Eulerian vs.

Lagrangian Description
The flow of a fluid can be described in two different, but equivalent ways:

A) Eulerian description: All fluid properties are measured with respect to a fixed
coordinate system. Time variations are described by
local derivatives at a given coordinate location, e.g.
y
∂ρ
∂t
x
B) Lagrangian description: All fluid properties are measured with respect to a moving
control mass of variable volume V(t) occupied by the same
particles at all times. Time variations are described by
total derivatives at the location of the control mass, e.g.

Dρ
Dt

D ∂ ~
Relation between the two derivatives: = + ~v · ∇
Dt ∂t
 Reynold’s Transport Theorem (I)
For a scalar field φ along a moving control mass:
Z Z Z
D ∂φ
φdV = dV + v · n̂dS
φ~
Dt V (t) V (t) ∂t A(t)

where:
V (t) volume of control mass
A(t) surface area of volume V(t)
n̂ unit normal vector to surface A(t)
Z Z
Using Gauss’ theorem: u · n̂dS =
~ ~ · ~udV
∇ we obtain:
A V
Z Z µ ¶
D ∂φ ~ · (φ~v ) dV
φdV = +∇
Dt V (t) V (t) ∂t

On the other hand, if Vcv is a fixed control volume (Eulerian description), then one can
show that:
Z Z Z
D d
φdV = φdV + φ~v · n̂dS
Dt V (t) dt Vcv Acv
 Reynold’s Transport Theorem (II)
~ along a moving control mass:
For a vector field Φ

D Z ~
Z
∂Φ~ Z
~ ⊗ ~v · n̂dS
ΦdV = dV + Φ
Dt V (t) V (t) ∂t A(t)
Z Ã !
∂Φ~
= +∇~ · (Φ
~ ⊗ ~v ) dV
V (t) ∂t
Z Z
d ~ ~ ⊗ ~v · n̂dS
= ΦdV + Φ
dt Vcv Acv

~ ⊗~
where Φ v is the tensor product:

⎡ ⎤
Φ1 v1 Φ1 v2 Φ1 v 3
Φ⊗~
⎢
~ v = ⎣ Φ2 v1 Φ2 v2 Φ2 v 3 ⎥ ~ v )ij = Φivj
⎦ ⇒ (Φ⊗~
Φ3 v1 Φ3 v2 Φ3 v 3
 Conservation of Mass
The total mass of the fluid is
Z
M = ρdV
V
and it is conserved, if there is no mass production inside the fluid.

By definition, the mass within the volume V(t) of a moving control mass is conserved:
Z
D
ρdV = 0
Dt V (t)

Using Reynold’s transport theorem, we find that:

Z Z
d ~ · (ρ~v)dV
ρdV = − ∇ integral form
dt Vcv Vcv

or, equivalently
∂ρ ~ · (ρ~v ) = 0
+∇ differential form
∂t
which is called the continuity equation.
 Conservation of Momentum (I)
The total momentum of the fluid is
Z
~ =
P ρ~vdV
V
and it is conserved, if there are no external forces or torques acting on the fluid.
However, the momentum contained within the volume V(t) of a moving control mass
changes with time, due to volume and surface forces acting on this control mass.

Volume forces: Z
f~V = ρ~g dV
V (t)
where e.g. ~g is the acceleration of gravity.
Z Z
Surface forces:
f~S = S · n̂dS = ~ · SdV
∇
A(t) V (t)

where S is the stress tensor:

S = −p I + Π
Here, p is the isotropic pressure, I=diag[1,1,1] is the unit tensor and Π is the viscous part
of the stress tensor.
 Conservation of Momentum (II)
According to Newton’s 2nd law, the rate of change of the momentum of the moving
control mass is equal to the sum of all forces acting on it:
Z
D
v dV = f~V + f~S
ρ~
Dt V (t)
Using Reynold’s transport theorem:
Z Z Z Z
d
ρ~v dV + ρ~v ⊗~v ·n̂dS = ρ~gdV + (−p I+ Π)·n̂dS
dt V cv A cv Vcv Acv
Z Z h i
d ~
⇒ ρ~v dV = ∇ · (−ρ~v ⊗ ~v − p I + Π) + ρ~g dV integral form
dt V cv Vcv

or, equivalently:
Z Ã ! Z Z
∂ (ρ~v ) ~ · (ρ~v ⊗ ~ ~
+∇ v ) dV = ρ~g dV + ∇·(−p I+ Π)dV
V (t) ∂t V (t) V (t)

v)
∂(ρ~ ~ · (ρ~v ⊗ ~v + p I − Π) = ρ~g
⇒ +∇ differential form
∂t
 Conservation of Energy (I)
The total energy density is the sum of the kinetic energy density and the internal
energy density:
1 2
E = ρv + ρe
2
The total energy contained within the volume of a moving control mass is
Z
EV = EdV
V (t)
During a fluid flow, the total energy of a moving control mass can change due to
several reasons:
a) Volume forces: The work done per Zunit time by the volume forces
f~V = ρ~g dV
is V (t)
Z
WV = ρ~v · ~g dV
V (t)
b) Surface forces: The work done per Zunit time by the surface forces
f~S = S · n̂dS
A(t)
Z
is WS = ~v · S · n̂dS
A(t)
 Conservation of Energy (II)
c) Energy flow: If energy is flowing into or out of the volume (e.g. due to heat
conduction and Q ~ is the energy flow vector field (energy per
unit area, per unit time), then the energy flowing into or out of
the volume per unit time is
Z
WQ = − ~ · n̂dS
Q
A(t)

d) Addition of heat: If, in addition, heat is also added directly to each particle,
e.g. using microwaves, at a rate q per unit mass, per unit time,
then the corresponding energy added per unit time is
Z
Wq = ρqdV
V (t)

The rate of change of the total energy of a moving control mass is then
DEV
= WV + WS + WQ + Wq
Dt
and using Reynold’s transport theorem:
Z Z
d
⇒ EdV + v ·n̂dS = WV +WS +WQ+Wq
E~
dt Vcv Acv
 Conservation of Energy (III)
Z Z Z Z
d
⇒ EdV + E~v · n̂dS = v · ~gdV +
ρ~ ~v · S · n̂dS
dt Vcv Acv Z Vcv Z Acv
− ~ · n̂dS +
Q ρqdV
Acv Vcv

d Z Z h
~ · (E~ ~ · (~v · S) − ∇
~ ·Q
i
~ + ρq dV
⇒ EdV = −∇ v ) + ρ~v · ~g + ∇
dt Vcv V cv

Z Z
h ³ ´ i
d ~ · −(E + p)~ ~ + ρ(~v · ~g + q) dV
⇒ EdV = ∇ v + ~v · Π − Q
dt V cv Vcv

integral form
The corresponding differential form is:

∂E ³ ´
~
+ ∇ · (E + p)~ ~
v − ~v · Π + Q = ρ(~
v · ~g + q) differential form
∂t
 Summary of Equations
The system of differential equations governing fluid dynamics is:

∂ρ ~ · (ρ~v ) = 0
+∇
∂t
v)
∂(ρ~ ~ · (ρ~v ⊗ ~v + p I − Π) = ρ~g
+∇
∂t
∂E ³ ´
~
+ ∇ · (E + p)~ ~
v − ~v · Π + Q = ρ(~
v · ~g + q)
∂t
This system is in first-order hyperbolic form:
~ + ∂xF
∂t U ~ (U
~ ) + ∂y G(
~ U~ ) + ∂z H
~ (U
~ ) = S(
~ U~)

~ = {ρ, ρvx , ρvy , ρvz , E} is the state vector of unknowns

where U

~ , G,
F ~ H~ are the flux vectors, and

~
S is the source vector.
 Viscous Stresses
In the Newtonian approximation, one assumes that viscous stresses still obey Hooke’s
linear law (deformation is linearly proportional stress). In this approximation, the
viscous part of the stress tensor is written as:
µ ¶
2 ~ · ~v I
Π = 2η D + η b − η ∇
3
where
1 h~ ~ T
i
D= ∇ ⊗ ~v + (∇ ⊗ ~v )
2
is the deformation tensor, and
η coefficient of shear viscosity

ηb coefficient of bulk viscosity

For monatomic gases η b = 0 , while for polyatomic gases η b 6= 0.

The shear viscosity depends strongly on temperature and only slightly on pressure. When
approximating η = η(T ), Sutherland’s formula holds:
µ ¶
C2 −1 √
η = C1 1 + T
T
 Heat Flow
Heat flow can be the result of:

1) Heat flow due to temperature gradients

2) Diffusion processes in gas mixtures
3) Radiation

In the case of temperature gradients, it has been found that Fourier’s law holds:

~ = −k∇T
Q ~

where k is the coefficient of thermal conductivity, depending strongly on T and only

slightly on pressure, just as the shear viscosity coefficient. From molecular theory:
k∝η
If cp is constant, then one can define the Prandtl number
cp η 4γ
Pr ≡ = (Eucken)
k 9γ − 5
Since Pr is of order unity, this means that heat flow and viscosity must both be treated
consistently.
 Entropy Equation
An alternative form of the energy equation, in terms of the specific internal energy, is:
De ~ ~ ·Q
~ = ρq
ρ v ·S+∇
−∇⊗~ Exercise 2a
Dt

Using the first law of thermodynamics, we can derive an equation for the dynamical
evolution of the specific entropy:
Ds De p Dρ
T = − 2
Dt Dt ρ Dt
Ds ~ ⊗~
∇ v·Π ∇~ ·Q~
⇒ T = − +q Exercise 2b
Dt ρ ρ
Inviscid flow (perfect fluid):
Π=0
Adiabatic flow of perfect fluid is isentropic:
Ds
~ = 0, q = 0
Q ⇒ = 0 in smooth flow
Dt
⇒ s = constant along particle paths
 Isentropic and Homentropic Flows
Along a particle path in an isentropic flow,

p = K(s0 )ργ Exercise 3a

where K(s0) is a constant, depending on the specific entropy of the particle path at t=0.
Alternatively, one can show that

T ρ1−γ = const. Exercise 3b

If the entropy is constant everywhere, at all times, the flow is called homentropic.

Entropy
If cv, cp = constant, then the specific entropy can be expressed as
à !
p
s = s0 + cv ln γ Exercise 4a
ρ
where s0 is a reference value.
 Barotropic and Incompressible Flows
If the temperature or the specific entropy are constant everywhere, e.g.

T = T0 = constant (isothermal flow)

s = s0 = constant (homentropic flow)
then the pressure depends only on the density
p = p(ρ)
and the flow is called barotropic. Then:
1~ ~
∇p = ∇h Exercise 4b
Z
ρ
dp
where h= is the specific enthalpy.
ρ

If the density of the fluid is constant everywhere,

ρ = ρ0 = constant
then the flow is called incompressible, and the continuity equation implies:
~ · ~v = 0
∇
 Flow at Junctions

Two falling blobs of liquid in a pipe. Wall shear stress in an elastic blood vessel.
 Flow in Containers

Dambreak in sphere. Marching cube partially filled with water.

 Maritime Applications

Water clashing over a ship’s deck with Rectangular block falling into water.
a rectangular obstacle.
Drops and Dambreak

A drop falling in a pool of water.

Dambreak with box.

Turbulent Flow Past an Obstacle
Shocks
Instabilities in Flows
Industrial Applications