INSTITUTIONAL ANALYSIS OF WOMEN’S COLLEGES 1

Institutional Analysis of Women’s Colleges

Cheyanna Vang, Cristina M. Valencia, and Komalpreet Sangha

Kremen School of Education & Human Development, California State University, Fresno
INSTITUTIONAL ANALYSIS OF WOMEN’S COLLEGES 2

Abstract

History has shown that Women’s Colleges have a great involvement in women’s education

today. Women’s Colleges have provided women with the opportunity of becoming great leaders

in the workforce. In this paper, we have decided to research Women's Colleges by providing an

overview of the history while discussing the social, political and historical contexts that led to the

development of Women’s Colleges. We explore non-coeducational Women’s Colleges in the

United States by reviewing the student profile, and curriculum. Furthermore, our group pays

special attention to events such as the Women’s Rights Movement that caused the expansion of

Women’s Colleges. We conclude by examining current issues in leadership that have decreased

the growth of Women’s Colleges today.

Keywords: Women’s Colleges, seminary, women empowerment, curriculum

INSTITUTIONAL ANALYSIS OF WOMEN’S COLLEGES 3

Institutional Analysis of Women’s Colleges

During the early nineteenth century, both men and women were advocating for the

education of women. Advocates saw the increasing need to provide women an education, which

up to this point was very limited (Harwarth et al., 1997). As times were changing, The Women’s

Rights Movement was the impetus for the argument that women deserved an education equal to

the type men were obtaining in the universities. Women also wanted to play a bigger role in

society and contribute to the current social and political issues. Technological advances like the

match, cookstove, and sewing machine, were now increasingly available in the home and were

providing women with more free time. This free time could be put to greater use in terms of

obtaining an education, which in turn could be used to educate their own young children. Who

better to provide a quality education to children who would later play an integral part of society,

than their own well-equipped, educated mother?

This paper will highlight various aspects of the evolution of Women’s Colleges from its

early inception in the 1800s to present day. Topics mentioned in this research include: the early

history of Women’s Colleges; the social, and political movements that led to the establishment of

Women’s Colleges; statistical, demographic, and geographical information; major influences of

Women’s Colleges; and current issues facing Women’s Colleges. We conclude our paper with

final thoughts and future possibilities for continuing the prosperity of Women’s Colleges.

History of Women’s Colleges

In the early nineteenth century it was evident to many that women needed and deserved a

higher education; the same kind of education that had been afforded to men for almost two

centuries. Men were given opportunities for advancement through the attainment of higher

education and various degrees and/or apprenticeships (Harwarth et al., 1997; Miller-Bernal, &
INSTITUTIONAL ANALYSIS OF WOMEN’S COLLEGES 4

Poulson, 2007). Although, it is important to note that higher education was normally only

provided to affluent, White, Protestant men. In any case, both women and men were advocating

for change in the way of advancement for young women through the attainment of higher

education.

Up to this point, the only education available to young women was provided by seminary

schools, which date back to the early 1800s. These were secondary schools which usually

provided a liberal type of education and have been considered an antecedent to Women’s

Colleges (Harwarth et al., 1997). Although they were not religious institutions, most seminary

schools closely monitored students (Miller-Bernal, & Poulson, 2007), especially those where

faculty and students lived together. This was to mimic a home environment and to ensure proper

lady-like behavior from all students. Seminary schools were created to provide women a way to

earn a living in case they did not marry or in the event they became widowed (Harwarth et al.,

1997). However, as time passed, concern and criticism grew about the limitations in the

curriculums (mainly in core academics) at these seminary schools, thus, Women’s Colleges were

founded in order to expand the curriculum (Harwarth et al., 1997).

There were some Women’s Colleges that actually developed from seminary schools

(Miller-Bernal, & Poulson, 2007) such as Mills, Mount Holyoke, and Wheaton. Mount Holyoke

was founded in 1836 (it was originally a seminary school) (Harwarth et al., 1997). It is unclear

which Women’s College was the first to open its doors, but it is estimated that it was either Mary

Sharp in Tennessee, or Elmira in upstate New York, with a date of circa 1855 (Miller-Bernal, &

Poulson, 2007). Vassar College opened in 1865, and by 1885, the prestigious Bryn Mawr,

Wellesley, and Smith had opened. Radcliff, Wellesley, Barnard, Bryn Mawr, Mount Holyoke,

Smith, and Vassar are most notably known as the seven sisters (Miller-Bernal, & Poulson, 2007;
INSTITUTIONAL ANALYSIS OF WOMEN’S COLLEGES 5

Harwarth et al., 1997). These elite Women’s Colleges were seen as the equivalent to the men’s

Ivy League Colleges (Miller-Bernal, & Poulson, 2007). Most Women’s Colleges were located in

the wealthy regions of the Northeast, where the older established men’s colleges were located,

and also in the south where traditional gender roles were still the norm. Between 1836 and 1875,

fifty Women’s Colleges had been founded (Harwarth et al., 1997).

Women’s Colleges faced no shortage of skepticism and criticism from scholars in men’s

institutions and also from the general public. It was strongly believed that a woman’s place was

in the home; that there was no need for a woman to attend an institution of higher education for

the sole purpose of advancement and independence (Harwarth et al., 1997). One of the most

prevalent beliefs at the time, an argument against women being educated, was the belief that too

much studying would damage a woman’s reproductive organs (Miller-Bernal & Poulson, 2007).

In the late 1800s, the president of Harvard University stated that Women’s Colleges were not

worth the investment because women were not as intelligent as men (Harwarth et al., 1997).

Women were also thought of as a weaker, frailer species, therefore they could not endure the

strain of higher education.

The Social, Political and Historical Contexts that Led to the Development of Women’s

Colleges

As mentioned in the historical introduction, the early nineteenth century was when

women were allowed to enter college in America. This occurred through a number of social

contexts which include but are not limited to: political, religious, and cultural paradigms

(Claxton, 2002). As America became more developed as a nation, the passionate revival of

religion and developing government, along with the educated individuals living during this time,
INSTITUTIONAL ANALYSIS OF WOMEN’S COLLEGES 6

all contributed to the rise of women gaining access to education, and developing the first Women

Colleges, such as Willard’s Troy Female Seminary (Claxton, 2002).

The United States was also undergoing a governmental transformation where they gained

independence from England, and became a republican government, which further led to the

development of Women’s Colleges, creating civic virtue and moral citizens. Additionally, the

religious movement and progress regarding reformation, due to the Second Great Awakening

and political context, was an era during which men founded and created Wesleyan College, a

woman’s college (Claxton, 2002).

According to Portugal (2014), the belief of women and men being equal also led to the

increased development of women colleges and co-ed enrollment. New governmental regulations,

such as the Nineteenth Amendment of the Constitution also advanced the development of

Women’s Colleges and universities, along with the strong belief that women could handle the

rigorous academia just like men (Portugal, 2014). The Women’s Movement, also referred to as a

movement of feminism, gained momentum and had a huge influence on the development of

Women’s Colleges, and women entering colleges (Harwarth et al., 1997). This movement took

place in the 1950s and was during a time women became more involved not only in academia,

but also in government and politics (Harwarth et al., 1997).

These social, political and historical contexts of having the help from the educated,

independence of the United States, and political fight to strive for man and woman equality, led

to the development of Women’s Colleges today.

Description of Women’s Colleges

Throughout history, Women’s Colleges played a significant role in women receiving an

education. Paramita (2019) revealed that the tradition of Women’s Colleges is still around with
INSTITUTIONAL ANALYSIS OF WOMEN’S COLLEGES 7

“33 non-coeducational Women’s Colleges around the United States” (para. 7). The amount of

Women’s Colleges today is exceptionally lower compared to the past due to the rise of co-

educational institutions, but the tradition of Women’s Colleges remains to promote women

equality in education. Furthermore, a common trait found in Women’s Colleges is the

geographic component. According to Paramita (2019), the majority of Women’s Colleges are

found on the east coast of the United States with a few colleges in the rest of the United States.

As seen in Table 1 (see Appendix), only 10 out of 33 Women’s Colleges are found in the

midwest, south and west coast of the United States combined (para. 8). It is safe to declare that

women in the east coast have a better opportunity to attend a women exclusive college than the

rest of the United States.

In addition, Paramita (2019) identified that Women’s Colleges tend to stick to similar

missions “of wanting their students to succeed and graduate as aspiring leaders in their fields”

(para. 13). Women’s Colleges' goals consist of women finding their place in male-dominated

fields. Nowadays, Women’s Colleges use professional organizations to encourage women

development. In higher education, there are three main organizations that promote women

empowerment: American Association of University Women (AAUW), Women's College

Coalition (WCC), and the American Association for Women in Community Colleges

(AAWCC). These organizations support women by fighting for fair pay, equal opportunities in

education, and receiving professional development in every field. In particular, AAUW began as

the Association of Collegiate Alumnae (ACA) in the 1880s, which was known as the first

establishment to fight for women’s education. Looking through the timeline, the American

Association of University Women (2020) explained that the ACA became the AAWW around

the 1900s with a goal “for practical education work, for collection and publication of statistical
INSTITUTIONAL ANALYSIS OF WOMEN’S COLLEGES 8

and other information concerning education, and in general, for the maintenance of high

standards of education” (para. 2). Today, the American Association of University Women is the

most popular establishment known for supporting Women’s Colleges.

Similarly, the majority of Women’s Colleges in the east coast are liberal arts colleges, so

the types of degrees granted are the same as liberal arts colleges. According to the Women's

College Coalition (n.d.), Women’s Colleges are able to grant Associates, Bachelors, Masters,

Doctoral degrees, and Pre-Professional and Certificate Programs. These degrees can be

specialized to fit a workplace’s need; however, the focus is to encourage women to gain

confidence to voice their opinions which can be denied in fields such as STEM. Women’s

Colleges were created to promote women equality in the past and are still around to advocate for

women.

Student Profile

While studying higher education institutions, the importance of accessing the student

profile is crucial to fully understanding the student population. In Women’s Colleges, the student

profile is made of women students that are racially, and ethnically diverse. A study by Sax et al.

(2014) discovered Women’s Colleges enroll the greatest proportions of students identifying as

White/Caucasian (55.4 percent), African American (26.9 percent), Chicano/Latino students

enrolled (14.2 percent), Asian/Asian American students (11.0 percent), American Indian (3.3

percent), and “other” race/ethnicity (4.6 percent). In this study, researchers revealed that

students’ age in their first-year of college was reported as 16 or lower at 0 percent, 17 years old

at 2.2 percent, 18 years old at 69.5 percent, 19 years old at 26.1 percent, 20 years old at 1.5

percent, 21 or older at 0.6 percent. The study also observed that students attending Women’s

Colleges came from low income households that earned around $84,000 compared to
INSTITUTIONAL ANALYSIS OF WOMEN’S COLLEGES 9

coeducational comparison groups that make $100,000 or more. The study also suggested that

students at Women’s Colleges are most likely to be first‐generation college students due to the

reporting of their parent’s education (Sax et al., 2014). Based on this study, the most common

student first-year profile would be a first-generation white woman around 18 years old coming

from a low-income family. The student demographics indicate the student population of

Women’s Colleges consisted of women which is common knowledge, however there has been

transgender applicants that now identify as a female which will be further discussed down below.

The amount of first-generation low-income students attending Women’s College was shocking

due to the misconception that first generation college students would prefer to attend a regular

co-ed university or community college to receive the ‘college’ experience. This student profile

has developed over the years as well as the curriculum.

Curriculum in the Nineteenth Century

As previously mentioned, the precursors to Women’s Colleges were seminary schools,

which helped serve as a model for the future curriculums of what would become Women’s

Colleges. The early founders of Women’s Colleges wanted to provide their students a rigorous,

thought provoking curriculum equal to that of the curriculums being taught at men’s universities

during the nineteenth century. These curriculums entailed a primarily liberal arts education;

some were teacher’s colleges, which promoted public, religious, and health education (Harwarth

et al., 1997). Two women, Catharine Beecher and Mary Lyon, are credited for being among the

first founders of women’s education in the early nineteenth century, and for establishing

curriculums that would later be modeled by future Women’s Colleges. Both wanted to advance

women’s education, and provide them with an education that was equal to men’s, in a time when

political and economic changes were prevalent (Turpin, 2010).

INSTITUTIONAL ANALYSIS OF WOMEN’S COLLEGES 10

Beecher and Lyon were highly regarded and respected educators. Beecher was the

founder of Hartford Seminary in Connecticut, which was established in 1823 (it later closed its

doors permanently). Lyon was the founder of Mount Holyoke Seminary in Massachusetts which

was founded in 1837 (Turpin, 2010). Mount Holyoke later became a college and the first of the

famous Seven Sisters (About Mount Holyoke, n.d.). Both of these institutions held high

academic standards and reputations, which were to prepare women to “participate in the public

sphere over the course of the nineteenth century” (Turpin, 2010, p. 135). Of course, there were

stark contrasts between the two educators’ educational approach and visions for their institutions.

Beecher wanted her school to focus on educating wealthy women, while providing them a liberal

arts education, with an emphasis on a vocational approach. Lyon wanted to provide women, who

came from modest means, a liberal education.

Beecher focused on vocational or professional training, such as homemaking and

teaching (becoming an educator, primarily to educate a woman’s own children). Lyon’s goal was

to provide a liberal arts education and leave the more “feminine” courses as part of the

extracurriculars. Lyon was born into a hardworking farming family of modest means; therefore,

she knew first-hand the importance of educating women of the lower middle class, and also

strongly believed that this class was particularly hard working. The distinctions among class

between the two women influenced their curriculums: Lyon, liberal arts, with no real emphasis in

the domestic arts, as well as religious teachings; Beecher, liberal arts but with an emphasis in

social graces, homemaking, and teaching (Turpin, 2010).

Catharine Beecher and Mary Lyon were pivotal figures in the development of women’s

education. It can also be said that their schools provided a foundation and a model for the

curriculums for the first women’s elite colleges (i.e., Vassar, Wellesley, and Smith). When
INSTITUTIONAL ANALYSIS OF WOMEN’S COLLEGES 11

Vassar’s cutting-edge curriculum was being established, a portion of it followed Lyon’s

preference, in that there was no real emphasis in any “feminine” courses, while the rest of the

curriculum also very closely followed that of Mount Holyoke. A few years later, Wellesley

opened its doors and closely followed Mount Holyoke’s curriculum, although it seemed to cater

to the upper middle class, following Beecher's model in that aspect. Smith also modeled Mount

Holyoke’s curriculum. Although it differed in its accommodations, it offered cottage-like

residencies to students versus one large building for all, which was the normal for both Beecher

and Lyon’s institutions (Turpin, 2010).

Curriculum in the Early Twentieth Century

Colorado Women’s College (CWC) located in Denver, Colorado, opened its doors in

1909, and was among the very few women colleges in the West (Thompson, 2010). Like its

Eastern counterparts, CWC provided its students with a curriculum which consisted of liberal

arts, domestic, and vocational programs. The college emphasized a Christian education with a

strong focus on the domestic curriculum, in order to prepare women for domestic life. At the

time, the college believed that a woman’s primary duty was to serve her family and home,

therefore CWC would not prepare a student for work outside her home. This curriculum, in its

early days, was in stark contrast to other colleges in the area.

One factor that was beginning to change the curriculum at the turn of the twentieth

century, was the progressive reform (Harwarth et al., 1997; Thompson, 2010). This reform

emphasized student centered learning and focused on creativity and independence. Progressive

educators also pushed for curriculums to become more practical and related to everyday

concerns such as cooperative learning, critical thinking, and diversity to meet the needs of
INSTITUTIONAL ANALYSIS OF WOMEN’S COLLEGES 12

various students. By 1910 these “progressive curricula existed side by side with the already

established liberal arts, vocational, and domestic curricula” (Thompson, 2010).

Thoughts on the Curriculum

According to a study by Sax et al. (2014), “the most popular initial major choices for

women entering Women’s Colleges are: Health professions (21.2 percent), Biological sciences

(12.6 percent), Psychology (9.2 percent), Humanities/English (7.2 percent), and Education (6.9

percent)” (p. 17). Based on these statistics, the curriculum favors popular majors and upon

further research, Women’s Colleges paid fair-share of money to secure the faculty specializing in

these majors or departments. Women’s Colleges also have strong alumni networks in popular

fields or STEM fields so the curriculum would be focused on the majors above (Paramita, 2019).

The curriculum is similar to the curriculum taught at co-educational institutions with an

emphasis on women empowerment.

The Influence and Evolution of Women’s Colleges.

The rise of Women’s Colleges have a wide variety of external forces that led to the

evolution and influence of what they are today. In the 1860s to 1890s, three Women’s Colleges

were undergoing criticism for their female students wanting to play baseball, a sport that only

men played during the time, that also had a reputation for being a “man’s game” (Shattuck,

1992). Many social, political and economic movements were also happening around the world

that helped evolve Women’s Colleges to what they are today. For example, social welfare

movements and the fight for equal rights against slavery and for women are some external forces

that influenced Women’s Colleges to evolve internally (Barnes, n.d.). In today’s society, one of

the issues that Women’s Colleges are facing is the definition of what a “woman” is. This largely
INSTITUTIONAL ANALYSIS OF WOMEN’S COLLEGES 13

has to do with providing educational access to the LGBTQ+ community, specifically transgender

students.

Vassar College was one of the first colleges that allowed women to play baseball as part

of the institution in 1866 (Shattuck, 1992). While this was such a monumental and important

event in history, women did not actually engage in playing baseball leagues until 1943 (Shattuck,

1992). Surprisingly, the institution allowed for women to engage in physical activity, when it

was believed that women should not engage in such activities due to it negatively affecting their

reproductive organs (Shattuck, 1992). As this historical moment occurred back in the 1800s

internally, it provided insight into Philip Wrigley’s All American Girls Baseball League that

started in 1943 (Shattuck, 1992). With the start of the All-American Girls Baseball League, this

external factor influenced colleges to allow women to play baseball, and sports in general, in

higher education institutions.

During the war, men were away, which allowed women the time to engage in educational

opportunities, creating confident, social, educational and legal equality types of women (Barnes,

n.d.). Women in the United States created a variety of reform movements dedicated to fighting

for educational equality and equal rights (Barnes, n.d.). As odd as it may sound, society during

this difficult time was willing to support women’s education, but not extend equal rights to them

(Barnes, n.d.). Additional reform movements to fight for equal rights of education and women’s

rights include the Women’s Rights Movement and Civil Rights Movement (Barnes, n.d.). While

women and Black individuals fought for equality, racism still occurred, where white women saw

themselves superior to Black individuals even though they were fighting side by side for the

same outcomes and beliefs because Whites advocated for social reform, not all of social equality

(Barnes, n.d.). Title IX is an additional government policy that influenced the equality of women
INSTITUTIONAL ANALYSIS OF WOMEN’S COLLEGES 14

to men as it states “No person in the United States shall, on the basis of sex, be excluded from

participation in, be denied the benefits of, or be subjected to discrimination under any education

program or activity receiving Federal financial assistance” (Barnes, n.d., p. 80). This further

helped in the development of Women’s Colleges and also women entering co-educational

institutions.

Current Leadership Issues facing Women’s Colleges Today

In today’s society, Women’s Colleges are facing what the definition of the term “woman”

entails. This is to allow educational access to the LGBTQ+ community, specifically those who

identify as transgender women, or do not identify with any gender. Many transgender students at

single-sex institutions face difficulty with housing and restroom choice because institutions

would typically only provide for the dominant gender identity (Freitas, 2017). While co-ed

institutions are an option for transgender and non-binary individuals, Freitas (2017) states that

transgender students found more positive experiences at Women’s Colleges, as opposed to co-ed

colleges. Some may argue that Women’s Colleges should not deny admittance into a college due

to Title IX, however, Women’s Colleges “are not legally required to admit anyone who is not a

woman” (Nanney & Brunsma, 2017, p. 150). Some Women’s Colleges have already began

accepting transgender women and non-binary students, such as Simmons College (Nanney &

Brunsma, 2017). However, as this external issue becomes more apparent in today’s society, it

will heavily influence single-sex colleges to rethink terms, definitions, and who they should

allow educational access to and who they will not. The administration and leadership team at

these institutions should, and are, reshaping their mission statement and institutional policies to

provide educational access to transgender women as they continue to face backlash from student
INSTITUTIONAL ANALYSIS OF WOMEN’S COLLEGES 15

activists who believe that transgender women should be considered for admission to the

institution (Weber, 2016).

Conclusion

The development of Women’s Colleges have tremendously evolved within the last few

centuries. Providing an equal opportunity of education for women during the time where only

men were allowed to receive an education represents an act of civil disobedience. With the rise

of protests and movements for gender equality, women were then allowed to receive a higher

education in co-ed institutions, while increasing the development of Women’s Colleges.

Curriculum development changed and evolved as time progressed, providing not only liberal arts

studies, but also STEM. Engaging in physical activity also became more acceptable for women.

Though the rise of Women’s Colleges increased decades ago, they are now slowly

declining. Furthermore, issues still remain among Women’s Colleges regarding who can actually

be admitted and who cannot. Transgender women are currently fighting for their rights to be

considered for Women’s Colleges. Although there is a decline of Women’s Colleges, those that

are still operating must continue to provide exceptional educational services to their students

relative to the current political, social and economic climate. Administration committees at these

institutions are diligently working to resolve these types of issues.

INSTITUTIONAL ANALYSIS OF WOMEN’S COLLEGES 16

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Freitas, A. (2017). Beyond Acceptance: Serving the Needs of Transgender Students at Women’s

Colleges. Humboldt Journal of Social Relations, 39(39), 294-314.

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the 1960s. Vanderbilt University Press. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv167552f

Nanney, M., & Brunsma, D. L. (2017). Moving beyond cis-terhood: Determining gender through

transgender admittance policies at U.S. women’s colleges. Gender & Society, 13(2), 145-

170. https://doi.org/10.1177/0891243217690100

Our History – AAUW: Empowering Women Since 1881. American Association of University

Women. (2020, June 2). https://www.aauw.org/about/history/

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https://ingeniusprep.com/blog/womens-colleges/.

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Sax, L. J., Lozano, J. B., & Vandenboom, C. Q. (2014). Who Attends A Women’s College? 1–

114. https://doi.org/https://www.womenscolleges.org/sites/default/files/report/files/

main/students_at_womens_colleges_final_report.pdf

Shattuck. D. A. (1992). Bats, balls and books: Baseball and higher education for women at three

easter women’s colleges, 1866-1891. Journal of Sport History. 19(2), 91-109.

Thompson, J. A. (2010). Distinguishing a western women’s college: A history of the curriculum

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Weber, S. (2016). “Womanhood does not reside in documentation”: Queer and feminist student

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INSTITUTIONAL ANALYSIS OF WOMEN’S COLLEGES 18

Appendix

Table 1

College Location Acceptance Rate

Agnes Scott College Decatur, GA 66%

Alverno College Milwaukee, WI 78%

Barnard College New York, NY 15%

Bay Path University Longmeadow, MA 63%

Bennett College Greensboro, NC 89%

Brenau University Gainesville, GA 69%

Bryn Mawr College Bryn Mawr, PA 38%

Cedar Crest College Allentown, PA 63%

College of Saint Mary Omaha, NE 56%

Columbia College Columbia, SC 87%

Converse College Spartanburg, SC 71%

Cottey College Nevada, MO 75%

Hollins University Roanoke, VA 48%

Judson College Marion, AL 58%

INSTITUTIONAL ANALYSIS OF WOMEN’S COLLEGES 19

Meredith College Raleigh, NC 69%

Mills College Oakland, CA 87%

Moore College of Art and Design Philadelphia, PA 57%

Mount Holyoke College South Hadley, MA 51%

Mount Mary University Milwaukee, WI 56%

Notre Dame of Maryland University Baltimore, MD 71%

Russell Sage College under Sage Troy, NT 56%

College

St. Catherine University St. Paul, MN 70%

Saint Mary’s College Moraga, CA 82%

Salem College Winston-Salem, NC 57%

Scripps College Claremont, CA 33%

Simmons University Boston, MA 60%

Smith College Northampton, MA 32%

Spelman College Atlanta, GA 40%

Stephens College Columbia, MO 53%

Sweet Briar College Sweet Briar, VA 93%

INSTITUTIONAL ANALYSIS OF WOMEN’S COLLEGES 20

Trinity Washington University Washington, DC 89%

Wellesley College Wellesley, MA 22%

Wesleyan College Macon, GA 47%