Psychology of Men & Masculinities © 2021 American Psychological Association

2021, Vol. 22, No. 2, 288–297 ISSN: 1524-9220 https://doi.org/10.1037/men0000328

Taking the Black Pill: An Empirical Analysis of the “Incel”

Alyssa M. Glace, Tessa L. Dover, and Judith G. Zatkin
Applied Psychology Department, Portland State University

Men who perform hybrid masculinities claim distance from masculine hegemony while actually reprodu-
cing patriarchal power. In this article, we analyze the Incel community through a lens of hybrid
masculinities, as originally proposed by Ging. The Incels are a self-proclaimed group of beta males
who claim a position at the bottom of the social hierarchy due to their continued romantic and sexual
rejection by women. We performed a content analysis of a sample of 400 top-rated posts from the Incel
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.

forum on Reddit called r/Braincels. Incels performed a specific version of hybrid masculinity in which they
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.

claim lower status than women while also calling other men weak and powerless using comparisons to
women. Incels also showed negative outcomes associated with these masculinities, as evidenced by posts
reporting violent hatred of both themselves and women. This research provides insight into the ways that
masculinities develop in online contexts.

Public Significance Statement

Posters on a Reddit forum dedicated to the involuntarily celibate (“Incel”) community used the language
of social justice to claim that they do not have access to traditional masculine status. However, they also
looked down on other men who do not conform to these same masculine standards. Individuals in this
community also discussed feelings of violence and hatred directed at women and themselves.

Keywords: Incel, involuntarily celibates, masculinities, hybrid masculinity, social media

Twenty-first century understandings of masculinity are evolving,
informed by the multitude of social contexts in which individuals
develop and contribute to ideas of what gender is and should be. One
such context is the internet, which allows individuals to anony-
mously congregate even when similar others are far away and
uncommon. This context has given rise to the involuntarily celibate
(“Incel”) community, a group of men who have bonded over their
shared perceptions of their romantic and sexual failure (Beauchamp,
2019; Ging, 2017; Williams, 2018). The men in these communities
often bemoan their lack of a loving relationship with a woman while
simultaneously dehumanizing women and calling for misogynist
violence.
Ging (2017) theorized that Bridges and Pascoe’s (2014) model of
hybrid masculinities applies to this community, and the past
research has supported this idea (Høiland, 2019). The three com-
ponents of this theory—distancing oneself from hegemonic mas-
culinities, appropriating from marginalized groups, and continuing
to enforce hegemonic masculine boundaries—map onto many
This article was published Online First January 21, 2021.
Alyssa M. Glace https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8873-5818
The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest. This research
received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commer-
cial, or not-for-profit sectors.
While the data used in this research were publicly available at the time of
data collection, the authors have not previously disseminated these data or
findings previously in any venue.
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Alyssa
M. Glace, Applied Psychology Department, Portland State University,
P.O. Box 751, Portland, OR, United States. Email: aglace@pdx.edu
components of Incel ideology. The expansive amount of data shared
by Incels on public internet forums and the largely online nature of
this community make the internet an ideal context in which to
examine the thoughts and beliefs of this group. In this research, we
systemically examine the online Incel community and elaborate on
the application of hybrid masculinities theory to this group.
Incel History
The idea of involuntary celibacy is not new. Research has
suggested that those who find themselves unable to connect sexually
may feel like their sexual lives are “off track” (Donnelly et al.,
2001). In recent years, the idea of being involuntarily celibate has
taken on a different meaning. The Incel community was founded by
a bisexual woman frustrated by her lack of romantic companionship
with the intent of forming a supportive community. It has since
become a hotbed of violence and misogyny (Beauchamp, 2019;
Vogt & Goldman, n.d.; Williams, 2018). Users of original Incel
communities report that these forums were once compassionate
places for people of all genders to swap dating and social skill tips
(Beauchamp, 2019; Vogt & Goldman, n.d.). These individuals now
report that this community has deviated drastically from its roots
(Beauchamp, 2019).
The change in this community corresponds with the rise of the
“manosphere,” a largely online community of reactionary-right men
who assert that feminism has gone too far and/or that men are
actually the wrongfully oppressed gender (Ging, 2017). This move-
ment has manifested in the formation of many groups online,
including pickup artists, men’s rights activists, traditional conser-
vatives, and some geek/nerd groups (e.g., GamerGate; Bratich &
Banet-Weiser, 2019; Ging, 2017; Lockhart, 2015; Salter, 2018).

288
 TAKING THE BLACK PILL
Many of these groups claim male victimhood while also upholding
hegemonic masculine values, often communicating the idea that
their “rightful” (dominant) position has been stolen from them by
feminists (Ging, 2017). Incels form a unique subgroup within this
community. In addition to claiming to be below women in social
status, Incels also often see themselves as positioned below other
men (Ging, 2017; Maxwell et al., 2020). They may also have a
unique relationship with race as compared to other manosphere
groups. Although other alt-right groups are associated with White
supremacy, many Incels themselves belong to non-White racial
groups (Høiland, 2019).
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Incel Violence
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A number of instances of mass violence have been committed by
individuals identifying themselves as Incels or as having related
experiences. Among the most well known is the killing spree of
Elliot Rodger. Rodger was a young man who killed six people in
Southern California after posting a manifesto online in which he
stated that his violent actions were motivated by his experiences of
social rejection, especially romantic rejection from women. He later
died by suicide and became seen as a martyr by many in the Incel
community (Beauchamp, 2019; Williams, 2018). Another instance
occurred when a self-identified Incel drove a van into a crowd of
people, killing 10 of them (Beauchamp, 2019; Maxwell et al., 2020;
Williams, 2018). More recently, a 17-year-old boy stabbed two
women, killing one and seriously injuring the other in an attack
Canadian authorities have deemed an Incel terrorist incident
(Cecco, 2020).
The use of the term “terrorist” to describe this last act of violence
is notable, and others have conceptualized Incels as a terrorist group
(Zimmerman et al., 2018). Though most men who are part of the
Incel community do not participate in overt violence, Incel culture
seems to facilitate these extreme acts (Høiland, 2019). Their actions
were attributed to perceived wrongs done to them by women, who
denied them the sexual access that they felt they deserved as men
(Baele et al., 2019). Yet, these men were young, and not abnormally
behind in terms of sexual development. Participation in Incel
communities might radicalize young men, skewing their perceptions
of normal sexual development in conjunction with toxic ideologies
of masculinity. Elliot Rodger’s actions, for example, have been
explicitly tied to his performance of hegemonic masculinity
(Vito et al., 2018).
Hegemonic Masculinities
Incel ideology may differ from hegemonic masculinities, but it is
linked to this framework. Hegemonic masculinity is a conceptuali-
zation of manhood which reproduces White patriarchal power
(Connell, 2005). This theory suggests that there are many traits
that dominant men should possess, including aggression, violence,
and competitiveness (Connell, 2005). Men who do not possess these
traits are seen as subordinate and denied access to “real” manhood
(Connell, 2005). This framework also reproduces White hegemony
by defining masculinity by White standards (Connell, 2005). Adher-
ence to this gender role is associated with committing gender-based
violence (Adams-Curtis & Forbes, 2004). This masculinity has been
labeled as toxic from a feminist perspective, and some groups of
289
men have begun to resist (or claim to resist) its influence as well
(Bridges & Pascoe, 2014).
Hybrid Masculinities
Modern conceptualizations of masculinities have suggested that
some men develop masculinities which appear to subvert, but
actually reaffirm, White hegemonic masculinities. This is reflected
in Bridges and Pascoe’s (2014) theory of hybrid masculinities. The
three key mechanisms of this theory include discursive distancing,
strategic borrowing, and fortifying boundaries (Bridges &
Pascoe, 2014).
Discursive Distancing
In discursive distancing, men claim distance from hegemonic
masculine roles without actually relinquishing masculine power.
Original conceptualizations of this mechanism focused on cases in
which men may claim feminist beliefs without enacting them (Bridges
& Pascoe, 2014). Research has found support for this mechanism
among subgroups of men such as vegans (Greenebaum &
Dexter, 2018). These men may claim softness and compassion while
continuing to value masculine power and strength (Greenebaum &
Dexter, 2018). However, among the manosphere, this mechanism
might focus mainly on claiming male victimhood while also
explicitly rejecting feminist ideas (Ging, 2017). This might create a
new dynamic in which men appear to reject hegemonic masculinities
(e.g., patriarchal social dominance), but without then adhering to
the theoretically opposite feminine/feminist identity (e.g., gender
equality).
Strategic Borrowing
Among self-identified feminist men, strategic borrowing often
includes appropriating the cultures of nondominant groups of men.
This might include appropriating the music of racial and ethnic
minority men (e.g., hip-hop; Bridges & Pascoe, 2014). However,
Bridges and Pascoe (2014) also suggest that this mechanism also
involves using the language of the marginalized to diminish one’s
own position of power. This use of social justice language for anti
social justice purposes is amplified among manosphere communi-
ties, including the Incel community (Ging, 2017). The use of the
language of critical consciousness for reactionary purposes is often a
core component of manosphere groups. For example, a subculture
within the manosphere, the men’s rights activists, claim to be
fighting for men’s rights the way that feminism fights for women’s
rights (Ging, 2017).
Fortifying Boundaries
A final component of hybrid masculinities is the continued use of
hegemonic standards to constrain masculinity and demean men who
fail to meet them (Bridges & Pascoe, 2014). These men may
derogate other men using terms implying gay or feminine traits,
but claim that these words are stripped of their gendered meanings
(Bridges & Pascoe, 2014). Among vegans, for example, men may
highlight the athletic advantages of a vegan diet, emphasizing the
importance of maintaining this hegemonic standard (Greenebaum &
Dexter, 2018). Men performing geek masculinities might degrade
 290 GLACE, DOVER, AND ZATKIN
traditionally attractive men for their supposed lack of intelligence
(Salter & Blodgett, 2017). Past research has suggested that members
of the manosphere, and Incels specifically, might degrade self-
identified feminist men by calling them effeminate (Ging, 2017).
This might be one way in which Incels and other members of the
manosphere might claim distance from masculine power while
simultaneously upholding White male supremacy.
The Value of Social Media as a Source of Data
The Incel group was founded online, has developed online, and
continues to connect primarily in internet contexts. Therefore, the
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internet is the optimal context in which to study this group. Past
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research has used data obtained from Reddit, the social media
platform used in this study, to provide insight into a range of topics
including forums dedicated to teachers, gout, feminism, sexuality, and
eating disorders (Chang-Kredl & Colannino, 2017; Derksen et al.,
2017; Massanari, 2019; Robards, 2018; Sowles et al., 2018). Reddit
is a social media and content sharing website in which individual
users can join subsections of the website (termed “subreddits”) that
include forums relevant to their interests. The thoughts that indivi-
duals share and the way that they present themselves online can
provide valuable information. This is especially true of those who
might use internet communities as their primary social outlet.
The Present Research
In this research, we describe the masculinities of the Incel
community and ideologies. More specifically, we apply a feminist
lens to answer the following research questions:
1. What is Incel masculinity?
2. How does Incel masculinity map on to hybrid masculi-
nities theory?
3. What new aspects can an understanding of Incel mascu-
linity add to theories of masculinities?
4. What other ideas are central to Incel understandings of
gender and society?
Reflexive Statement
We took a feminist perspective in interpreting the decidedly
antifeminist content shared in this forum. More specifically, we
analyzed these data based on the worldview that men hold structural
power over women, and that White people hold structural power
over people of color. This worldview further includes the belief that
women are fully human and have the right to social and sexual
autonomy. This lens is inherently opposed to many of the beliefs of
the Incel community. Members of this Incel forum communicated
much anger and hatred, along with pain and sadness. Our own
positionalities with regard to the community we examined are also
noteworthy. All authors of this research are women, and our
gendered experiences have undoubtedly informed the way that
we understand this often deeply misogynistic content. As feminists
and researchers, we acknowledge the inherent tension between our
responsibility to give voice to the communities we research, and our
responsibility to oppose the escalation of hatred and misogyny. We
hope that this acknowledgment will inform the way the reader
interprets our findings and discussion.
Methods
Sample
r/Braincels
The subreddit used for this data collection was titled r/Braincels. It
was the successor of the r/Truecels subreddit, which had been banned
from the Reddit website at the time of data collection due to posters’
expressions of support for the actions of Elliot Rodger (R/incels–
Incel Wiki, 2020). In an attempt to comply with Reddit community
standards, the r/Braincels subreddit banned discussion of Rodger
(Braincels–Incel Wiki, 2020). However, at the time of data collec-
tion, the subreddit was “quarantined,” meaning that posters’ ability to
disseminate r/Braincels posts outside of that subreddit was limited
and a message warning of upsetting content was displayed when a
user attempted to view the subreddit. Shortly after the second round
of data collection, the r/Braincels subreddit was banned from the
Reddit website entirely. The content of the r/Braincels subreddit is
known to be tamer than Incel forums found in other areas of the
internet (e.g., 4chan) due to their initial attempts to comply with
Reddit’s community standards. The r/Braincels subreddit was chosen
for this data collection due to potential ethical concerns associated
with illegal content (e.g., child pornography) that has been report-
edly found in other Incel forums in the past (4chan–Incel Wiki,
2019). No such illegal content was found in this data collection.
Subreddit Posts and Users
A total of 400 posts from 279 individual user accounts to the r/
Braincels forum were downloaded across two rounds of data collec-
tion. We downloaded the posts made within the month prior to data
collection that had the highest upvote to total vote ratios. Users of
Reddit forums indicate support for posts using a voting system in
which an “upvote” indicates approval and a “downvote” indicates
disapproval. For the individual posts in this data set, the ratios of
upvotes to total voted ranged from .83 to .99 (M = .96). Top posts
were sampled in order to focus on ideas supported by a general
consensus among the Incel community on r/Braincels.
Due to Reddit’s anonymous nature, very little individual information
is available about r/Braincels users. What little demographic informa-
tion is available is extrapolated from the content of the data. No posts
suggested that anyone other than self-identified Incels posted on the
subreddit, so it is assumed that posters see themselves as Incels or tied
to the Incel community. Users who discussed their racial identity
indicated that they were either White or Asian. Many posts in the sub
stated that women could not claim Incel identity, suggesting that the
userbase was primarily or entirely male. Furthermore, by the definition
provided by the community, Incels are men who desire the sexual and
romantic attention of women but are unable to obtain it. This suggests
that the users of this subreddit are also heterosexual and single.
Data Collection
Prior to data collection, we examined the subreddit’s description,
content, and mechanics in order to develop a data collection plan.
Furthermore, we examined various internet sources to develop a
 TAKING THE BLACK PILL 291

comprehensive understanding of Incel slang, as initial contact with Deductive Codes

the subreddit indicated a substantial reliance on group-specific
The hybrid masculinities framework used for this research sug-
terminology; a glossary is shown in Table 1. The python package
gests three themes (i.e., distancing, borrowing, and boundaries;
Python Reddit API Wrapper (PRAW; Boe, 2019) was used to scrape
Bridges & Pascoe, 2014). We found reflections of these three
the 200 top posts for the past month at the time of each data
themes within the data, as well as a number of subthemes specific
collection. The code used to scrape this data was approved by the
to Incel masculinities. A coding tree is shown in Figure 1. Sub-
Reddit verification system. All information collected about each
themes under discursive distancing included the Incels' lack of
post is shown in Table 2. The majority of posts were in a multimedia
female interest (romantic or sexual) and lack of traditionally mas-
format, including text, images, gifs, and/or video content. We
culine physical characteristics, including perceived deficiencies in
collected the first round of data on May 24, 2019, and the second
height, facial bone structure, and penis size. With regard to strategic
round of data on August 30, 2019, in order to ensure we sampled
borrowing, Incels subverted social justice language to describe
unique posts.
many antifeminist ideas; they also drew parallels between the Incel
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experience and experiences of racial and ethnic discrimination.

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Thematic Analysis Finally, the observed subthemes among fortifying boundaries

Thematic analysis techniques have been used to examine dis-
cussions of gender on Reddit in the past, including work analyzing
Incel communities specifically (Massanari, 2019; Maxwell et al.,
2020). We conducted a thematic analysis, using a combination of
inductive and deductive coding. The deductive framework was
developed by the first author based on Bridges and Pascoe’s
(2014) model of hybrid masculinities and Ging (2017)’s subsequent
application of this theory to the Incel community. This theory
describes an updated masculinities framework, characterized by
claims of distance from patriarchal power (distancing), borrowing
culture and language from oppressed groups (borrowing), and
continuing to gatekeep masculinity based on hegemonic standards
(boundaries; Bridges & Pascoe, 2014). The first and second authors
then independently coded each post in this data set based on this
framework and then met to resolve disagreements. The first author
developed the inductive themes through multiple examinations of
the data, and identification of the most common ideas and the
connections between them.
We found support for the application of hybrid masculinities
theory within the Incel community. These men claimed distance
from traditional patriarchal power and often did so by using the
language of critical consciousness developed by marginalized
groups. These posts also featured many instances of traditional
masculinities policing by the same individuals who also claim to be
divorced from traditional masculinities (i.e., boundaries). Finally,
two inductive themes, hostile sexism and suicidality, were found.
included denigrating non-Incel men by comparing them to women
and suggesting that they are being taken advantage of by women.
Discursive Distancing
Incels often referred to themselves as “beta” males. Among men
in this community, points of departure from traditional masculinities
included perceived inability to attract women and lack of attractive
masculine physical characteristics (i.e., tall height, masculine facial
structure, and large penis).
Lack of Female Interest. Incels lamented their self-reported
lack of ability to attract female romantic companionship and sexual
interest. One poster shared a hand-drawn comic depicting himself as
Pepe the Frog sadly watching a traditionally attractive man and
woman holding hands while bicycling. Another image depicted a
sad Pepe the Frog shedding tears at the bottom of Maslow’s
hierarchy of needs, with the love/belonging tier absent. A Chad
placed at the self-actualization level is depicted as shouting advice
down at the self-character, which the poster likens to saying, “just
skip a step bro!” This image communicates that Incels feel they
cannot achieve the markers of masculine success available to
other men.
There were some inconsistencies regarding the nature of the
relationships for which Incels described thwarted desire. Some
suggest that they desired romantic/companionate relationships,
such as a poster who shared an image of a women holding a
man’s hand as they hike together, suggesting that this is an example

Table 1
A Glossary of Incel Community Slang

Concept Definition

Pepe the Frog A hand-drawn cartoon frog; a common character used to indicate the self in manosphere communities
Chad A traditionally attractive man among the “elite” group of men to whom women are actually attracted
fakeup A term for makeup which implies it is used for deceit
-cel Suffix generally denotes that the stem is the reason for one’s Incel status (e.g., “gamercel”)
blackpill The Incel worldview, or a transformational statement consistent with the Incel worldview
beta male A subordinate man; contrast with alpha males
soy/soyboy A non-Incel man; conveys weakness through its association with estrogen
foid Female humanoid; a dehumanizing term for a woman
cuck a cuckold, a man whose partner is having sex with other men
beta bux a weak or “whipped” man who lets his female partner exploit him financially
landwhale A derogatory term for a plus-size woman
roastie A derogatory term for a woman/a woman’s labia which connotes devaluation due to sexual promiscuity
hole A derogatory term for a woman
NPC Non-player character; refers to a character in a video game other than the character which represents the person playing the game
 292 GLACE, DOVER, AND ZATKIN

Table 2 This characteristic differs from the others in that it is not readily
Information Collected About Each Post noticeable in typical social interactions, meaning it presumably
would not be apparent to others except in sexual situations which
Category Information collected Incels claim they do not experience.
Post metadata
URL
Permalink Strategic Borrowing
Time of posting
Post ID Incels frequently appropriated the language of social justice and
Post support marginalized groups to describe their experiences. They have
Upvote to Total Vote Ratio notably complex views on race and racism, which blur the line
Total Upvotes
between appropriation and discussions of genuine experiences of
Number of comments
Post content interpersonal racist discrimination.
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Title Social Justice Language. A common theme was the compari-

son of Incel ideology (i.e., the “blackpill”) and critical conscious-
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Body
Username of poster
ness. This term is based on the Matrix, a movie in which the plot
revolves around the main character “waking up” to the true nature of
the world, after taking a red pill. The Matrix was directed by two
of an Incel fantasy that may be described as “sick” or “twisted” transgender women and shows clear parallels to the transgender
by outgroup members. Others suggest that they desire sexual
relationships specifically. One post likened those suggesting that
Incel men make peace with their situation to stating, “Why not find Figure 1
fulfillment in living a life where you don’t get to participate in your Coding Tree
number one biological drive?” Notably, the root of the Incel label
refers to sexual relationships explicitly (i.e., it is a shortened form Romantic
of “involuntarily celibate”). Still others combined the two, as Lack of Female
represented in this post, meant to mock women who criticize Incel Interest
Sexual
ideology:
Distancing
Why, yes I do tell Incels that sex and love isn’t that important while Height
simultaneously having 22 past relationships and at least 4 times sex per
week how could you tell. Lack of Masculine Facial Structure
Traits
It seems that Incels may call on conflations between emotional
and sexual intimacy to justify and lend a sense of purity to their Penis Size
desires. Race and Racism*
Critical
Physical Characteristics. Incels reported that their lack of Borrowing
Consciousness
traditionally attractive masculine physical traits caused their roman- Social Justice
Language
tic failures. Below-average height was commonly noted as one such Structural Change
trait. Posters often used words such as “manlet” to refer to them- Soyboys
selves and other short men with whom they identified. One poster Bounaries
presented an image of Joaquin Phoenix dancing dressed as the Joker Cucks
from the Batman series stating as follows:
*HUFF* *HUFF* DESPITE BEING 15% OF THE POPULATION Women are Ugly Fakeup
*HUFF* MEN OVER 6FT *HUFF* ATTRACT OVER 90% OF
THE WOMEN Slut-Shaming

Facial bone structure was another commonly cited cause of

romantic failure. One post included an image of Chris Hemsworth, Hostile Sexism False Rape Claims
smiling, seated next to his stunt double, who looks distressed. The
Women's Only
caption stated as follows: Anti-Choice
Value is Sex
The face you make when just a few millimeters of bone separates you Women are
and the movie star that makes millions and has fans that adore him. Subhuman

Another way in which posters felt they deviated from traditional Due to Incel
Experience
masculine attractiveness was penis size. This theme is reflected in Suicidality
this quote: The "Clown World"
jfl [just fucking laughing out loud] @ anyone who actually believes that
a girl with small breasts is even close to the level of undesirability as a Note. *This theme may or may not fall under “borrowing” depending on the
short man or a man with a small penis. race of the poster.
 TAKING THE BLACK PILL
experience (Currin et al., 2017). The -pill suffix is commonly used
among manosphere communities to refer to developing an inverse
form of critical consciousness based on the belief that men are
actually the marginalized gender (Ging, 2017). The blackpill in-
cludes the belief that White and Asian men are oppressed by women
and the elite few attractive men (often described as Black or Latino).
An example of this theme is an image shared by one poster titled
“The Gender Inequality Myth” which shows a pyramid. When
zoomed in the image suggests that men hold power over women.
When zoomed out, it reveals that, in fact, only a few men hold power
over women, and that women actually hold power over the majority
of men. Per the blackpill, the sole factor which defines structural
power is access to women’s sexuality. This is shown in the
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following post:
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.
I’m always struck at how female comedians talk about sex. They
complain about boyfriends and lovers like ordinary people complain
about traffic. It’s as if they can’t understand how utterly privileged they
are to even have such things.
Implications that women do not constitute “ordinary people”
aside, the blackpill does not consider any other forms of inequality
in what they see as the true nature of social hierarchy.
Following the critical consciousness narrative, some Incels
describe the desire for or inevitability of a revolution which corrects
this perceived structural power imbalance. One poster reports
that “A new wave of sexual revolution will hit us in the next
50 years.” The nature of the desired social system that such a
revolution would create is left unstated. This omission might be due
to the fact that explicitly stating the implications of such a social
structure would violate Reddit’s content policies. Elsewhere on
the internet, Incels have suggested that a more ideal social system
would include the “redistribution” of access to women’s sexual-
ity, assigning female partners—willing or unwilling—to Incel
men, and legalized rape (4chan–Incel Wiki, 2019; R/incels–Incel
Wiki, 2020).
Race and Racism. Incels also reported perceptions that their
social status sits below genuinely marginalized groups of people.
They report perceptions that this discrimination is comparable to
Islamophobia, but that Incels are even further disenfranchised due to
the lack of recognition of their self-reported marginalization. One
poster shared a screenshot of a conversation elsewhere on Reddit in
which one person wrote “More like ‘fuck Incels, they’ve committed
multiple mass murders’” and an Incel replied “apply that same logic
to Muslims.” Another poster edited an infographic about transpho-
bia to instead discuss the perceived mistreatment of Incels, even
leaving the trans pride flag in the image.
Incel discussions of race and racism were complex and under-
standings of racism varied based on the racial minority group under
discussion. Incels also cited being Asian as a cause of their contin-
ued romantic rejection. Asian Incels were referred to as “asiancels,”
or more crudely as “currycels.” One poster shared a screenshot of the
Duolingo language learning app with the sentence “I don’t like the
yellow one, I like the white one,” calling this image a “Brutal
blackpill from duolingo.” Although many instances of posters’ use
of the language of social justice and marginalization represent the
appropriation of feminist language for misogynist purposes, this
theme may represent a sole exception. Due to the anonymous nature
of the forum, it is unclear if the posters are Asian men discussing
their own experiences of racist discrimination or White men
293
appropriating descriptions of racism in an attempt to legitimize
their own perceived marginalization. Past research has found that
Incels might resent being conceptualized as a primarily White group
(Jaki et al., 2019). Regardless, Incel sympathy for racial and ethnic
minority individuals does not extend to other groups; anti-Black
racism was prevalent in this community. In fact, Incels explicitly
sought to distance themselves from Black men, based on the
hypermasculinity Black men are stereotyped to possess. One poster
jokingly connected the word “Chad” to an anti-Black racial slur.
Fortifying Boundaries
Despite claims of distance from traditional masculinities, Incels
were quick to police masculinity by hegemonic standards when
discussing outgroup men. A common insult levied at non-Incel men
was “soy” or “soyboy,” referencing the relationship between soy
and estrogen. Though Incels claimed that women hold structural
power over them, they still used comparisons to women and
femininity to connote weakness. Non-Incel men were derided as
weak and desperate when they attempted to engage in relationships
with women. One poster shared a satiric post, mocking men who
post elsewhere on Reddit:
So I just came back from my 5th viewing of the Endgame Re-Release
with my Wife’s son, Quentin. We stopped by the store to pick up some
soylent, he constantly ask why I don’t eat real food and constantly gets
soylent : : : My wife pulls me to the side and states that Quentin is not
my son : : : She also states that she wants to get into cuckold : : : I wake
up and her and Quentin are gone, alongside a note on my mini fridge
(exclusive for Soy) that states “Imma[sic] take every single penny from
you you fucking basterd[sic]) : : :
This reflects the common theme that when other men are unat-
tractive or experience romantic failure they are effeminate and
worthy of derision. Despite the fact that many posts expressed
longing for a female romantic/sexual partner, others took pride in the
Incel community for refusing to meet what they perceive to be
women’s unreasonable demands. One poster shared a cartoon of a
traditionally attractive woman saying, “I’m so ugly” and a number
of unattractive men reaffirming her attractiveness. The caption read
“Remember to never stoop this low brocels.” The logic of the
blackpill seems to simultaneously suggest that Incels’ failed bids for
sexual connection place them below other men but their refusal to
make bids for sexual connection also places them above other men.
As an extension of this idea, the word “cuck” was a common
insult used in this forum, referring in some cases to specific
situations of infidelity, but in other cases simply to a man who
they felt was being taken advantage of by a woman. One poster
shared a screenshot of a man offering a woman money on twitter
because the woman reported experiencing sexism. The caption read
“Life on just exist mode, FUCK CUCKS.”
Cuckolding is a concept traditionally associated with anti-Black
racism (Lokke, 2019), and the Incel community is no exception.
This theme is represented in a post showing a White man’s hands
holding a portable video game console, next to an image of a White
woman’s hand being held down on a mattress by a Black man’s
hand. This image is captioned “my hands look like this, so hers can
look like this.” This is a parody of another image, which shows a
man’s calloused hands next to his wife’s neatly manicured hands
wearing an expensive ring with the same caption, originally
 294 GLACE, DOVER, AND ZATKIN
intended to express that the man works hard to provide for his wife.
In this context, however, it derides a man idly playing video games
while his female partner is cheating on him. It is significant that the
affair partner is portrayed as Black, as “cuckolding” stereotypes
often involve a White man’s White wife being “taken” from him by
a racist caricature of a Black man. This Black man, who is portrayed
as brutish and hypermasculine to the point of dehumanization,
emasculates the White man by “out-manning” him and having
sex with his wife. This cartoon communicates that men who enter
into relationships with women are weak because the women are
cheating on them with more masculine men.
Incels also used the word “cuck” to refer to men who are
financially exploited by women, often referring to these men
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.
specifically as “beta bux.” This connotes a weak or “whipped”
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.
man who is not attractive enough to find a partner based on looks
alone, and so lets his female partner exploit him financially. One
poster shared an image of a woman with and without makeup,
stating “Reminder that a 4/10 can make millions from beta bux just
by putting on some fakeup.”
Inductive Themes
Inductive themes were identified by the first author and include
hostile sexism and suicidality/meaninglessness.
Hostile Sexism
Despite Incels’ claims to desire loving relationships with women,
hostile sexist ideas (i.e., hatred and suspicion of women) permeated
many of their posts. Common hostile sexist ideas included shaming
women’s appearances, degrading women for engaging in sexual
activity, suggesting that women make false claims of rape and
misogyny, asserting that women’s only value is sexuality, and
espousing the idea that women are subhuman.
Women Are Ugly. Incels perceive their own unattractive
appearances to be unacceptable targets of judgment or mockery.
They do not see this as the case for women. Although posters
lamented their inability to gain the romantic and sexual attention
they felt they deserved, they openly mocked women they perceived as
unattractive for seeking fulfilling relationships as well. One post
shared an image of a grotesque female clown mask, stating as follows:
I am a WORKING MOM of 82 children by 37 men and I am ready to
settle down with a GOOD MAN who can take care of us!! SWIPE
LEFT IF YOU ARE BELOW 6'7” OR NOT ON BOARD WITH
FEMINISM. NO CREEPS!!@!
A common perception was that ugly women use makeup to
unfairly obtain the romantic and sexual attention of men. One
poster suggests “Every foid is ugly. Banning fakeup is the only
way to end hypergamy for good.” They further delighted in
women’s experiences of sexual rejection. This is shown in the
following quote:
Just saw the Chadriguez [i.e., a Latino Chad] at my gym BTFO [blow
the fuck out] 2 landwhales who always stare at him. They asked for his
instagram and he said, “ah nah I dont [sic] use any social media,” even
though I see him on instagram inbetween [sic] his sets. Crazy how these
3/10 girls thought they could get with 6’2” 9/10 Chadriguez.
Women were often derided for their body size specifically,
despite Incel claims that they resented being judged for the size
of their own bodies.
Slut-Shaming. Women who engaged in sexual relationships
were derogated as well. Posters used the term “roastie,” a term
intended to derogate the appearance of a promiscuous woman’s
labia by through comparisons to roast beef, to refer to most any
woman. Interestingly, some Incels did report that they had the
opportunity to have sex (theoretically mutually exclusive with Incel
identity), but that the women involved were so promiscuous that the
Incel had no choice but to decline. One poster shared, “If she doesn’t
want you in her prime, then you shouldn’t want her in her decline.”
Another described a cycle in which he would “Become interested in
a girl -> Inevitably hear some story of her being a total slut -> Lose
all interest -> Repeat.” This theme reveals hypocrisy within the
Incel worldview. Incels report an obsessive desire for sexual contact
with women while simultaneously degrading women who engage in
sexual activity. This communicates that women’s sexual desires are
shameful while men’s sexual desires are worthy of respect and that
Incels would shame the women who engage in the very behavior
that they demand women perform.
False Rape Claims. Incels perceived that claims of misogyny
are arbitrary, and only directed at unattractive men. Women who
discussed misogyny were portrayed as shallow and heartless, as
communicated in this post:
women prolly[sic] make better snipers than men : : : . a male soldier
might : : : think “holy shit I can’t do this he is no different than me : : : ,”
then purposefully : : : miss the shot. a female soldier though? >holy shit
is that subhuman less than 6 feet? fucking misogynist, boom headshot
Posters also reported perceptions that women are willing to have
sex with many “Chads,” but make false accusations of sexual
violence/rape when approached by an Incel. This theme is shown
in the following quote:
The only reason this woman has responded this way to the man is his
appearance. She knows this is shallow : : : so she invents a new link
between his actions and her feelings, one that places the blame on him.
“He was creepy,” they say. “I felt uncomfortable when he approached
me, and I’m an altruistic nonjudgmental[sic] person, so he must have
been actively trying to make me feel uncomfortable. His behavior is the
problem.” Grade A manipulation. Cold to the core.
Posters also reported beliefs that women actually desired forceful
sexual contact from “Chads” who they deemed sufficiently attrac-
tive. This quote demonstrates this theme:
When a hole is ignored by office chad. “Why are you punishing me
chad? The rape thing is only for ugly men, not you. You can touch me
anywhere you want.”
This view ignores the innumerable cases in which women have
reported and pressed changes against traditionally attractive high-
power men for committing sexual violence. Incels only seem to
acknowledge allegations of sexual violence when they feel these
allegations justify their denial of women’s sexual autonomy.
Women’s Only Value is Sexuality. Posters discussed women
in near-exclusively sexual contexts and reported perceptions that
women’s only worth came from their sexuality. An example of this
theme is shown here as follows:
 TAKING THE BLACK PILL
When girls say, all guys ever want from me is sex, and I hate it, tell them
you have no hobbies, no talents, no wisdom, no legitimate interests
beyond your personal vanity, no original thoughts on politics, society,
philosophy, or anything else : : : what the fuck else is there to want from
such a vapid shell of a person? Your only redeeming quality is that you
can lay still and take a dick. Why are you surprised?
A further example suggests that familial relationships with
women are pointless because they do not involve sex:
I cannot think of or comprehend anything more cucked than having a
daughter : : : You are feeding, clothing, raising, and rearing a girl for at
least 18 years solely so she can go and get ravaged by another man. All
the hard work you put into your beautiful little girl : : : All of it is one
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.
simple result. Her body is more enjoyable for the man that will
eventually fuck her in every hole : : : he gets the benefits of
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.
her kind and sweet personality that came from the way you raised
her : : : It is the ultimate and final cuck.
This community shamed women for having sex, but also suggested
that a woman’s entire worth is her sexuality. They further shamed
women for efforts to deal with the results of this sexuality by commu-
nicating antichoice sentiments. This theme is only present in the first
round of data collected, likely due to its timing, which occurred after
controversial antichoice legislation was passed in several U.S. states
(Levenson, 2019). Sentiments related to abortion were unilaterally, and
sometimes cruelly, antichoice. One poster shared a picture of a woman
sobbing, adding “roasties when they find out they can’t kill their unborn
babies in Alabama.” Another poster also stated as follows: “Solution to
abortion controversy, stop being a fucking whore.”
Women Are Subhuman. Posters shared content which explic-
itly compared women to nonhuman entities. Incels commonly
referred to women using the word “foid,” short for “female human-
oid,” communicating that women have subhuman status. Another
poster shared as follows: “Women are NPCs,” indicating that
women are artificially created, and have no thoughts, emotions,
or consciousness.
Suicidality/Meaninglessness
Participants reported suicidal thoughts, feelings, and intentions,
often attributed to Incel status. This theme is shown in this quote:
You Incels are pathetic. I had a friend who was a 5'2 bald Indian janitor.
Do you think he sat around whining all day? No, he killed himself.
They also often reported intense feelings of social isolation, as
this poster reported as follows:
In reality, nobody gives a fuck. The vast majority of people are clueless
about Incels, nor they understand the pain of loneliness (the true
loneliness, not the “I haven’t dated for 2 months” type of loneliness).
Posters suggested that suicide is an endemic problem to the Incel
community, sharing a list of forum users, stating that these indivi-
duals died by suicide as a result of their Incel status.
The “Clown World”. In addition to overt suicidality, partici-
pants reported a sense that the world is meaningless and nonsensical.
They referred to the world outside Incel circles as the “clown world,”
sometimes represented by the clown emoji. They also frequently
used images of clowns, particularly the Joker from Batman, a
character associated with nihilistic violence (Jürgens, 2014), to
convey their dismay at the state of the world. They suggest that
295
the world they perceive—in which they are unjustly rejected—is
meaningless nonsense. The allusion to the Joker specifically adds
a violent lens to this ideology, which connotes self- and other-
destruction. This is consistent with the past research which has
associated Incel traits with violent fantasies (Scaptura & Boyle, 2020).
Discussion
Incel Hybrid Masculinities
We found support for Ging’s (2017) assertion that the hybrid
masculinities framework aligns with Incel ideology. Incels on the
r/Braincels forum claimed distance from masculine hegemony
through the appropriation of social justice language, while simulta-
neously upholding hegemonic masculine standards. This is consis-
tent with Bridges and Pascoe’s (2014) hybrid masculinities
framework, and the past research which has suggested that this
masculinities schema is present in this community (Høiland, 2019).
Unsurprisingly, the masculinities constructed in this community
created many double standards.
Incels see themselves as undeserving in their romantic failures,
yet other men’s romantic failures make them worthy of degradation.
The blackpill describes a perceived social hierarchy in which
women hold power over men, but comparisons to women (i.e.,
“soy”) still communicate weakness. Incels’ less than traditionally
attractive appearances were uncontrollable sources of pain and
disenfranchisement. However, when other men were seen as unat-
tractive, they were seen as laughable, and unattractive women were
seen as worthless. Incels desire romantic relationships but feel that
these relationships emasculate other men. Incels claim to be
divorced from traditional masculine power, while simultaneously
policing the masculinity of others. Incels claim they intend to
destroy the social system which privileges the masculine “Chad”
while thirsting for and reaffirming his power.
Incels often communicated discursive distancing and strategic
borrowing simultaneously. They described their distance from
hegemonic masculinities by using the language of the stigmatized
and marginalized. They claim that their failure to attain traditionally
masculine attractiveness marks them for mistreatment, reminiscent
of foundational conceptualizations of stigma (Goffman, 1963). This
is consistent with the past research on the Incel community
(Høiland, 2019). Furthermore, they purport that their inability to
perform traditionally masculine sexual conquests is a result of their
stigma and a cause of their marginalization.
A select few of their experiences of marginalization are rooted in
real-world established power dynamics. Specifically, the descrip-
tions of the racially motivated rejections experienced by Asian
Incels might represent a unique combination of genuine descriptions
of marginalization and strategic borrowing. White supremacist
hierarchies are harmful to Asian men, and the experiences of Asian
men in this sample are no different. However, the rest of their
conceptualizations of their social structure, which suggest that that
sole power-determining resource is women’s sexuality, are not
rooted in social justice-driven understandings of the world.
Inductive Themes
We also found inductive themes, including hostile sexism and
suicidality. Incels consistently expressed hostility toward women,
 296 GLACE, DOVER, AND ZATKIN
even in contexts which created explicit contradictions with their own
worldview. Incels identified ugliness and sexual desire as sources of
their own unjust marginalization but vilified these same character-
istics in women. Past research has suggested that Incels primarily
define women by their relationships to men (Heritage & Koller,
2020); this was supported in our results. Women are the objects of
both Incel desire and contempt. Incels reported that they felt this same
contempt for themselves and their lives. Suicide was a topic of serious
discussion and joking banter on this subreddit, suggesting that many
Incels might experience suicidal ideation in many facets of their lives.
Aversive and Violent Outcomes
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.
Hegemonic masculinities are associated with violence against
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.
women and aversive social and physical health outcomes for men
(Adams-Curtis & Forbes, 2004; Bird, 1996; Fleming et al., 2014).
Given that hybrid masculinities affirm hegemonic masculinities, it is
unsurprising that the masculinities found in this sample were no
different. Incels reported hatred for women and themselves related to
their failure to attain masculine heterosexual success. In turn, they
advocated for violence directed at women and themselves. Incels in this
sample called for a revolution using social justice language for purposes
of reaffirming patriarchal power. This online community serves as a tool
of radicalization, which drives some Incels to violence. This is repre-
sented in the case of Elliot Rodger (Vito et al., 2018). The people
Rodger killed represented the objects of hatred targeted in this commu-
nity as well—the men who achieved traditional sexual success, the
women who choose those men over Incels, and ultimately, themselves.
Strengths
This research offers insight into a once public forum in the weeks
just before it violated the standards of the larger website in which it
was housed. The results of this research offer unique insights into a
community on the threshold of reaching Reddit’s definition of a
boiling point. In addition, this research is able to affirm the useful-
ness of a previously suggested theoretical framework which helps to
explain the dynamics of this community, especially those that may
lead to violence (Ging, 2017). Finally, this research provides a
deeper understanding of online communities whose ideas and
beliefs spill over into real-world, violent behavior.
Limitations
The timing of our data collection also poses a limitation; we were
unable to conduct further rounds of data collection that might have
provided a clearer picture of the development of Incel communities
and their radicalization. Furthermore, we have noted our position as
outsiders to this community. The language used by this community
is niche and nuanced, and our own fluencies are limited. Finally,
r/Braincels is a limited forum and does not represent the entire
community. It is likely that, despite the reactionary content of this
forum, it is more moderate than other, less-policed Incel spaces.
Future Directions
Further research in this area is needed to provide a deeper under-
standing of the individuals in this community and the community as a
whole. Developmental work is warranted. For the sake of deeper
knowledge and for violence prevention, we must understand how
young men become radicalized by this community and how that leads
them to commit acts of violence. Similarly, future work should
develop ways to treat these individuals to decrease the anger, sadness,
and entitlement that they state that they feel. This is critical for the sake
of Incels and others with whom they come into contact.
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Received June 2, 2020
Revision received July 13, 2020
Accepted September 27, 2020 ▪