development Other
approach/ situation the Situation Analysis
8 11 0
80 37
ULAKBİM
73 53 6 4
4
SPS
ERIC
42 1
23 2 0
WOS
According
According to Figure 5,to Figure
it was 5,articles
seen that it was seen
on the that articles
5E educational model andon
SPSthe
were 5E educational
mostly related to model
articles on the effectiveness of a method. It was seen that the number of articles browsed in the ULAKBİM data-
effectiveness of a method.
base (n=80) investigating It was
the effectiveness seen that
of a method on thethe number model
5E educational of articles browsed
was higher in the ULAKB
than the articles
published in the WOS database (n=41) and ERIC database (n=14). Likewise, it has been determined that the articles
investigating the effectiveness of a method regarding SPS were mostly in the articles browsed in the ULAKBİM
database (n=80), followed by the articles browsed in the ERIC database (n=73) and the articles browsed in the WOS
database (n=42). Figure 6 shows the frequency distribution of “research discipline” on the 5E educational model
and SPS articles in WOS, ERIC, and ULAKBİM databases.
1108
EDUCATION
ISSN 2538–7138 /Online/ (pp. 1101-1118)
Figure66
Figure
Distributionofof
Distribution “Research
“Research Discipline”
Discipline” by 5E Educational
by 5E Educational Model
Model and and SPS according
to Databases
11 13 13 3 28 0 2
WOS
2 9 0 1
3 3 0
ERIC
5E
26 31 15 9 20 0 0
ULAKBİM
Lower-secondary
Chemistry Physics Biology Astronomy Unspecified Other
School Science
19 3 74 0 0
16 25
ULAKBİM
11 15 9 95 2
0 1
SPS
ERIC
10 43
6 7 1 0 0
WOS
According to Figure 6, it has been determined that the articles on the 5E educational model were mostly
published in the field of physics (n=31) browsed in the ULAKBİM database, while the articles browsed in the WOS
database (n=28), and the ERIC database (n=9) were in the field of science. In addition, it was determined that the
articles on SPS were mostly conducted in the field of lower-secondary school science and these articles were
browsed in the ERIC database (n=95), ULAKBİM database (n=74), and WOS database (n=43), respectively. Figure
7 shows the frequency distribution of “research methods” on the 5E educational model and SPS articles in WOS,
ERIC, and ULAKBİM databases.
1109
were in the field of science. In addition, it was determined that the articles on SPS were mostly conducted in the field of lower-secondary
school science and these articles were browsed in the ERIC database (n=95), ULAKBİM database (n=74), and WOS database (n=43),
respectively. Figure 7 shows the frequency distribution of “research methods” on the 5E educational model and SPS articles in WOS, ERIC,
and ULAKBİM databases.
1110
Figure
Figure 77
Distribution
Distribution of “Research
of “Research by 5E Educational
Methods”Methods” by 5EModel and SPS according
Educational to Databases
Model and SPS according to Databases
EDUCATION
9 0 2 9 1 5 6 2 0 9 24 0 0 0 0 2 2 6
WOS
(pp. 1101-1118)
2 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 2 5 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
0
5E
ERIC
15 0 2 1 1 1 2 1 1 5 60 0 0 0 2
0 0 0
ULAKBİM
Single Pre- Quasi- True

Action Document Content Test
Case Study Phenomenology Unspesified Mixed Survey Subject experimental experimental Experimental Correlational Causational Metaanalysis Unspesified Other
Research Analysis Anaysis Development
Design Research Research Design
12 1 0 11 2 0 0 5 1 1 7 0 0
28 0 57 1 2
ULAKBİM
15 1 3 6 1 1 3 16 0 13 20 11 10 5 2 5 4 9
ERIC
SPS
9 1 2 3 1 1 3
8 0 7 23 2 3 3 0 1 0 5
WOS
According
According to Figure
to 7,Figure
it was seen
7, it that
wastheseen that the quasi-experimental
quasi-experimental research method research
was mostlymethod
preferredwas mostly
in the articlespreferred in the articles
on the 5E educational method
on and
theSPS
5Ein
educational method and SPS in all databases covered in this study. It was noteworthy that the articles on the 5E educational
all databases covered in this study. It was noteworthy that the articles on the 5E educational method were mostly published in the journals browsed in the ULAKBİM method were
mostly published
database, in the
and qualitative journals
studies browsed
in this databaseinwere ULAKBİM
themostly database,
about case studies and qualitative
(n=15). The numberstudies in this
of articles database
browsed in thewere mostly
ULAKBİM database case
aboutwas followed
studiesby
(n=15).
the The
articles number
browsed in the articles
of WOS browsed
database (n=24)
in and
the itULAKBİM database
was seen that case studies followed
was(n=9) by the articles
and document analysisbrowsed
(n=9) methods WOS
in thewere thedatabase
commonly (n=24) and it
used research
methods qualitative
was seenin that studies on
case studies the 5E
(n=9) andeducational
documentmethod. In the
analysis (n=9)
ERICmethods few articles
database,were the commonly
were foundusedon the 5E educational
research methodsmodel
in qualitative other data-
compared tostudies on
bases,
the 5Eand most of them
educational (n=5) were
method. In related
the ERICto quasi-experimental research.
database, few articles were found on the 5E educational model compared to other databases, and
mostLike
of the
them educational
5E (n=5) were method,
related toquasi-experimental
quasi-experimentalresearch has been the most preferred method in all databases in articles on SPS. The quasi-experimental
research.
research (n=57) was the most preferred method in the ULAKBİM database and there were also qualitative studies about case studies (n=12) and document analysis
(n=11) in this database. In the WOS database, quasi-experimental research (n=23) was also the most preferred research method in the articles on SPS, and case study
(n=9) and document analysis (n=3) were the most preferred qualitative research methods as well. Likewise, quasi-experimental research (n=20) was the most pre-
ferred research method in the articles browsed in the ERIC database, and case study (n=15) and document analysis (n=6) were the most preferred qualitative research
methods. Figure 8 shows the frequency distribution of “data collection tools” on the 5E educational model and SPS articles in WOS, ERIC, and ULAKBİM databases.
qualitative research methods as well. Likewise, quasi-experimental research (n=20) was the most preferred research method in the articles
browsed in the ERIC database, and case study (n=15) and document analysis (n=6) were the most preferred qualitative research methods.
Figure 8 shows the frequency distribution of “data collection tools” on the 5E educational model and SPS articles in WOS, ERIC, and
ULAKBİM databases.
Figure
Figure 8 8
Distribution
Distributionof “Data Collection
of “Data Tools” by 5E
Collection Educational
Tools” by 5EModel and SPS according
Educational Databases
Modeltoand SPS according to Databases
25 0 1 12 12 27 6 3 0 1
0 1 1 0 2 2 25 12 7
WOS
6 2 0 1 0 1
6 0 2 0 4 1
0 3 0 2 0 1
3
5E
ERIC
46 2 0 0 13 0 43 13 20 0 0
0 6 1 24 0 10 8 3
ULAKBİM
Alternative Predict-
Achievement Open Ended Personality Alternative Perception Observation
Forms Assessment Observe- Attitude Tests Interest Tests Ability Tests Interviews Documents Tests Scales Surveys Unspesified Other
Tests Questions Tests Tests Tests Forms
Tools Explain(POE)
0 1 0 1 1 85 1 28 10 11 34 2 0
32 9 6 23 32 0
ULAKBİM
32 6 1 0 2 30 25 17 26 20 1 5 2
11 0 9 1 7 58
ERIC
SPS
37 1 6 1 14 15 21 24 7 0 0
1 0 11 0 10 0 0 8
WOS

Figure 8 shows
Figure that achievement
8 shows tests (n=46)
that achievement testsand interviews
(n=46) and interviews preferred
(n=43) were(n=43) as data
were collection
preferred as tools
data in the articles
collection browsed
tools the ULAKBİM
in thein articles browseddatabase
in
related to the 5E educational
the ULAKBİM database method.
related While
to the documents
the5E (n=27),
educational achievement
method. Whiletests
the(n=25), and interviews
documents (n=27),(n=25) were the commonly
achievement tests (n=25),
used and in the articles
tools interviews
on(n=25) educational
the 5Ewere model browsed
the commonly used tools WOS
in thein thedatabase,
articles achievement tests (n=6) and
on the 5E educational interviews
model browsed(n=4)
inwere
the WOS preferred as
mostly database, data collection
achievement tools
tests in the
(n=6)
journals browsed in
and interviews the ERIC
(n=4) weredatabase. addition, ability
mostlyInpreferred tests
as data (n=85) were
collection tools data
thein thecollection
journalstool commonly
browsed used
in the in journals
ERIC browsed
database. in the ULAKBIM
In addition, abilitydatabase
tests
in(n=85) on SPS,
articleswere thefollowed by scales (n=34),
data collection achievement
tool commonly used
testsin(n=32), documents
journals browsed (n=32),
in theand interviews (n=28),
ULAKBIM databaserespectively. While
in articles on achievement
SPS, followed testsby(n=37) and
scales
scales (n=24) were commonly preferred in articles on SPS browsed in the WOS database, it was seen that ability tests (n=58), achievement tests (n=32), and interviews
(n=30) were mostly preferred as data collection tools in articles browsed in the ERIC database. Figure 9 shows the frequency distribution of “data analysis” methods
on the 5E educational model and SPS articles in WOS, ERIC, and ULAKBİM databases.
(pp. 1101-1118)
EDUCATION
1111
were commonly preferred in articles on SPS browsed in the WOS database, it was seen that ability tests (n=58), achievement tests (n=32),
and interviews (n=30) were mostly preferred as data collection tools in articles browsed in the ERIC database. Figure 9 shows the frequency
distribution of “data analysis” methods on the 5E educational model and SPS articles in WOS, ERIC, and ULAKBİM databases.
1112
Figure
Figure9 9
Distribution
Distribution of “Data Analysis”
of “Data by 5E Educational
Analysis” by 5E Model and SPS according
Educational Model andto Databases
EDUCATION
25 0 1 12 0 12 1 1 0 2 2 25 12 27 6 7 3 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
WOS
(pp. 1101-1118)
6 2 0 6 2 4 1 0 1 0 1
3 0 3 0 2 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
5E
ERIC
46 2 0 1 24 0 0 0 13 0 43 10 13 20 8 3 0 0 0 0 0
6 0 0 0
ULAKBİM
Frequency/ Non- Structural

Mean/Standard Spearmen Normality Eta-Squared Effect Size Cappa Factor Descriptive
Percentage/ Graph Correlation Gain Score Tukey Test t-test Anova Manova Regression Parametric Equation Metaanalysis Other KR20 Mancova Unspesified Other
Deviation Test Tests Effect Size (Cohen's d) Analysis Analysis Analysis
Chart Test Modeling
0 1 23 0 1 1 85 1 28 10 32 11 34 2 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
ULAKBİM 32 9 6
32 25 17 26 20 1 5 3 0 0 0 0 0 0
5 1 11 0 9 0 1 7 58 2 30
ERIC
SPS
37 0 0 0 1 6 1 14 15 21 24 7 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
WOS 1 0 11 10 8
Figure 9 shows that the use of frequency/percentage/chart (n=46), t-test (n=43) and gain score (n=24) were the most widely used data
analysis methods in the articles browsed in the ULAKBİM database on the 5E educational method. In the articles on the 5E educational
model Figure
browsed
9 showsinthat
thetheWOS frequency/percentage/chart
use ofdatabase, MANOVA (n=27), (n=46), t-test
t-test (n=25) and gain
(n=43)and frequency/percentage/chart
score (n=24) were the most(n=25)widely used
weredata analysis
widely methods
used in data in
the
analysis
articlesmethods, the ULAKBİM
browsed inand similarlydatabase
in the on the 5E educational
articles browsed inmethod.
the ERIC articles on the
In the database, 5E educational model browsed
frequency/percentage/chart (n=6)
in theand database,
WOSt-test MANOVA
(n=6) were
(n=27),
commonly t-test used
(n=25)for frequency/percentage/chart
anddata analysis. As for SPS, (n=25)cappa were widely
analysis (n=85)
used inwas
datawidely methods,
analysisused and similarly
in articles browsedin theinarticles browsed in the
the ULAKBİM ERIC database,
database, and it
frequency/percentage/chart (n=6) and t-test (n=6) were commonly used for data analysis. As for SPS, cappa analysis (n=85)
was followed by regression (n=34), frequency/percentage/chart (n=32), MANOVA (n=32), and t-test (n=28) data analysis methods. Inin thewas widely used in articles browsed the
ULAKBİM database, and it was followed by regression (n=34), frequency/percentage/chart (n=32), MANOVA (n=32), and t-test
articles browsed in the WOS database, it was observed that the frequency/percentage/chart (n=37) method came to the fore in data analysis, (n=28) data analysis methods. In the
articles browsed in the WOS database, it was observed that the frequency/percentage/chart (n=37) method came to the fore in data analysis, followed by regression
followed by regression (n=24) and factor analysis (n=21), respectively. Similarly, in the ERIC database, it can be seen from Figure 9 that
(n=24) and factor analysis (n=21), respectively. Similarly, in the ERIC database, it can be seen from Figure 9 that cappa analysis (n=58), frequency/percentage/chart
cappa analysis (n=58), frequency/percentage/chart (n=32) and t-test (n=30) methods were the most preferred data analysis methods.
(n=32) and t-test (n=30) methods were the most preferred data analysis methods.
EDUCATION
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Discussion
Science is in almost all areas of human life, and it is both a process and a product. Since it is a process, it con-
sists of process skills that help develop scientific searches for products. SPS has a profound impact on students’
learning and optimal use of science in their academic careers and personal lives as so-called basic skills to master
science (Prayitno et al., 2017). The literature review is an important part of the scientific approach. Such studies
also form the basis of most research in the humanities. Literature review in educational research provides ways to
stand out in a particular field of knowledge in one’s field. Thus, the literature in any field provides the foundation on
which all future work should be built (Rao, 2008). Students’ SPS can be developed in science-based learning so as
to students can use these basic skills to master science (Saidawati et al., 2022). The 5E educational model provides
teachers with a structure to meet the demands of today’s science standards. It gets students thinking, then allows
explorative discovery and fact-based learning to deepen students’ understanding of the content topic. Students
can become critical thinkers and continue to learn about topics of interest as time goes on. The 5E model is a sci-
ence teaching method for raising science-literate students. As it is a pedagogical approach to teaching science, it
provides a framework for teachers to develop students’ understanding of scientific ideas and concepts. However,
the 5E teaching model is flexible and can be used with many different types of teaching resources, programs, and
materials that teachers may already have (Chitman-Booker & Kopp, 2017). The 5E teaching model, which encour-
ages conceptual learning, is widely used in science teaching (Bahtaji, 2021). Data from a study by Budprom et al.,
(2010) also showed that the 5E educational model increased students’ SPS levels. In the present study, it was aimed
to review the articles in the field of education about SPS and 5E educational model according to the categories
of the research area, sampling methods, sampling type, sample size, research type, research discipline, research
methods, data collection tools, and data analysis.
In this study, when the articles browsed in WOS, ERIC, and ULAKBİM on SPS and the 5E educational model
between 2010-2021 were examined, it was found that the number of articles published on SPS was higher when
compared to the 5E educational model in the last 12 years. In addition, it was determined that the greatest number
of articles related to these research areas were published in journals browsed in the ULAKBİM database and the
least number of articles were published in the journals browsed in the WOS database. In the publication of articles
in various journals, reasons such as the subject of the article, readership, and impact factor are usually important.
In addition to these factors, the article acceptance rate is also among the important reasons for the difference in
the number of articles published in these databases. In addition, it was determined that the number of articles
published in both fields in the journals browsed in WOS was almost the same. It was also noticed that the number
of articles on SPS browsed in the ERIC database was considerably higher than those related to the 5E educational
model. In addition, the 5E educational model is the most used method in terms of gaining SPS (Colburn & Clough,
1997). It has been suggested in many studies that the stages of the SPS and 5E educational models support each
other in many ways (Bıyıklı & Yağcı, 2014). In the studies on the SPS, the sample was generally chosen by random
sampling method, the sampling type was usually pre-service teachers possibly related to easy accessibility, the
number of samples varies between 11-50, and the effectiveness of a method was mostly examined, lower-secondary
school science was concentrated as the research discipline, and the quasi-experimental method was prominent
as a research method. Moreover, it has been determined that ability tests were used as data collection tools and
cappa analysis was used in data analysis in the studies on the SPS. Yıldırım et al. (2016) thematically assessed Turk-
ish studies in SPS from 2000 to 2015. They used a thematic matrix (needs, aims, methodologies, data collection
tools, general knowledge claims, implications for teaching and learning) to evaluate the data. They identified the
developing students’ SPS as the needs, developing students’ or teachers’ SPS as the aims, experimental research as
the methodology of SPS studies, questionnaires especially including multiple-choice questions as data collection
tools for SPS studies, and lower-secondary school students and student teachers as the sample types. Çevik and
Kaya (2021) examined postgraduate theses about SPS conducted in the field of science in Turkey between the years
2015 and 2021. It was determined that the majority of these related to SPS between the years 2015-2021 were
master’s theses and problem-based learning was generally preferred as the subject area in the theses. In addition,
the quantitative research method and quasi-experimental design were particularly preferred in the thesis examined,
with seventh-grade students as the study group, 40-60 people as the sample size, SPS and achievement tests as
data collection tools, t-tests, and content analysis were generally preferred as data analysis methods. In the meta-
synthesis study of Sibic and Şeşen (2022), which includes the analysis of master’s and doctoral thesis, they stated
that SPS was generally measured with multiple-choice tests, and original tests were developed in very few of them.
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In the studies on the 5E educational model, the sample was generally chosen by convenience sampling as the
sampling method, the sampling type was usually lower-secondary school students, the number of samples varies
between 11-50, and the effectiveness of a method was tested as the research type, lower-secondary school science
was concentrated as the research discipline, and the quasi-experimental method was prominent as a research
method. Moreover, it has been determined that achievement tests were used as data collection tools and frequency/
percentage/chart was used in data analysis in the studies on the 5E educational method. The meta-analytic review
of Mukagihana et al. (2022) identified educational methods used for teaching pre-service science teachers between
the years 2010 and 2020. The 5E educational model was one of the most effective teaching methods for pre-service
science teachers learning. In another study by Turan (2021) using the meta-ethnographic method, which examines
the systematic examination of qualitative studies addressing the difficulties faced by pre-service teachers while ap-
plying the 5E educational model, time, resources, beliefs, content, and class size were determined as the obstacles
in the implementation of the 5E educational model by the pre-service teachers. Anil and Batdi (2015) reviewed
the quantitative studies carried out in Turkey and published in the national and international literature over the
period 2008 to 2014 about the effect of the 5E educational model on students’ academic achievement, retention,
and attitude scores. The results of the meta-analysis conducted on the 5E model showed that the 5E educational
model was generally effective in terms of students’ academic achievement, retention, and attitude scores. Çakir
and Güven (2019) examined the studies conducted on the 5E educational model in the field of science teaching
between 2006 and 2016. All these studies are thesis containing qualitative data, performed in science teaching in
Turkey, have been published or unpublished in national or international journals, and have been combined with
the meta-analysis method. They concluded that the 5E educational model had the strongest effect on academic
achievement at the university level, while the weakest effect was at the elementary school level, and this model had
the strongest effect on academic achievement in physics. In addition, it was seen that the 5E educational model
had a moderate effect on the attitude towards the course and had the strongest effect on the attitude towards the
biology course. Saraç (2018) conducted a meta-analysis study to determine the effect of using the 5E educational
model in the education process between 2007 and 2016 on the permanence of the learned information. As a result
of the research, it has been determined that the use of the 5E educational model in the education process had a
positive effect on the permanence of the learned information. In the research, analyzes were made according to the
learning cycle models, the thesis type of the research, the discipline area in which the research was conducted, and
the education level of the students participating in the research. As a result of the analysis, it was determined that
the highest effect size value was in the 4E Model, in doctoral studies, in the field of biology, and in upper-secondary
school students. In another study examining the doctoral dissertations written in the field of science education
between 2001-2016, it was determined that the mixed method as a research method, secondary school students
and pre-service teachers as sampling type, experimental studies, and case studies as research designs, inferential
analysis, and content analysis as data analysis were the most widely used (Küçüközer, 2016).
Descriptive content analysis studies summarize the studies in the field of study and identify trends, facilitate
the access of stakeholders to research data on the subject studied, provide holistic data about the studies, and
offer new researchers the opportunity to see new and different studies on the relevant subject holistically and
contribute to the researchers to develop different perspectives on the field to be studied (Çalık & Sözbilir, 2014;
Dinçer, 2018). In related literature, there were some content analysis and meta-analysis studies examining science
process skills (Çevik & Kaya, 2021; Sibic & Şeşen, 2022; Yıldırım et al. 2016) and the 5E educational model (Anil &
Batdi, 2015; Çakir & Güven, 2019; Küçüközer, 2016; Mukagihana et al., 2022; Saraç, 2018; Turan, 2021), but there
was no such comprehensive study reported like the current study.
In this study, a total of 522 articles were examined in the field of education related to the 5E educational model
and SPS according to some criteria. The research criteria were the research area, sampling methods, sampling type,
sample size, research type, research discipline, research methods, data collection tools, and data analysis. It had been
sometimes difficult in determining the research criteria and especially the sub-criteria. Therefore, the determining
criteria had to be updated from time to time during the article review process. One of the difficulties encountered
during the examination process was that there was no clear statement about the research criteria in the abstract or
throughout the article. In cases where the research criteria of the articles could not be reached from the abstracts or
certain parts of the articles, the entire article had to be examined in detail. Through the discussions, the researchers
1114
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tried to reach a consensus about the research criteria and tried to code the criteria by making inferences from the
overall article. Of course, there were cases where consensus could not be reached, for which it was not specified,
and other options were added to the criteria table. In addition, sometimes the same terms were named differently
in different articles, and in such cases, the criteria were gathered under a single heading by reaching a consensus
among the researchers. Accessing, downloading, and storing paid articles were also some of the other problems
encountered in the current work process.
The current study is very important in terms of presenting the current situation for researchers who plan to
conduct research in the field of SPS and the 5E educational model. It sheds light on the scientists who would work
in the related fields and provides an opportunity to complete the shortcomings in the relevant literature. In addi-
tion, the majority of the related studies were limited to the studies conducted in Turkey, especially meta-analysis
of thesis studies. Therefore, the available literature lacks enough comprehensive and adequate content or meta-
analytical review showing the effect of the 5E educational method and SPS on learning outcomes.
The results of the research indicated that randomized sampling came to the fore as the preferred sampling
method, lower-secondary school students as the sample type, 11-50 as the sample size, and studies in which the
effectiveness of a method was tested as the research type, lower-secondary school science as the research discipline,
as a research design quasi-experimental, achievement tests as data collection tools, and frequency/percentage/
charts were frequently used in data analysis.
The following recommendations are based on the findings of this content analysis.
•• A similar study can be conducted using different databases.
•• Since the articles about SPS in all researched databases outnumber the articles about the 5E educational
model, researchers should be encouraged to conduct studies on the 5E educational model.
•• A convenient sampling method has often been preferred in studies about the 5E educational model, and
researchers can be encouraged to conduct studies using different sampling techniques.
•• In studies on the 5E educational model, lower-secondary school students have often been chosen as the
sampling type, and studies can be conducted with different sampling types.
•• In studies on the SPS, pre-service teachers have often been chosen as the sampling type, and studies can
be conducted with different sampling types.
•• The quasi-experimental design has been used frequently used as a research design in both the 5E educa-
tional model and SPS, and researchers can conduct studies with different research designs in related fields.
•• Studies have been carried out in small samples (11-50) in both the 5E educational model and SPS, and
studies involving larger samples can be conducted on these subjects.
•• Generally, the effectiveness of an approach/situation has been preferred as a research type in both the
5E educational model and SPS, and studies can be conducted on other types of research in related fields.
Acknowledgments
This study was funded by the Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey by Grant No. 220K101.
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FormCoding
Form
Appendix
Coding
Appendix
The
The
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Received: July 04, 2022 Revised: September 15, 2022 Accepted: November 22, 2022
Cite as: Zorluoğlu, S. L., Yalçinkaya Önder, E., Timur, B., Timur, S., Güvenç., E., Özergun, I., & Özdemir, M. (2022). The scope of
science process skills and the 5E educational model in science education. Journal of Baltic Science Education, 21(6), 1101-1118.
Seraceddin Levent PhD, Associate Professor, Department of Mathematics and Science

Zorluoğlu Education, Faculty of Education, Süleyman Demirel University, Turkey.
E-mail: leventzorluoglu@hotmail.com
Eylem Yalçınkaya Önder PhD, Associate Professor, Department of Mathematics and Science
(Corresponding author) Education, Faculty of Education, Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University,
Turkey.
E-mail: eylemyk@gmail.com
Betül Timur PhD, Professor, Department of Mathematics and Science Education,
Faculty of Education, Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Turkey.
E-mail: betultmr@gmail.com
Serkan Timur PhD, Professor, Department of Mathematics and Science Education,
E-mail: serkantimur42@gmail.com
Elif Güvenç Graduate Student, Department of Mathematics and Science Education,
E-mail: elifguvenc39@gmail.com
Ilgım Özergun Research Assistant, Department of Mathematics and Science Education,
E-mail: ilgim.ozergun@comu.edu.tr
Muzaffer Özdemir PhD, Associate Professor, Department of Computer and Instructional
Technologies Education, Faculty of Education, Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart
University, Turkey.
E-mail: mozdemir@comu.edu.tr
1118
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INFORMATION FOR CONTRIBUTORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1119

NATURAL SCIENCE EDUCATION IN PRIMARY SCHOOL: SOME SIGNIFICANT

EARLY CHILDHOOD PRE-

DRAWING AS A SCIENCE ISSN 2538-7138 /Online/

Abstract. The use of drawings for science

Teachers’ Readiness to Use Drawings as a Science Teaching Strategy

Research Aim and Research Questions

Data Collection and Analysis

Level CMP relation Explanation

5 C:M:P Draws interrelated organs in relation to mechanisms and phenomena

In this case, researchers considered the confidence assessment to be level 2.

Descriptive Statistics and Cluster Analysis

PSTs’ Readiness for Using Drawings as a Science Teaching Strategy

Knowledge Confidence Importance Usefulness

Values 0,1,2,3,4,5 0,1,2 0,1,2 0,1,2

Cluster 1 Cluster 2 Cluster 3

Cluster1: The Most Ready PSTs for Drawing

PST Knowledge Confidence Importance Usefulness

I think I am good at drawing Drawing is very important Yes, drawings have

Level 4 Level 2 Level 2 Level 2

PST Knowledge Confidence Importance Usefulness

Level 3 Level 2 Level 2 Level 2

Cluster 2: Being Able to Draw is Not Important

Cluster 3: Lacking Knowledge of How to Draw but With Positive Beliefs

PST Knowledge Confidence Importance Usefulness

Level 2 Level 0 Level 2 Level 2

PST Knowledge Confidence Importance Usefulness

Level 0 Level 1 Level 2 Level 2

Level 1 Level 0 Level 2 Level 2

PSTs’ Readiness for Using Drawings as a Science Teaching Strategy

PSTs´ Clusters and Educational Implications

Limitations of the Study

Conclusions and Implications

The authors declare no competing interest.

TEACHING NATURAL SCIENCES:

Abstract. There is a severe shortcoming Nadia Ahmed A AL Jadidi,

The current research aimed to

Natural Sciences and their Learning in Early Childhood Classrooms

Population and Sample

2. Designing the Physics Program According to the Following Steps:

3. Steps to Analyze the Physics Concepts (the Topic of Research):

a) Scientific principles related to each concept.

4. Links to Simplified Tools:

5. Simplified Laboratory Tools for physics concepts:

a) Scientific principles related to each concept

5. Energy can be converted from one form to another.

b) An introduction to learning each concept for children

Data Collection and Analysis

Children’s Scientific Thinking Skills

Investigation 8/8 random responses are not based on understanding. 0

Performance 8/8 random responses are not based on understanding. 0

Children’s Knowledge of Specific Scientific Concepts

Performance 6/8 Correct responses related to the ability to apply knowledge in 75 75

Excerpt (5) children’s responses during blowing activities.

S1: I can move small things by blowing on them.

Excerpt (6) Children’s responses during shadow activities.

Conclusions and Implications

Recommendations and Suggestions

The authors declare no competing interest.