World History

Industrial Revolution

“Industrial revolution “- Changes that occurred in the industrial development of

England between 1760 to 1820. Those changes were rapid , extremely
fundamental and far reaching in economic organisation, technology and business
structure .
IR Put an end to orthodox ,less productive and stagnant economy . Therefore new
institutions ,values emerged and lifestyle & outlook underwent major changes

Characteristics Factors which supported IR in Europe

 Population growth
 Application of science to
Industry
 Intensive use of Capital
 R-U Transformation
 Rise of new social classes
 Renaissance and Reformation
 Rise of Colonial Empires
 Growth of Long distance trade
and commercial production
 Growth of market economy

Why 1st in England

 Geographically – isolated –political and social stability. No Fear
 England – 1st to estd. National bank , profession system of lending money
 End of feudal mindset + development of Laissez Faire/ Free Market
Economy
 Advances in Sci-Tech – Hargreaves -> Spinning Jenny; Ark Wright ->
Waterframe; James Watt -> Steam power; powerloom;
 Transport – navigable rivers, canals, road construction (macadamized
roads), naval capability
 Agricultural Revolution – labor force + demand for Indsutrial goods + Land
consolidation
 Raw Material availability – Iron, Coal, Steam
  Anglican Church separated from Catholic Church -> Land confiscated put to
productive use.
Impacts
Economic
 Factory system ->↑d production
 ↑ in internal, intl trade
 Growth of capitalism ->
investment (not for luxury)
 Growth of other industries,
various types of services (Banks,
Investment, stocks) ->
monetization of economy.
But,
 Income disparity, Gulf widened
 Colonialism + Economic
Imperialism
Political
 Concept of Laissez Faire (Let us
Alone)
 Industrial capitalists
championed cause of individual
rights like Right to Property,
right to liberty; In long run->
helped in growth of democratic
forms of government
Social
 From Feudal social relationship -
> To new system of relationship
based on Capitalists and workers
(Bourgeoise and Proletariat)
 Social bonds started breaking
 Urbanisation -> growth of slums
-> substandards and subhuman
conditions -> diseases and
epidemics ; Smokey, crowded
cities.
 Employment of Children and
women. Though it led to their
financial independence and
empowerment later ; but led to
neglect of kids, household
chores, family life, disharmony
in the family due to disturbed
family life
 Intially -> Lack of Housing, social
security, child labourers ; Later -
> Labor Laws and Reforms
IR in England became a reason for IR in
other countries
  Military superiority now became
directly dependent on extent of
industrialization
 Reason for colonization of Asia,
Africa
 World developed into ->
Developed and underdeveloped
nations
 Compelled to make laws for
labour welfare
 Growth of workers groups, trade
union mvts, socialist and
communist ideologies ; Chartist
Movement;
 Rivalry and conflict between
nations.

French Revolution
Causes :
Political
 Absolute Monarchism ; King said
he had divine rights.
 Louis XIV, XV-> powerful kings ;
centralized the administration +
Rampant corruption
 Abandoned the representative
institutions in France (Estates
General)
 Louis XVI -> weak ,dependent on
feudal elements + monopolized
govt offices through aristocrats
and nobles
 No proper admn. ; No codified
uniform legal system; No
uniform taxation policy
Social
Society divided into 3 estates
1st -> Clergy – didn’t pay taxes ; owned
large lands; (around 1% of population,
but controlled 15% resources)
2nd -> Aristocrats, nobles; scorned
enlightenment; held highest offices;
paid almost no taxes (2% population ->
held 20 % resources)
3rd- > consisted of
 Bourgeoisie/Middle Class (well
educated, wanted
  French common man wasn’t
getting any representation ->
hence angry;
enlightenment, paid taxes,
lacked privileges)
 Workers -> paid low wages, paid
high taxes
 Peasants -> largest group in 3rd
estate ; Most deprived ; paid
significant income in taxes

Economic
 King-> constantly at war + lived
lavish lifestyle
 Flawed taxation policy
Cultural
 Montesquieu ->Principle of
Separation of power
 Voltaire -> questioned Church
Authority
 Rousseau -> Social Contract ;
Man is born free, but in chains
 American Revolution -> also
affected FR , because General
Laffayate fought along with
Americans

Immediate causes
 Agriculture crisis, high inflation,
unemployment, bread riots

Result :
 National Assembly formation in Tennis Court ; Feudalism, Serfdom
abolished , end of privilege system, tithe abolished.
 People attack Fort of Bastille on July 14 1789
 26 Aug 1789 -> Declaration of Rights of man and citizen (Ideals of LEF ; Men
are born free and equal ; Freedom of Speech, Expression, Religion ; Right to
take part in Govt;
Impacts
On France On England and Europe
 End of monarchy -> estd of
constitutional and republican England :
govt. England initially welcomed changed,
 LEF ; Declaration of Rights of but later tried to suppress it (fearing
Man and Citizen ; Feeling of anarchy)
Nationalism
 France became the torchbearer Europe
of humanity  Encouraged revolutionary
 End of privilege + Estd of activities in Ireland -> weakening
Equality of England control
 End of Feudalism, Serfdom –  United kings of Europe tried to
strengthening of middle class, come together and fought anti-
improvement in peasant revolutionary wars. They tried to
conditions bring old monarchial system.
 Church power reduced ;
property of Church confiscated.
 Admn. & Judicial changes – by
Napoleon
 Tax collection methodology
changed
On World
 Nationalist mvts. Around the
world -> Impetus to Nation state
system (Italy, Germany)
 Ideals of LEF
 Questioned divine rights,
privileged based system
 Declaration of Human Rights ->
People are sovereign
 Impact on revolutionary
movements in Latin America (Eg
-> Simon Bolivar)
Napolean Bonaparte Reforms
Administrative Judicial :
 Estd. Strong and stable state;
Centralized administration;  Napoleonic Code; Rule of Law;
 Curbed liberty-> to estd. Law  Inspired judicial systems all
and order; Press censorship; around the world;
 Equality -> merit based
appointments
 Centralised Education. Estd.
Military school; setup French
university system
Economic Religious
 Nationalisation -> Estd bank of
France  Adopted Secular policy
 Promoted free Trade -> Put
France towards Industrialisation
 Uniform Tax Policy
 Constructed Roads and Bridges
American Revolution
Aka American Revolutionary War and US War of Independence ; fought bw
Kingdom of Great Britain and 13 British colonies in Western N.America from 1776-
1783.
Significance
Socio-Cultural Political
 Global Impetus to  Estb of American Federation –
Nationalism and Anti- o Bill of Rights - Ideals – Liberty,
colonialism Rule of Law,
o America got Republican+constitutional(ism),
independence – o FR – freedom of speech, press ,
affirmed the notion religion , justice under the law ;
of masses against o Journey from Albany(1754) to
classes , Nationalists Philadephia (1776) -> from 13
against imperialists to 1 ; Lessons learnt – ‘how
o Domino effect many can become one’ + ‘how
through feeling of can we become one’ ;
Nationalism – age of o 1st written and democratic
revolutions started; constitution of the world.
France (1789), (1789)
Ireland (1798), Latin  Influenced Europe – French sent
th
America (1830s), 20 Army to support AR. Later, French got
century – economically weak, which acted as a
decolonization significant reason for FR.
started.  Lessons learnt for Britain – about how
 Idea of Equality – radical at future colonies to be governed; 1784
a time when much world – Pitts India Act + 1786 – Lord
was under Feudalism Cornwallis made governor of India.
Economic
 Gave impetus to American
Industrial Revolution -
expanded its territory
within the continent by
westward expansion and
 purchase of territory
(Louisiana from France,
Florida from Spain)
 Idea of no taxation on
Property (flowed from
Right to Property ) – novel
in those times.

Russian Revolution
The Russian Revolution is dated to November 1917 (October 1917 on the Russian
calendar), when Bolshevik Party forces took over the government offices in
Petrograd. However, the problems that led toward revolution had been
developing for generations. The revolutionʼs consequences, too, were far-
reaching—the Communist Party, which formed to lead post-revolutionary Russia,
remained in power until 1991.
Russian revolution is a combination of two revolutions – February Revolution &
October Revolution. The February Revolution led to the end of the rule of Czar &
establishment of a provisional government. The October Revolution resulted in
the overthrowing of the provisional govt in a coup by the Bolsheviks and
consequent establishment of a communist state of Russia.
Causes :
Basically an expression of economic harships faced by Russian Society.
Political
 Widespread suffering under
autocracy—a form of
government in which one
person, in this case the czar, has
absolute power.
 Weak leadership of Czar
Nicholas II—clung to autocracy
despite changing times.
 New revolutionary movements
that believed a worker-run
government should replace
czarist rule
Others
 Russian defeat in the Russo-
Japanese War (1905), which led
to rising unrest.
 Bloody Sunday, the massacre of
unarmed protestors outside the
palace, in 1905
Economic
 Poor working conditions, low
wages, and hazards of
industrialization.
 Russia joining WW1,
Devastation of World War I—
high casualties, economic ruin,
widespread hunger.
 Poor peasants,lack of
industrialisation- widespread
discontentment among all
classes. Shortage of land for
peasantry. They had to bear
heavy burden of taxation.

Course of Events in Russian Revolution (not much imp from Exam Perspective; just a
conceptual understanding is enough)

1) Fall of tsardom

A. Russo Japanese war

Politically the Tsarʼs rule was very weak. Russia fought a war with Japan in 1904-05. Small
Asian Country Japan defeated the mighty European country Russia in the Russo- Japanese
war. This lowered the international and domestic prestige of Russia.

B. Bloody Sunday
 Tsars believed in the divine right theory of kingship.
  Tsar Nicholas II was autocratic in his administration. The people had many grievances.
Tsar was not prepared to sanction any reforms. Meantime, the working class of St.
Petersburg went on strike.
 The workers reached Tsarʼs palace the guards fired on the unarmed crowed. This
event is known as “Bloody Sunday” as it took place on a Sunday, 22nd January 1905.
This is also known as 1905 Revolution. This event was indeed a prelude to the October
Revolution of 1917.

C. Entry in World War-I

 In 1914, Nicholas II decided to drag Russia into World War I, despite the fact that
Russia was unprepared for a war.
 More than 4 million Russian soldiers were killed or wounded or taken prisoners.

D. Rasputin
 The real government back home came into the hands of his wife Tsarina Alexandra.
 She ignored the Tsarʼs chief advisers and came under the influence of one mysterious
Rasputin, a self proclaimed holy man.Alexandra allowed Rasputin to make key
political decisions.
 Rasputin opposed reforms and obtained powerful positions for his close ones and
spread corruption

E. March Revolution 1917

 Neither Nicholas nor Alexandra could tackle the enormous problems on war front as
well as domestic fronts.
 The March revolution was a general uprising which forced Nicholas II to abdicate his
throne. A year after, he was executed by the revolutionaries.
 The leaders of the Duma established a temporary government under Alexander
Kerensky, who decided to continue with the war. The decision to continue with the
war cost him support from army as well as civilians.
 Meanwhile, the Social revolutionaries, competing for power,formed soviets i.e. the
local councils which consisted of workers, peasants, and soldiers.

F. Bolsheviks and mensheviks

 Mensheviks and Bolsheviks Various revolutionary movements grew in the Russian

Society inspired the thoughts of Karl Marx.
 They had a belief that the the industrial class of workers would overthrow the Tsar
and then would form a dictatorship of the proletariat.

2) Dual power and provisional government

A. Dual power
The soviets were popularly elected by the masses and so enjoyed more popular support than
the Provisional Government which represented the interests of the bourgeoisie and the
landlords. This situation was one of ‘dual powerʼ.

B. Provisional government

 The Provisional Government was recognized as the legal authority by both the foreign
governments and the soviets in Russia.
 The foreign governments recognized the Provisional Government because it
advocated those democratic principles close to British and American democracy.
 The soviets accepted the legality of the Provisional Government on condition that it
did not go against the aims of the soviets.

3) Lenins return and internal split within provisional government

 Meanwhile Lenin returned from Germany after many years in exile. He reached
Petrograd in April 1917. Along with Bolsheviks, he soon gained the control of
Petrograd soviet, as well as the soviets in other major Russian cities.
 Leninʼs slogan—“Peace, Land, and BrBread”—got widespread appeal.
 As the conflict between the Provisional Government and the Bolsheviks grew, Lenin
feared the Provisional Government would set up a dictatorship.
 In September, he began discussions for an uprising against the government. Bolshevik
supporters in the army, soviets and factories were brought together.

4) OCTOBER REVOLUTION /The Revolution of October 1917

 On 16 October 1917, Lenin persuaded the Petrograd Soviet and the Bolshevik Party to
agree to a socialist seizure of power.
 At a meeting of the All Russian Congress of Soviets in Petrograd, the majority
approved the Bolshevik action.
 During October, 1917 (November as per Gregorian Calender), the Provincial
Government was removed and replaced with a Bolshevik government in Russia which
led to formation of USSR. This was the October revolution which got over in a matter
of hours. Kerensky and his colleagues disappeared from the scene.
Measures taken by Lenin:
 The Bolsheviks were totally opposed to private property. Most industry and
banks were nationalised in November 1917. This meant that the
government took over ownership and management.
 Land was declared social property and peasants were allowed to seize the
land of the nobility.
 In March 1918, despite opposition by their political allies, the Bolsheviks
made peace with Germany at Brest Litovsk.
 In the years that followed, the Bolsheviks became the only party to
participate in the elections to the All Russian Congress of Soviets, which
became the Parliament of the country. Russia became a one-party state.
Trade unions were kept under party control.
 Farmland is distributed among farmers, and factories are given to workers.
 Lenin asserts his control by cruel methods such as the Gulag, a vast and
brutal network of prison camps for both criminals and political prisoners.
Impact/Consequances of Russian Revolution
 Measures taken by Lenin (above)
 Civil war, between Bolshevik (“red”) and anti-Bolshevik (“white”) forces,
sweeps Russia from 1918 to 1920. Around 15 million die in conflict and the
famine.
 Impact on working class - brought home to the ruling classes of Europe the
urgency of making concessions to workers.These took the form of the
public provision of health, education and housing.It is built on the premisies
that all value is created by labour, entitling them to a larger share of the
surplus than the bare necessities.
 Impact on colonies –
o The other consequence of the Russian Revolution was for Europeʼs
colonies.The early communist movement had a global ambition
aiming for the emancipation of all subject peoples. This was to have
an impact on India.The Soviet declaration of equality of all nations
and assertion that the people can change the entire property system
for their own good were ideas that directly affected our National
Movement after 1917.
 o In many countries, communist parties were formed like Communist
Party of Great Britain.
o Gave Socialism a global face and world stature
 Bolsheviks formed Comintern (international union of pro-Bolshevik Socialist
parties)
 Industries and agriculture of Soviet developed. Poor were fed.
o However, it denied essential freedoms to its citizens and carried out
developmental projects through repressive policies.
 ↑d interconnectedness of Soviet with world. Absent Earlier.
 Russian Economic Model was highly successful during initial years, which
inspired many third world countries to take this path.
 Communism was seen as a blow to imperialism (which was fueled by
capitalism).
 Communist Russian leaders like Lenin, Stalin gave active support to
communist governments across the world.
World War-1
First World War is considered as one of the largest wars in history . The worlds
greatest powers assembled in two opposing alliances
The allies (British empire ,France and Russian empire ) vs Central powers (
Germany , Austria Hungary )
Causes:
Rising Spirit of Nationalism Militarism

 Highly publicized after FR,  Competition for larger armies.

especially due to formation of  Due to ↑d mistrust -> ↑
Nation States. Nations military interests = enhanced
developed a sense of pride and rivalry.
superiority, engaged in active  Eg – German policy to
posturing. strengthen Navy; Policy of Weld
 Concepts like Social Darwinism Politik;
and extreme Nationalism
emerged
 Suspicion and mistrust
multiplies. Territorial race
started

Colonial Rivalry Formation of Alliances

 Industrialisation -> need for Raw  Member countries promised to
Material and Market -> race for defend each other if any country
colonies began attacked on it. This created an
 Eg – atmosphere of mistrust.
o Italy allied with Germany
when it lost Tunisia to
France
o Russia, Britain, France
allied with each other due
to Germany’s expansion
o Scramble for Africa
Decline of Ottoman Empire
 Major European powers wanted Austria and Serbia
to take advantage as the region
had strategically important
ports.
 Eg -> Interests of Russia, Austria
were highly antagonistic in
Balkan region
Consequnces :
Political
 End of Autocracy –
o Hapsburg Empire
(Austria), Germany,
Romanov (Russia)
o Austria, Germany adopted
Democratic constitution,
Russia adopted
Communism.
o Disintegration of Ottoman
Empire.
 Nationalism, Self determinism
principles got a boost
 Many new nations emerged
(Poland, Bosnia-Hergegovinia)
 Freedom Movements in Asia,
Africa intensified
 League of Nations – via Treaty of
Versailles. To increase
Immediate Cause – Rivalry between
 Austrian Crown Prince Archduke
Ferdinand murdered by a
Serbian. Austria wanted Serbia
to handover murderer or face
action. Serbia denied. Austria
declared war on Serbia.
Germany supported Austria and
Russia Supported Serbia.
Economic
 Loss of infra. Detrimental impact
on Industry and Trade
 Deficiency of essential
commodities due to focus on
War Economy
 Mass unemployment ; Heavy
War indemnities (Hyperinflation
in Germany)
 Labour movements born out
 Devluation and then Economic
Depression
 Change in Trade Pattern for
Europe (from Exports to Asia
and Africa to imports from US,
Japan)
 international collaboration and
prevent any future recurrence of
a war.

 US emerged as major global

player

Social : Impact on India

 Bread-earners lost - > Poverty.
 Women -> compelled to work ->
empowerement. But turning of
women into widows -> Family
disharmony. Social attitude
towards women changed.
 Skewed Sex Ratio
 Setback to Racism and Religion.
Promoted Fraternity and
Atheism
 Boost to Scientific temper and
rational thinking.
 Question in Europe – Are we
really civilized?
 Rise in prices and then a
depression in economic activity
 Indian Industries which
prospered during war, now
faced losses and closure.
 Workers and artisans facing
unemployment, inflation ->
turned towards nationalist
movement
 Furthered belief that British
couldn’t be trusted
 Erosion of white man’s prestige
of racial and cultural supremacy.
 GoI Act 1919.

Interwar Period – brief updation to be done

World War -2
Reasons :
Treaty of Versailles :
 Revenge with Germany as major
undercurrent
 Treaty humiliated, subjugated
Germany -> hurt German
nationalism -> opportunity
exploited by Hitler
Rise of Totalitarian Regimes under
Fascism and Nazism ; They Glorified
war
 Ideological Struggles b/w
democratic regimes of west
estd. After WW1, totalitarian remilitarization of Rhineland ;
regimes and communist regimes annexation of Austria and Czech.
of Russia
 Democratic regimes wanted
status quo; Communist regimes
wanted class struggleand
League of Nation Failure
 US refused to be member,
Germany not made member
initially
 Did not have own army + lacked
coercive machinery for resolving
disputes
 Trade Sanctions became
meaningless in Economic
Depression
 Failure visible when Japan
attacked Manchuria, Italy
occupied Ethiopia.
 Failure of LoN once again
created trust deficit and
countries once again started
forming alliances
Changed Map after WWI
Eg -> Sudentenland given to
Czechoslovakia had majority Germans ,
but under it, it became a minority
People were deprived of their basic
rights. Hitler exploited this opportunity
Policy of Appeasement of Hitler by
Britain -> resulted in defiance of ToV ;
Why Appeasement :
 dictatorship of working class and  WW1 destrcution -> therefore
totalitarian wanted to expand wanted to control war at any
their territory cost
 Realisation of wrongs
committed in ToV
 Britain’s own selfish interests –
Europe undergoing economic
crisis. Germany was a big market
for British Goods, therefore,
they didn’t want to upset
Germany;
 Common hate for communism
 Failure of LoN , hence, no
country was ready for war.

Impacts:
Political Economic
 Changed balance of power from  Economic Crisis and Destruction
Br, Fr -> USA, USSR  Marshall Plan (U.S. program
 Ideological conflict -> Cold War - providing aid to Western Europe
> Arms Race following the devastation)
 NAM -> Anti-Imperialism;  IMF, WB
Indepemdent Foreign policy;  Rest -> common points of WW1
 Process of Decolonisation also applicable
started;
 Start of neo-colonialism
 Division of Germany
 Estd of communist rule in many
countries ; France, Italy -> Rise
of Communism ; Britain -> Rise
of Labour Party;
 UNO

Social
 Humanity loss
 Holocaust (5 million jews killed)
  Demographic change -> Social
crisis.

Colonialism:
Definition:
 Practice of acquiring colonies by conquest (or other means) and making
them dependent.
 Implies formal political control, involving territorial annexation and loss of
sovereignty.

Reasons :
Political: Economic
 Fear of losing their investments  Industrial Revolution,
 Strategic control Capitalism, Mercantilism
 Internal weaknesses of Colonies  Protectionism
 Mind diversion  Investments – both financial,
 Adventurers and Explorers + End infrastructure.
of Feudalism
Geographic Socio-Cultural
 Supply of Raw Material  Slave Trade
 Decreasing Geographical space  Rise of Extreme Nationalism
 Civilizing Mission, Christian
Missionaries

Colonialism in Asia

Colonialism in Africa
Colonialism in Pacific
 Post Independence

Partition
It was decided to follow the principle of religious majorities which means that
areas where the Muslims were in majority would make up the territory of
Pakistan. The remaining was to stay with India.
Issues:

 There was no single belt of Muslim majority areas in British India (both in
East and West)
 Not all Muslim majority areas wanted to be in Pakistan – Eg – Khan Abdul
Ghaffar Khan opposed 2 Nation Theory.
 Non Muslim Majority in Muslim Province like Punjab and Bengal
 Minorities on both sides of the Border - minorities on both sides of borders
were left with no option except to leave their homes.
 Limitation of this award:
o Justice Radcliff had no prior knowledge about India.
o He had no specialized knowledge needed for the task also.
o He had no advisors and experts.
o 6 week deadline that Radcliff had was also a limitation of this award.

Consequences
 abrupt, unplanned and tragic transfers of population (Partition forced
about 80 lakh people to migrate)
 Lahore, Amritsar and Kolkata became divided into ‘Communal Zones.
 Minorities forced to live in Refugee Camps for long time.
 Between five to ten lakh people were killed in Partition
 Even After Independence -> Muslim population in India accounted for 12
per cent of the total population in 1951.
survivors themselves used to describe Partition — as a ‘division of hearts’.
After Partition

1. Challenges in front of Independent India

a. Colonial legacy of economic underdevelopment + (drain of wealth)
b. Gross poverty
c. Near total illiteracy
d. Wide prevalence of disease
e. Social inequality and injustice (caste issue, women status)
f. Partition and related violence

2. Basic goal to be achieved in the coming years

a. Preserve, consolidate and strengthen India's unity.
b. Democracy, socialism, secularism (political values)
c. Rapid economic development
d. India's unity to be preserved based on the immense regional, linguistic,
ethnic and religious diversity. (unity in diversity)
e. Secularism despite having communal riots post partition is to be
achieved.
f. Not only political but economic and social transformation also.
g. Technology and productivity level of industry and agriculture were to be
raised constantly and rapidly.
h. Indian economy, even while being an integral part of the world economy,
was to be based on the self-reliance, free of subordination to the metropolitan
interest or domination by foreign capital. (Indian capitalist class was partially
freed from foreign capital)
Integration of Princely States
 Princely States, enjoyed some form of control over their internal affairs as
long as they accepted British supremacy. This was called ‘‘paramountcy or
suzerainty of the British crown.’ covered one-third of the land area of the
British Indian Empire.
 Initially, the rulers of princely states decided to be independent. This
response of the rulers of the Princely
 States meant that after Independence there was a very real possibility that
India would get further divided into a number of small countries.
 Sardar Patel -> played a historic role in negotiating with the rulers of
princely states firmly but Diplomatically.
 Before Aug 15 1947 -> rulers of most of the states signed a document called
the ‘‘Instrument of Accession’’ which meant that their state agreed to
become a part of the Union of India.
 Accession of the Princely States of Junagadh, Hyderabad, Kashmir and
Manipur proved more difficult than the rest. The issue of Junagarh was
resolved a�er a plebiscite confirmed people’s desire to join India.

JUNAGADH
 Situated on the coast of
Saurashtra surrounded by Indian
territory and without any
geographical contiguity with
Pakistan.
 Its Nawab announced accession
of Junagadh to Pakistan in 1948.
 People of Junagadh were
overwhelmingly Hindus. They
desired to join India.
 Indian leaders had for decades
stood for the sovereignty of the
people against its rulers. Nehru
and Patel said that the decision
should be taken by plebiscite.
KASHMIR
 bordered by India and Pakistan.
 75% of the population was
Muslim.
 The ruler, Raja Hari Singh, a
Hindu, did not accede either to
Indian or Pakistan.
o India —> fearing
democracy; Pakistan —>
communalism
 Standstill agreement offered to
both India,Pak by Hari Singh to
allow the free movement of
people and goods. Pakistan
signed the agreement but India
didn’t accept and followed the
policy of wait and watch.
 But Pakistan accepted the
Junagadh accession. On the
other hand, people of the state
would not accept the ruler’s
decision.
 The people organised a popular
movement, forced the Nawab to
flee and establish a provincial
government.
 The Dewan of Junagadh Shah
Nawaz Bhutto (father of Zulfikar
Bhutto) decided to invite the GoI
to intervene. Indian troops
marched into the state.
Plebiscite held in February 1948
which went overwhelmingly in
favour of joining India.
Pakistan became impatient and
started violating standstill
agreement.
 Popular political force led by the
National Conference and its
leader Sheikh Abdullah wanted
to join India.
 Nationalist leader wanted the
people of Kashmir to decide
whether to join India or
Pakistan.
 Pakistan refused to accept the
principle of plebiscite.
 On 22nd October, Pakistan army
unofficially led Pathan
tribesmen and invaded Kashmir,
rapidly pushing towards
Srinagar.
 On 24th October Maharaja
appealed to Indian government
for military assistance. Nehru
did not favour accession without
the will of the people. But
Mountbatten, the Governor-
General pointed out that under
international law, India could
send its troops to Kashmir only
after state’s formal accession to
India.
 Sheikh Abdullah and Sardar
Patel insisted on accession. On
26th October, Maharaja
acceded to India and also agreed
to install Abdullah as head of the
state’s administration.
 India announced that it would
hold referendum on the
accession decision once peace
and law and order had been
restored in the valley.
 troops immediately sent to
Srinagar.
 Ceasefire between Pakistan and
GoI agreed on 30th December,
1947.

 On Mountbatten’s suggestion,
agreed to refer the Kashmir
problem to the UNSC, asking for
vacation of aggression by
Pakistan.

 Since then, Kashmir has been

the main obstacle in the path of
friendly relations between India
and Pakistan.

 Nehru later regretted this

decision because UNSC was
dominated by UK and USA, and
they favoured Pakistan interest
over India.

 India and Pakistan accepted a

ceasefire on 31st December
1947, which still prevails and the
state was effectively divided
along the ceasefire line.

Hyderabad :
 It was the largest state in India
and was completely surrounded
by Indian territory.
 Nizam was encouraged by
Pakistan to not accede to India.
Pakistan expanded its armed
forces.
 On November 1947, GoI signed
a standstill agreement with the
Nizam of Hyderabad.
 The Nizam prolonged the
negotiations an in the meantime
built up his military strength and
hoped India would accept its
sovereignty or alternatively he
would succeed in acceding to
Pakistan, especially in the
background of growing Indo-
Pakistan tension.
There were three developments:
1. Rapid growth of Muslim
communal organisation with the
 In 1951, UN passed a resolution
providing for a referendum
under UN supervision after
Pakistan would withdraw its
troops from the part of Kashmir
under its control.
 Pakistan refused to withdraw its
forces from what is known as
Azad Kashmir.
 Other smaller states either
merged with neighbouring
states or merged together to
form centrally administrative
areas. o A large number of
states were consolidated into
five new unions forming:-
i. Madhva Bharat
ii. Rajasthan
iii. Patiala East Punjab
States Union (PEPSU)
iv. Saurashtra
v. Travancore-Cochin
 Mysore, Hyderabad and Jammu
and Kashmir retained their
original form as separate states
of the union. In return of
accession, the rulers of major
states were given privy purse in
perpetuity
 The rulers were allowed certain
privileges such as keeping their
titles, flying their personal flags
 official help and also its military
wing Razakars.
2. On 7th August 1947, Hyderabad
State Congress launched a
powerful Satyagraha movement
to force democratisation on the
Nizam. Razakars and state
authorities attacked the
Satyagrahis and thousands of
people fled to Indian territory.
State Congress led movement
now took to arms.
3. By then a powerful communist
led peasant movement
developed in Telangana in
1946. Peasants attacked big
landlords and distributed their
land among the peasants and
the landless.
 By 1948, Patel was getting
impatient as the negotiations
with the Nizam dragged on.
Nizam imported more arms.
 Finally, on 13th September
1948, under Operation Polo,
Indian army moved into
Hyderabad. The Nizam
surrender after 3 days and in
November 1948, Hyderabad
acceded to India.
and gun salute on ceremonial
occasions.
Other Areas :
 After prolonged negotiation,
French authority handed over
Pondicherry and other French
possessions to India in 1954.
Portuguese decided to stay on.
 GOA – The people of Goa took
the matter on their own hands
and started a movement seeking
freedom from Portuguese. It
was brutally suppressed. Nehru
ordered Indian troops to march
into Goa on 17th December,
1961. The Governor-General
surrendered and Goa was
integrated into India.
Sikkim merger:
 At the time of Independence,
Sikkim was not a part of India, it
was also not a fully sovereign
country.
 Sikkim’s defence and foreign
relations were looked after by
India, while the power of
internal administration was with
the Chogyal, Sikkim’s monarch.
 The first democratic elections to
Sikkim assembly in 1974 were
 swept by Sikkim Congress which
stood for
greater integration with India.
 The Indian Parliament accepted
the request and Sikkim became
the 22nd State of the Indian
union.

Issue of Official Language :

 The issue of the status of Hindi as a national language led to conflict
between Hindi speaking and non-Hindi speaking regions of the country.
 Gandhiji opposed the idea that English would be an all India medium of
communications in free India.
 Hindi chosen over Hindustani [written in Devanagari or Urdu script] to be
the official language of India .
 The issue of the time-frame for a shift from English to Hindi further caused
friction Hindi & non Hindi areas.
 Proponents of Hindi wanted immediate switch over, while nonHindi areas
advocated retention of English for a long if not indefinite period.

 Nehru wanted Hindi as the official language, but also favoured English to
be continuing as an additional official language.
 For English, it was to be used for all official purposes till 1965, when it
would be replaced by Hindi in phased manner.
 The constitution mandated the government to promote the spread and
development of Hindi
 The state legislatures were to classify the matter of official language at
state level,
 Official language of the Union would serve as the language of
communication between the states and the centre & between one state &
another.
Official Language Commission: As per the Constitutional provisions, an Official
Language commission was set up in 1955. It recommended that Hindi should
start progressively replacing English in various functions of the Central
government.

• Resentment against the report: However, two members of the commission,

one each from Tamil Nadu and West Bengal dissented with the report.
• The Joint Parliamentary Commission reviewed the report of the commission.

 President issued an order in April 1960 stating that after 1965 Hindi would
be the Principal official language, but English would continue without any
restriction as the associate official language.
 Central government took a series of steps to promote Hindi
 To allay the fear of non-Hindi speakers Nehru in the Parliament in 1959,
assured them that English would continue as alternate language as long as
the people require it. In
 Official Languages Act, 1963 was passed to remove restrictions which had
been placed in the Constitution regarding the use of English as the official
language beyond 1965.
 In 1967, Indira Gandhi government amended the Official Languages Act of
1963.
o Indefinite bilingualism was adopted.
o The states were to adopt a three language formula that is study of
one modern Indian language, preferably one of the Southern
languages, apart from Hindi and English in the Hindi speaking areas
and of Hindi along with the regional languages and English in the
non-Hindi speaking areas;
o The Parliament adopted a policy resolution laying down that the
public service exams were to be conducted in Hindi & English as well
as inall the regional languages with the provision that the candidates
should have additional knowledge of Hindi or English.
Reorganisation of State
 India = Many languages, script, grammar, vocabulary and literary tradition.
 1917 -> INM initiated organizational structure based on linguistic
provinces.- > creation of provincial Congress Committee by linguistic zones.
(supported by Lokmanya Tilak and Mahatma Gandhi.
 After Partition, apprehensions of dividing country further on the basis of
language. However, demands for separate state based on linguistic identity
seen in movements for Ayikya Kerala, Samyukta Maharashtra and
Vishalandhra.
 1948 appointed the Linguistic Provinces Commission, headed by Justice
S.K. Dhar, to enquire into the desirability of linguistic provinces especially in
case of Andhra, Karnataka, Kerala, and Maharashtra.
 advised against this at that time reason being it might threaten national
unity and would be administratively inconvenient.
 After it, JVP committee in December 1948 (JL Nehru, Sardar Patel and
Pattabhi Sitaramayya) to examine the question afresh.
 it argued that the time was not suitable for formation of creation of new
provinces.
 However, The demands for separate state on the linguistic basis didn't
subside. There were renewed movements aimed at linguistic autonomy in
1948-1949.
 In case of Punjab, struggle brought together both the factors language and
religion (Sikh).

The Case of Andhra: the first linguistic state

 The speakers of Telugu asked the Congress to implement its old
resolution in favour of linguistic states. The method they used to advance
their causes included: Petitions, representations, street marches, parts.

 To support their cause, former Madras CM T. Prakasam resigned from

the Congress party in 1950.

 On 19 October 1952, a popular freedom fighter, Potti Sriramulu

undertook a fast unto death over the demand for a separate Andhra; He
passed away.
  Followed by rioting, demonstrations, hartals and violence all over Andhra.
 The Vishalandhra movement (as the movement for a separate Andhra
was called) turned violent.

 Finally, formation of a separate Andhra State announced on 19

December 1952.

The States Reorganization Committee:

 The formation of Andhra Pradesh spurred the struggle for making of other
states on linguistic lines in other parts of the country.
 Aug 1953 the States Reorganisation Commission (SRC) formed with Justice
Fazl Ali, K.M. Panikkar and Hridaynath Kunzru as members, to examine
"objectively and dispassionately" the entire question of the reorganization
of the states of the Union.
 The SRC submitted its report in October 1955. It recognized for the most
part on the linguistic principle .States Reorganization Act was passed in
November 1956.

• It provided for fourteen states and six centrally administered

territories.
• SRC opposed the splitting of Bombay & Punjab.
• Therefore, the strongest reaction against SRC's report came from
Maharashtra, where widespread rioting took place.

 Eventually in May 1960, the state of Bombay was bifurcated into

Maharashtra, Gujarat with Bombay city being included in Maharashtra and
Ahmedabad being made the capital of Gujarat.

 The other state where an exception was made to the linguistic principle
was Punjab. In 1956,
the state of PEPSU had been merged with Punjab, which remained a
trilingual state having three language speakers-Punjabi, Hindi and Pahari
within its border. In the Punjabi speaking part of the state, there was a
strong demand for carving out a separate Punjabi Suba (Punjabi Speaking
State). This demand got communal overtones.
  SRC had rejected the demands in Punjab, as it would not solve either the
language or the communal problem of Punjab.
 Finally in 1966, Indira Gandhi agreed to the division of Punjab into two
Punjabi and Hindi speaking states of Punjab and Haryana, with the Pahari
speaking district of Kangra and a part of the Hoshiarpur district being
merged with HP.
 Finally, after more than ten years of continuous strife and popular
struggles, the linguistic reorganization of India was largely completed.

Benefits of aligning administrative units on linguistic lines

• Close affinity of language with culture
Growth of mass literacy and education can be achieved only through mother
tongue.
• Ease of administration and Governance when conducted in the language of the
people.
Mass literacy is possible only in mother tongue a. Democracy can become real to
the common people only when politics and administration are conducted through
the language they can understand.
• Development of provincial language: Gandhiji encouraged this. Due to these
reasons, political mobilization of the masses by the Congress was done in regional
languages.

Why the national leadership was averse to linguistic reorganization in the initial
years after independence?

• National Unity as 1st priority:

• Problems associated with linguistic reorganization: Partition resulted into
serious administrative, economic
and political problems, the linguistic reorganization probably could have resulted
into further economic and law and order problems.
• Intensified regional rivalries.

However, linguistic organization had been a major success

• No negative effect on federal structure: Not affected the federal structure of

the Union, not weakened the Centre as was the apprehension
• No Complaints of discrimination
State Reorganization on linguistic lines has removed major source of discord and
created homogeneous political units which has strengthened national unity. (Rajni
Kothari)
• Proved to be a binding agent in national integrity rather than a divisive one.

Regional Tensions/Regionalism
Basics (Already discussed in Society portion as well)

1. Regionalism —> is an ideology and political movement that seeks to advance

the cause of regions. If the interest of one region or a state is asserted against
the country as a whole or against another regional state in a holistic way and if
a conflict is promoted by such alleged interests, then it can be called
regionalism.
If someone is aspiring to or making special efforts to develop one’s state or
region or to remove poverty and make social justice there, then that cannot be
called as regionalism.

2. In pre-independence era, regionalism was not a dominant feature of Indian

Administration.
To have one’s pride for its language, culture, ethnicity, etc. is not regionalism.
Indian National Movement did not counterpose the national identity go
regional identities. It recognised both and did not ** the conflict t between both
of them.
A certain inter-regional rivalry around the achievement of such positive goals
would be quite healthy, like competition in providing basic services between
two states. [Competitive Federalism]
Also, local patriotism can help propels to overcome divisive loyalties to caste or
religious community.
Not regionalism
• Defending the federal feature of the Constitution.
• Demand for separate state within Indian Union.
• Devolution of power below the state level.

[ Unless put forward by hostility to the rest of the country ]

Eg. Initial tactics of DMK
Maharashtra eg.
Regional disputes for sharing power, water, etc. are not regionalism.
Cauvery issue - KA, TN

3. Economic Imbalance and Regionalism

Economic imbalance among different states and regions could be a potential

source of trouble.
• Few enclaves or areas around Calcutta, Bombay and Madras had
undergone modern industrial development.

• o Modern industries were confined to West Bengal and Bombay

accounted for 59% of the total industrial capital of the country and 64%
industrial output of the country.
• o Stagnant agriculture under colonial rule more in eastern India than in
south or north India.
• o Per capita income was unequal. PB, WB and Bombay had higher and RJ,
BR, OR lowest.
• o It was huge task in front of national government to counter the
imbalance in regional disparity economically.
Initiatives

• Planning Commission - more allocation of funds to the backward regions.

Through successive national plans. Eg. Third Plan objective - ‘balanced
development of different parts of the country ‘.
• Through different industrial policies - 1956, Industrial Policy gave
emphasis to securing balanced and coordinated development of the industrial
and agricultural economy.
• National Integration Council of 1961 - urged that ‘a rapid development of
the economically backward regions in any state should be given priority.

Constitutional Measures
• Finance Commission - decides the principles on which disbursement of
central taxes and other financial resources from the central government to the
states occur.
• DPSPs
• PRIs
• Article 301 - freedom of trade, commerce and intercourse.

Government initiated many schemes and programmes in this regard.

• Location of public sector enterprises to promote balanced regional
growth.
• Incentive to private sector to invest in backward areas through subsidies,
tax concessions, any concession in banking ad institutional loans at subsidised
rate.
• Nationalisation of bank
• NABARD
• Poverty eradication schemes
• Rural development schemes
Some initiatives instead of solving the economic imbalance created wide gulf.
Eg. Green Revolution

4. Post-independence migration helped state to curb regional disparities like

HP, OR, BR and Kerala have benefitted from out-migration. Bengal, GJ, MH have
benefitted from in-migration.

Despite all the measures taken by the government, regional economic

inequality problem did not get resolved. This led to disparity in social indicators
like health, education, poverty, unemployment, etc. Geography, history and
politics played an important role in this region.

Major reasons for inequality to exist

a. Low economic growth (colonial economic setup)
b. Population growth
c. Low level of infrastructural facilities in backward region such as power,
irrigation, roads, telephones and modern market.
d. Low social indicators like education, health, employment, etc.
e. Misuse of funds granted to backward areas.
f. Private sector investment low in those states due to above factors.

[ NITI Aayog - 115 aspirational districts ]

This inequality led to tensions between inter-states also intra-state. Eg. MH, VS,
BR
Demand of Telangana, Saurashtra, Bodoland, Gorkhaland, Vidharbha, etc.
Political representation from backward states is more despite Tata low level of
development.
UP, BR, MP and RJ - 37% seats in LS - backward
PB, HR, GJ, MH - 17% “ “ - advanced
It is necessary to first contain regional inequality within politically and
economically reasonable and acceptable limits.
5. Sons of the Soil Doctrine

Ugly kind of regionalism.

• It is of the view that a state specifically belongs to the main linguistic
group inhabiting it or that the state constitutes the exclusive ‘homeland’ of its
main language speakers who are the ‘sons of the soil’ or the ‘local’ residents.
• All other who settled there are declared to be ‘outsiders’. Though they
have lived there for many years, but will not be regarded as ‘sons of the soil’.

Why?
• Unequal development of economic opportunities
• Different language and easily targeted by majority
• New opportunities of jobs and education arose in those cities and states.
• Friction was more in those cities and states where ‘outsiders’ had greater
access to higher education and occupied more middle-class positions in
government services professions and outsiders and shopkeeping.

Active in these movements were members of lower middle class or workers as

well as rich and middle peasants whose petition is unthreatened but who
increasingly aspire to middle class status and position for their children.

• Newly educated and availability of jobs was not evenly distributed across
the country.
• Where cities and businesses benefitted from the migration no conflict
arose, but where there was intense competition for jobs conflict arose.
• ‘Son of soil’ movement flourished in those states where tradition of
migration had not existed. Eg. MH, Assam, Telangana but in Bengal, Kerala, PB,
BR no conflict.

Some state government responded by enacting laws for reservation in jobs and
educational institutions.
Worst movement by Shiv Sena against South Indians (especially Tamils)
Later for North Indians.
Solution to this
• a. Balanced regional development
• b. Out-migrating states must ensure that people receive basic public
services.
• c. Infrastructural development
• d. Industrial development

6. Federalism does not mean a weak national government, rather a non-

dominating national government which observed the federal features of the
polity. o A strong but democratic nation state is a necessity for a developing
country with strong federal features

J&K – Discussed

Punjab:

Political Context
 After the reorganisation, Akalis in power in 1967 and then in 1977. They
despite the redrawing of the boundaries, their political position was
uncertain.
 Their Govt. was dismissed by the Centre mid-way through its term.
 They did not enjoy strong support among the Hindus.
 Sikh community, like all other religious communities, was internally
differentiated on caste and class lines.
 During 1970s, asection of Akalis started demanding political autonomy
(later brought Anandpur Sahib Resolution for the same in 1973). The
resolution talked of the aspirations of the Sikh community or nation and
declared its goal as attaining the bolbala (dominance or hegemony) of the
Sikhs.
  More extreme elements started advocating secession from India and the
creation of ‘Khalistan’.

Violence :
 The militants made their headquarters inside the Sikh holy shrine, the
Golden Temple in Amritsar
 In June 1984, the GoI carried out ‘Operation Blue Star’
 Many Sikhs in India and abroad saw the military operation as an attack on
their faith giving impetus to militant and extremist groups.
 PM Indira Gandhi assassinated on 31 October 1984 by Sikh Bodyguards
 In many parts of northern India violence broke out against the Sikh
community.

In July 1985, Rajiv Gandhi reached an agreement with Harchand Singh

Longowal(akali dal president). This agreement , known as the Rajiv Gandhi -
Longowal Accord or the Punjab Accord.
1. Transfer of Chandigarh to Punjab.
2. Sharing of Water through tribunal between Rajasthan, Punjab, Haryana.
3. Compensation for those who suffered from militancy.
4. Revocation of AFSPA from Punjab.

 The cycle of violence continued nearly for a decade.

 Peace returned to Punjab by the middle of 1990s. The alliance of Akali Dal
(Badal) and the BJP scored a major victory in1997, in the first normal
elections in the State in the post-militancy era, politics has gradually moved
back along secular lines.

The North East

 The region has witnessed a lot of change since 1947.

 Tripura, Manipur and Khasi Hills of Meghalaya were erstwhile Princely
States which merged with India after Independence.
 The entire region of North-East has undergone considerable political
reorganisation.
  Nagaland State was created in 1960, Meghalaya, Manipur and Tripura in
1972 while Arunachal Pradesh and Mizoram became separate States only in
1986.

Issues which dominate the politics of North-East: demands for autonomy,

movements for secession, and opposition to ‘outsiders’.

Demands for Autonomy

At independence the entire region except Manipur and Tripura comprised the
State of Assam.
Demands for political autonomy arose when the non-Assamese felt that the
Assam government was imposing Assamese language on them.
They demanded a tribal State to be carved out of Assam. Finally instead of one
tribal State, several States got carved out of Assam.
The reorganisation of the North-East was completed by 1972.

Secessionist Movements
 After Independence, the Mizo Hills area -> made an autonomous district within
Assam.
 However, movement for secession gained popular support after the Assam
government failed to respond adequately to the great famine of 1959 in Mizo
hills.
 The Mizos’ anger led to the formation of the Mizo National Front (MNF) under
the leadership of Laldenga. In 1966 the MNF started an armed campaign for
independence. Thereafter, started a two decade long battle between Mizo
insurgents and the Indian army.
 The MNF fought a guerilla war, got support from Pakistani government and
secured shelter in the then East Pakistan.
 Indian Air Force was used. These measures caused more anger and alienation
among the people.
 In 1986 a peace agreement was signed between Rajiv Gandhi and Laldenga.
 Mizoram was granted full-fledged statehood with special powers and the
MNF agreed to give up secessionist struggle.
 This accord proved a turning point in the history of Mizoram. Today, Mizoram
is one of the most peaceful places in the region and has taken big strides in
literacy and development.
Nagaland :

 The Nagas residing in the Naga hills on consisted of many separate tribes
speaking different languages.
 The British had left the Nagas in relative isolation and due to missionary
activity permitted by them there had emerged an educated section which
became the flag bearer of separate Naga identiy and the demand of
sepration and complete indendence from India. (Led by Angami Zaphu
Phizo belonging to the Naga National Council)
 Phizo formed the underground Naga Federal Government (NFG) and the
Naga Federal Army (NFA) in March 1956, thus beginning an armed
insurrection against Indian government.
 The Government also tried to pacify -> formation of the state of Nagaland
in 1963.
 Shillong Accord signed with the government of India on 11 November
1975, under which this section of NNC and NFG agreed to give up arms. A
group led by Thuingaleng Muivah, who were at that time in China, refused
to accept the Shillong Accord, and formed the National Socialist Council of
Nagaland (NSCN) in 1980.
 Muivah also had Isak Chisi Swu and S S Khaplang with him. In 1988, the
NSCN split into NSCN (IM) and NSCN (K) after a violent clash. Gradually,
NSCN (IM) came to acquire greater
 significance.
 The main aim of the NSCN has been to establish "Greater Nagalim" by
unifying all the areas inhabited by the Naga people in Northeast India and
Burma. Cease-fire between the Union Government and the NSCN(IM) and
later NSCN (K) reduced violence in Naga areas.
 “Framework Agreement” was signed in August 2015 bw Govt and NSCN
(IM). But NSCN (K) unhappy, engages in violence.

Movements Against Outsiders

 The large scale migration into the North-East gave rise to a special kind of
problem that pitted the ‘local’ communities against people who were seen
as ‘outsiders’ or migrants.
 The Assam Movement from 1979 to 1985 - movements against ‘outsiders’.
  There was widespread poverty and unemployment in Assam despite the
existence of natural resources like oil, tea and coal. It was felt that these
were drained out of the State without any commensurate benefit to the
people.
 In 1979 the All Assam Students’ Union (AASU), a students group not
affiliated to any party, led an anti-foreigner movement.
 The Rajiv Gandhi started negotiations AASU leaders, leading to the signing
of an accord in 1985.
 After this, AASU and the Asom Gana Sangram Parishad organized
themselves as a regional political party called Asom Gana Parishad (AGP). It
came to power in 1985 with the promise of resolving the foreign national
problem as well as to build a ‘Golden Assam’.

Economic Development

Planned Development

 It aimed to achieve improved quality of life for the citizens of the state and
contribute to the larger national goals of socio-economic development.
 The major problem that confronted India immediately after independence
was development.
 There was disagreement on the kind of role that the government must play
in ensuring growth with justice.
 Despite the various differences, there was a consensus on one point: that
development could not be left to private actors, that there was the need
for the government to develop a design or plan for development.
 Planning Commision - opted for five year plan(FYP) like Russia

First Five Year Plan

 The first five year plan (1951-1956) sought
 o to get the country’s economy out of the cycle of poverty ->
addressed, mainly, the agrarian sector including investment in dams
and irrigation, like Bhakra Nangal Dam etc.
o identified the pattern of land distribution as the principle of obstacle
in the way of agricultural growth. Therefore focused on land reforms
as the key of development.
o One of the basic aims of the planners was to raise the level of
national income, which could be possible only if the people saved
more money than they spent. People’s money saving did rise in the
first phase of the planned process until the end of the third five year
plan.

Rapid Industrialisation
 The Second FYP stressed on heavy industries. It was drafted under P. C.
Mahalanobis.
 aspired to bring about quick structural transformation. government
imposed substantial tariffs on imports to protect domestic industries,
which helped them to grow. Savings and investments were growing, bulk of
these industries like electricity, railways, steel, machineries and
communication were to be developed in the public sectors. The push for
industrialization marked a turning point in India development.

 India was technologically backward, so it had to spend precious foreign

exchange to buy technology from the global market. As industry attracted
more investment than agriculture, this led to food shortage.
 Thus Indian planners found it difficult to balance between industry and
agriculture. Critics pointed out that planning was urban bias.

The fourth plan was due to start in 1966, and planning had declined considerably,
and moreover
India was facing an acute economic crisis. The government decided to take a
‘‘Plan Holiday’’(1966-1969) because the government failed miserably in
implementing the third five year plan because of war.
Key Controversies

The strategy of development followed in early years raised several important

questions.they are:

Agriculture vs Industry

 Afer the First two plans, agriculture could not develop at an appreciable
level. Gandhian
economists like J. C. Kumarappa proposed an alternative blueprint that put
greater emphasis on
rural industrialisation.
 Some others thought that without a drastic increase in industrial
production, there could be no
escape from the cycle of poverty.
 The state made laws for land reforms and distribution of resources among
the poor in the villages.The failure was not that of policy but its non-
implementation.

Public vs Private
 Unlike the US or USSR ,India adopted a ‘mixed economy,’ where both public
and private exist together.
 Much of the agriculture, trade and industry were left in private hands. The
state controlled key heavy industries, provided industrial infrastructure,
regulated trade and made some crucial interventions in agriculture.
 Critics argued that the planners refused to provide the private sector with
enough space and the stimulus to grow.
 The state controlled more things than were necessary and this led to
inefficiency and corruption.
 Critics pointed out that the state did not spend any significant amount for
public education and healthcare.

Major Outcomes

In this period the foundations of India’s future economic growth were laid.
  Some of the largest developmental projects in India’s history were
undertaken during this period.These included mega-dams like Bhakra-
Nangal and Hirakud for irrigation and power generation.
 Some of the Heavy industries in the public sector like steel plants, oil
refineries, defence production, etc.were started during this period.
 Infrastructure for transport and communication was improved
substantially.

Land Reforms (discussed in Agriculture)

 Abolition of the colonial system of zamindari, and attempts at consolidation
of land.
 It also reduced the capacity of landlords to dominate politics.
 Many proposals for land reforms were either not translated into laws or
when made into laws, they remained only on paper.
 Land reforms did not take place effectively in most parts of the country;
political power remained in the hands of the landowning classes; and big
industrialists continued to benefit and thrive while poverty did not
reduce much. Those who benefited from unequal development soon
became politically powerful and made it even more difficult to move in the
desired direction.

GREEN REVOLUTION:

Prevailing Conditions before the introduction of Green Revolution:

• The focus of Indian agriculture was only on institutional reforms, not on the
technological base for agriculture.
• India had been facing food shortages since the mid 1950's.
• ↑ population growth rates put long term pressures on Indian agriculture
which resulted in massive demand.To meet food shortage, India was forced to
import food in greater amount.
• Two wars, one with China (1962) and another with Pak (1965) and successive
droughts in years 1965–1966, led to fall in agriculture output massively. Food
prices shot up.
• Arm twisting policies of United States -> due to India’s stand on Vietnam and
India's denial of accepting an economy policy package. For long India depended
on the United States for food import undert the PL-480 Scheme.
• Due to the grim Scenario of the mid 1960's economic self reliance and food self
sufficiencybecame top priority objectives of Indian leadership.

Green Revolution
● During the 1960s, the government offered high-yielding variety seeds,
fertilizers, pesticides and better irrigation at highly subsidised prices. This was
termed the Green Revolution.

Positives :
 food grain production rose significantly.\ By the 1980's not only was India
self sufficient in food with buffer food stocks of over 30 million tonnes, but
also it was exporting food
 liberation from dependence on PL–480 or other imports.
 inverse relationship between scale and productivity. Small farmers applied
more inputs per unit of land compared to large farmers.
 Small farmers became relatively more viable and did not sell out their land
to large land holding farmers in distress.
 Generated nonagricultural rural and semi-urban employment through the
development of agro industries, transport industry, and other
agriculturally allied sectors.
 surplus stocks of food-grain helped government to launch employment
generating poverty alleviation programmes.
 green revolution also resulted in the rise of middle peasant sections. These
middle peasants with medium size holding hugely benefitted from the
changes and later emerged as politically influential in many parts of the
country.

Negatives:

 The rich peasants and the large landholders were the major beneficiaries of
this.the argument was that those who already had the capacity could help
increase production rapidly in the short run.
 Some regions like Punjab, Haryana, and Western Uttar Pradesh became
agriculturally prosperous, while others remained backward.
  Disparity resulted in favourable conditions for left wing organisations to
organise the poor peasants to follow extreme paths.
 green revolution also resulted in the rise of middle peasant sections. These
middle peasants with medium size holding hugely benefitted from the
changes and later emerged as politically influential in many parts of the
country. excessive withdrawal of groundwater for irrigation
 Tenants and share croppers who did not have security of tenure were
perhaps the only
losers.
 subsidized or totally free electricity -> led to misuse of it

Operation Flood and Cooperatives

In 1970 the rural development programme called Operation Flood was started.
Operation flood organised cooperatives of milk producers into a nationwide milk
grid, with the purpose of increasing milk production.
This was termed as White Revolution. Vergheese Kurien is known as Milkman of
India.

Impacts
 Considerable increase in milk supply and consequent increase in income
of the milk producers, particularly the poor.
 60% of the beneficiaries were marginal or small farmers and landless
labourers.
 chief beneficiaries of this scheme were the landless people from SC &ST
communities.
 instrumental in the establishment of an indigenous dairy equipment
manufacturing industry
 an impressive body of indigenous expertise that includes animal nutrition,
animal health, artificial insemination management information systems
(MIS), dairy engineering, food technology.
 instrumental in empowerment of women. Operation flood with the help of
NGOs like SEWA helped in establishing about 6,000 Women dairy
cooperative societies.
 spillover effect on other cooperatives too.
Limitations of Cooperatives :
 Many formed such cooperatives to evade land reforms and access
incentives offered by the state.
 State sponsored cooperative farms didn't live up to their expectations in
terms of
benefits of scale.
 Service cooperatives reinforced the casted based hierarchical structure.
 Leaders of such cooperatives mostly drawn from traders and money
lending communities

Other Developments
 The period from 1967 onwards witnessed many new restrictions on private
industry.
 Fourteen private banks were nationalised (during Indira Gandhi period).
 Between 1950 and 1980 the Indian economy grew at a sluggish per annum
rate of 3 to 3.5%.
 The presence of inefficiency, corruption etc forced people to lose faith in
the country's economic system thus it resulted in decreasing the
significance of state in India’s economy from 1980s onwards.

Emergency

Background to Emergency
 The split in the Congress had sharpened the divisions between Indira
Gandhi and her opponents.
 The Congress alleged that the Court was a conservative institution and an
obstacle in the way of implementing pro-poor welfare programmes as it
had declared many initiatives of the government to be violative of the
Constitution.
 The parties opposed to the Congress felt that politics was becoming too
personalised.
Economic Context
 The Bangladesh crisis had put a heavy strain on India’s economy.
 Different factors such as immigration from Bangladesh, War with Pakistan,
discontinuance of aid by USA and rise in oil prices were responsible.
 In order to reduce expenditure the government froze the salaries of its
employees.
 Monsoons failed in 1972-1973 which resulted in a sharp decline in
agricultural productivity.
 Other Factors :
o Due to this situation, students’ unrests became more pronounced in
this period and opposition parties were able to organise popular
protests effectively.
o Marxist groups who did not believe in parliamentary politics, had
taken to arms and insurgent techniques for the overthrow of the
established political system.

Gujarat and Bihar Movements

 Students’ protests in 1974, led to the imposition of President’s rule in
Gujarat which was a Congress ruled state.
 After an indefinite hunger strike by Morarji Desai, fresh election had to be
held in which the Congress was defeated.
 In Bihar also there were many students’ protests, which were later joined
by Jai Prakash Narayan on the condition that the movement will remain
non-violent and will not limit itself to Bihar.
 In 1975, JP led a peoples’ march to the Parliament. This was one of the
largest political rallies ever
 held in the capital. Many non-Congress opposition parties like the Bharatiya
Jana Sangh, the Congress (O), the Bharatiya Lok Dal, the Socialist Party
supported him.
 Alongside the agitation led by Jayaprakash Narayan, the employees of the
Railways gave a call for a nationwide strike which ended a�er 20 days.
 Both the Gujarat and Bihar movements were seen as protests against the
leadership of Indira Gandhi.
Conflict with Judiciary
 This period witnessed a long drawn conflict between the Parliament and
the judiciary.
 Three constitutional issues had emerged:
o Can the Parliament abridge fundamental rights
o Can the Parliament curtail the right to property by making an
amendment
o Can Parliament amend the Constitution to abridge Fundamental
Rights for giving effect to Directive Principles
 This culminated in the famous Kesavananda Bharati Case in April 1973, in
which the Court gave a decision that there are some basic features of the
Constitution and the Parliament cannot amend these features.
 Soon after this judgement, in 1973, the government set aside the seniority
of three judges and appointed Justice A. N. Ray as the Chief Justice of India.
 Later on 12 June, 1975, the High Court of Allahabad , declared Indira
Gandhi’s election invalid on the ground that she had used the services of
government servants in her election campaign. This order was stayed by
the Supreme court on 24 June, 1975.

Crisis and Response

 The opposition political parties led by Jayaprakash Narayan pressed for
Indira Gandhi’s resignation and organised a massive demonstration in
Delhi’s Ramlila grounds on 25 June 1975.
 He asked the army, the police and government employees not to obey
“illegal and immoral orders” which threatened to bring the activities of the
government to a standstill.
 On 25 June 1975, the government declared that there was a threat of
internal disturbances and therefore, it invoked Article 352 of the
Constitution under which it declared a nationwide emergency.

Consequences:
  This brought the agitation to an abrupt stop, strikes were banned, and
many opposition leaders were put in jail.
 The government suspended the freedom of the Press and the newspapers
were asked to get prior approval for all material to be published.
 Many journalists were arrested for writing against the Emergency and
many underground newsletters and leaflets were published to bypass
censorship.
 Various Fundamental Rights of citizens suspended, including the right of
citizens to move the Court for restoring their Fundamental Rights.
 The government made extensive use of preventive detention, under which,
people can be arrested and detained on the apprehension that they may
commit an offence.
 Under the 42nd amendment many changes were made in the constitution.
For example: the duration of legislatures was extended from five to six
years.
 Due to such harsh conditions during emergency regime, people who were
awarded with honours like Padma shri and other awards returned these
honours in the protest against suspension of democracy.
 Torture and custodial deaths occurred during Emergency, arbitrary
relocation of poor people, imposition of compulsory sterilisation to
control population.
 People without official position, misused the powers of administration and
interfered in the functioning of the government.

Was the Emergency necessary:

 The government argued that in a democracy, the opposition parties must
allow the elected ruling party to govern according to its policies.
 Frequent recourse to agitations, protests and collective action are not good
for democracy which leads to instability and distracts the administration
from its routine task of ensuring development.
 Some other parties, like the CPI, also believed that there was an
international conspiracy against the unity of India and thus, restrictions
were necessary. A�er the Emergency, the CPI felt that its assessment was
mistaken.
 The critics argue that in a democracy, people had the right to publicly
protest against the government. Those who were arrested were never tried
for any anti-national activity.
  They say that the Home Ministry, also did not express any concern about
the law and order situation in the country and the government had enough
routine powers to deal with it.
 The critics say that the Government misused a constitutional provision
meant for saving the country to save itself.

What happened during emergency:

 The government announced a twenty point programme which included
land reforms, land redistribution, review of agricultural wages, workers’
participation in management, eradication of bonded labour, etc.
 Critics argue that most promises remained unfulfilled and they question the
use of preventive detention on such a large scale.
 Severe restrictions were put on the press, sometimes without proper legal
sanctions.
 There are allegations regarding the exercise of governmental power by
people(For example Sanjay Gandhi) who held no official position.
 Apart from these, torture and custodial deaths, arbitrary relocation of poor
people, and compulsory sterilisation of many people also took place.
 These instances show what happens when the normal democratic process
is suspended.

Lessons of the Emergency

 One lesson of Emergency is that it is extremely difficult to do away with
democracy in India.
 It brought out some ambiguities regarding the Emergency provision in the
Constitution that have been rectified since.
 Now, ‘internal’ Emergency can be proclaimed only on the grounds of armed
rebellion after a written advice by the Council of Ministers to the President.
 The Emergency made everyone more aware of the value of civil liberties.
Many civil liberties organisations came up after this experience.