8th International INQUA Meeting on Paleoseismology, Active Tectonics and Archeoseismology (PATA), 13 – 16 November, 2017, New Zealand

INQUA Focus Group Earthquake Geology and Seismic Hazards

Paleo-liquefaction; an Alternative Tool for Seismic Hazard Assessments

Bastin, Sarah (1), Green, Russell (2), Quigley, Mark (3), Bassett, Kari (4)

(1) QuakeCoRE, University of Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand

(2) Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia 24061, United States of America.
(3) School of Earth Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Victoria 3010, Australia
(4) Department of Geological Sciences, University of Canterbury, Christchurch 8014, New Zealand

Abstract: Liquefaction features preserved in the sub-surface provide evidence for earthquake-generated strong ground shaking
exceeding threshold intensities for liquefaction. Analysis of liquefaction features preserved in the geologic record enables the
approximate timing and site-specific Peak Ground Accelerations of the causative paleo-earthquake(s) to be estimated, while
regional examination enables the epicentral location and magnitude to be approximated. Examination of liquefaction features
formed during recent events in New Zealand provides insights into the typical morphologies and preservation potential of
liquefaction features and aids the identification and interpretation of paleo-liquefaction features. Paleo-liquefaction
investigations provides a fault-independent methodology by which return times of strong ground motions may be estimated for
a given region, and may be employed to assess seismic hazards in areas where the distribution of active faults is uncertain,
and/or many active fault sources are present.

Key words: Paleo-liquefaction, seismic hazard assessment

INTRODUCTION shaking must have exceeded the minimum liquefaction

Liquefaction may occur in unconsolidated and fluid-
saturated sediments as earthquake-induced cyclic shearing
causes the soil structure to break down and pore-water
pressures to increase to the static confining pressure
(Boulanger and Idriss, 2014). Liquefied sediment may be
ejected to the ground surface where it typically manifests as
surficial sand blows, blistering of the surface, and/or lateral
spreading-induced ground surface fissuring (Obermeier et
al. 2005). Surficial features are typically rapidly re-worked
into surrounding deposits. Sub-surface features are likely to
be present in the geologic record where host sediments are
preserved and include dikes that fed the surface sand-blows,
laterally injected sills, and/or other injection features
(Obermeier et al., 2005). Preserved features, termed paleo-
liquefaction, provide evidence for paleo-earthquakes with
site-specific ground motion intensities exceeding threshold
values required to trigger liquefaction. Analysis of preserved
features provides a fault-independent methodology by
which the timing and magnitude of historic and/or pre-
historic events can be examined (e.g. Obermeier et al. 2001).
Paleo-liquefaction investigations have been employed to
assess seismic hazards in areas where blind active faults are
known to exist, such as the New Madrid Seismic Zone (e.g.
Tuttle, 2001). Investigations typically rely on the accurate
identification of liquefaction features, interpretation of their
relative ages, and constraint on the shaking intensities under
which liquefaction was triggered (Green et al., 2005). Ages
of liquefaction features and, thus, the timing of the paleo-
event may be approximated by dating bounding stratigraphy
(Obermeier et al., 2005). The threshold ground motion
intensity required to trigger liquefaction at a given site can
be determined from site-specific geotechnical tests (e.g.
Cone Penetration Tests) using simplified liquefaction
triggering methodologies and assuming the earthquake
triggering intensity threshold (i.e. Factor of Safety against
liquefaction <1; Boulanger and Idriss (2014)). The ground
motion intensity threshold for liquefaction triggering can be
quantified in terms of required magnitude-weighted peak
ground acceleration (PGA7.5), which represents the
equivalent peak ground acceleration (PGA) for a Mw 7.5
event required to trigger liquefaction at a given site. The
identification and dating of liquefaction features across a
region, combined with minimum thresholds against
liquefaction triggering enables the epicentral location and
magnitude of the paleo-earthquake to be approximated
(e.g. Maurer et al., 2015).
Liquefaction and associated phenomena have been
reported following upwards of 13 recent and historical
earthquakes in New Zealand (Fairless & Berrill, 1984;
Maurer et al., 2015). Liquefaction features formed during
these events are likely to be present in the sub-surface
sediments. Collation of the extents of liquefaction
manifestations following these events enables areas
underlain by sediments with low cyclic resistances to
liquefaction to be identified. These areas may be targeted
to document the preservation potential of liquefaction
features and/or examine the presence of paleo-
liquefaction. Herein, the potential applications of paleo-
liquefaction investigations as an additional tool for
assessing seismic hazards are outlined using examples
from recent and historical earthquakes in New Zealand.
SPATIAL DISTRIBUTIONS OF LIQUEFACTION FEATURES
Documentation of the spatial extents and morphologies of
liquefaction features following recent earthquakes
provides insights into the settings in which liquefaction
typically manifests and the associated preservation
potential. Detailed mapping of surface manifestations

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8TH INTERNATIONAL PATA DAYS 2017
8th International INQUA Meeting on Paleoseismology, Active Tectonics and Archeoseismology (PATA), 13 – 16 November, 2017, New Zealand
INQUA Focus Group Earthquake Geology and Seismic Hazards
following the 2010-2011 Canterbury Earthquake Sequence
indicated that widespread liquefaction occurred across
much of eastern Christchurch (Figure 1A; Quigley et al.,
2016). Severe manifestations were observed proximal to
meandering rivers and were shown by Bastin et al. (2013)
to be orientated sub-parallel to the closest waterway. In
addition, mapping within Blenheim following the 2016 Mw
7.8 Kaikoura earthquake indicated that liquefaction
predominantly manifested to the east of the township in
areas hosting shallow water-tables and underlain by
young, unconsolidated fluvial deposits (Figure 1B; Stringer
et al. (2017); Bastin et al., (in review)). The comparably
more localized manifestations within Blenheim reflects the
lower ground accelerations of the Kaikoura earthquake
(~0.1 g; GEER (2017)) compared to the CES (~0.2 g; Bradley
& Hughes, (2012)). The spatial distributions indicate that
areas underlain by recent fluvial sediments and hosting
shallow water-tables are highly susceptible to liquefaction.
Similar distributions have been reported in other areas of
New Zealand such as Whakatane following the 1987
Edgecumbe earthquake (Bastin et al., 2017).
Figure 1: A) Distribution of liquefaction in Christchurch as mapped
following the 2010-2011 Canterbury Earthquake Sequence. B)
Distribution of liquefaction in Blenheim following the 2016
Kaikoura earthquake.
SUB-SURFACE MORPHOLOGIES OF LIQUEFACTION
FEATURES
Trenching investigations undertaken in Christchurch
following the 2010-2011 CES and in Blenheim following the
2016 Kaikoura earthquake indicated that the surficial
liquefaction features correspond with sub-vertical and
planar dikes in the sub-surface (e.g. Bastin et al. (2015);
(2016); Bastin et al. (in prep)). The sub-surface liquefaction
dikes were shown to be uniformly composed of grey, well
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49
sorted fine to medium sand and cross-cut the stratigraphy
from the trench floor to the surface (i.e. Figure 2; Bastin et
al. (2015 and 2016)). The features generally range in width
from 1 to 50 cm and increase in width with depth,
indicating that they formed by the upwards flow of
liquefied sediment rather than downward-propagating
surface cracking (Figure 2). The sediment within the dikes
lacks the oxidation and mottling developed within the
surrounding stratigraphy indicating their recent
emplacement. The morphologies of these features are
consistent with sub-surface liquefaction features
described in previous studies by Obermeier et al. (2005)
and indicate that liquefaction features are typically
preserved in the sub-surface as sub-vertical dikes.
Figure 2: A) Dike preserving evidence for four episodes of
liquefaction (i-iv) as observed in eastern Christchurch (modified
from Quigley et al., (2016)). B) Interpreted field photograph
indicating the similar morphologies of the CES (Mx) and pre-CES
(Px) dikes (modified from Bastin et al., (2015)).
Extensive trenching investigations at a site in eastern
Christchurch in which upwards of 6 liquefaction triggering
events are inferred throughout the CES, revealed sub-
surface dikes that preserved evidence for between 1-4
episodes of liquefaction (shown in Figure 2A; Quigley et al.
(2016)). Separate liquefaction events were recognized as
internal dike parallel silt linings separating internal
conduits and identical to those formed along the dike
margins. The preservation 1-4 liquefaction-triggering
events, despite the upwards of 6 events inferred for the
site, indicates that the geologic record is likely to under-
represent the number of liquefaction triggering
earthquakes. It may therefore be difficult to discern
whether a feature represents a single liquefaction-
triggering event, or multiple, closely spaced events
resulting from clustered earthquakes.
Identification of paleo-liquefaction
Documentation of the spatial distributions of surficial
liquefaction following recent earthquakes and
documentation of their preservation potential indicates that
paleo-liquefaction is likely to be present in areas that have
been subjected to strong ground shaking and underlain by
recent fluvial sediments. Evidence of liquefaction is likely to
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 8th International INQUA Meeting on Paleoseismology, Active Tectonics and Archeoseismology (PATA), 13 – 16 November, 2017, New Zealand
INQUA Focus Group Earthquake Geology and Seismic Hazards
be preserved as sub-vertical and planar dikes orientated sub-
parallel to proximal waterways.
Paleo-liquefaction investigations have recently been
undertaken within Christchurch, Blenheim, Whakatane,
Napier, and Hamilton to determine whether sub-surface
evidence of paleo-liquefaction is present, and to ground-
truth liquefaction hazard assessments. Trenching
investigations were undertaken in areas underlain by
sediments with low cyclic resistances to liquefaction, with
trenches excavated perpendicular to river banks to enable
best possible chances of intersecting features.
Sub-surface liquefaction features of consistent
morphologies to those formed during the CES and 2016
Kaikoura earthquake were consistently observed during
the trenching (i.e. Figure 2). Sub-vertical and planar dikes
composed of mottled and oxidized, well-sorted fine to
medium grained sand were identified in the trenches and
cross-cut surrounding stratigraphy (example shown in
Figure 2B). The mottling and oxidation developed within
the features indicates their pro-longed exposure to
fluctuating water tables and thus indicates emplacement
during historic/ pre-historic events. Approximate timing of
the paleo-earthquakes forming these features were
derived from cross-cutting relationships and dating of the
surrounding stratigraphy.
Paleo-liquefaction features observed in the eastern
Christchurch suburb of Avonside were found to be truncated
by a flood-unit at 0.7 m depth (Figure 2B; see Bastin et al.
(2015) for a detailed description). Radiocarbon dating of a
sample obtained from underlying stratigraphy provided a 2σ
calibrated age of 1660-1803, indicating the feature formed
during an event that post-dates 1660. The feature was
additionally cross-cut by an anthropogenic pit associated
with an adjacent wool scouring factory, indicating the
feature pre-dates closure of the factory in ca. 1905. The
identification of pre-CES dikes indicates that an earthquake
generating PGA in excess of the liquefaction triggering
threshold occurred within Christchurch between 1660 and
1905. This is consistent with the New Zealand Seismic
Hazard Model which predicts approximate return times of
50 years for PGAs of 0.11g (MMI 6-7) and 200 years for PGAs
of 0.22g (MMI 7-8) for class C material (shallow soils) in the
Christchurch area (Stirling et al., 2008).
Paleo-liquefaction features were additionally observed
during trenching for a road construction project in
Hamilton. Radiocarbon dating of material from within the
trench combined with well-constrained timing of tephra
deposits indicates the features formed >6,000 y BP, and
likely between 6,000 – 26,500 y BP (Clayton et al., 2017).
Constraining approximate shaking intensities of the
paleo-earthquakes
The identification of paleo-liquefaction provides evidence
for earthquakes exceeding the threshold value required to
trigger liquefaction and confirms the presence of sediments
with low cyclic resistances to liquefaction. The threshold
may be back-calculated from proximal CPT using the
simplified liquefaction analysis methodologies and ground
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motion prediction equations to produce a curve of
magnitudes sufficient and insufficient to trigger liquefaction
at the given site (e.g. Figure 3, and described in detail in
Maurer et al. (2015)). A similar approach can be used to
perform a back-analysis for a given historical event to
determine the likelihood of liquefaction being triggered at a
given site (see Bastin et al. (2016)). However, these
methodologies require assumptions to be made on the
amount of sedimentation that has occurred at the site and
the likely depth to ground-water during the paleo-event. The
amount of sediment overlying the paleo-liquefaction
features may be back-stripped for the analysis to account for
sedimentation at the site since the paleo-event however this
adds additional uncertainties.
Figure 3: Example of back-calculated magnitude-bound curves
comparing earthquake magnitude and distance to liquefaction as
derived from New Zealand events by Maurer et al. (2015).
For example, a CPT sounding conducted at the site of
paleo-liquefaction in Avonside indicates that the material
at 1.6 - 2.15 m depth was potentially liquefiable (FS <1)
under the PGA of the Mw 7.1 September 2010 and Mw 6.2
February 2011 earthquakes. The computed minimum PGA
required to liquefy this unit during these events are 0.15 g
and 0.19 g respectively. The presence of pre-CES and CES
liquefaction indicates the area has remained highly
susceptible to liquefaction and thus it is likely that
liquefaction was triggered under similar PGA for the pre-
CES event. In areas where there are large uncertainties in
the back-calculation, it may be assumed that the threshold
most likely exceeds the global liquefaction triggering
threshold of PGA7.5 0.09 g, as derived by Santucci de
Magistris et al. (2013).
The ability to back-calculate earthquake magnitudes relies
on the accurate identification of the epicentral location
and associated liquefaction manifestations. The minimum
magnitude may be derived using site-to-source distances
utlilzing curves of the distance from the epicentral location
to the most distal liquefaction feature (e.g. Figure 3 and
see Maurer et al. (2015)).
8TH INTERNATIONAL PATA DAYS 2017
8th International INQUA Meeting on Paleoseismology, Active Tectonics and Archeoseismology (PATA), 13 – 16 November, 2017, New Zealand
INQUA Focus Group Earthquake Geology and Seismic Hazards
IMPLICATIONS AND APPLICATIONS FOR PALEO-SEISMIC
HAZARD ASSESSMENTS AND INITIAL CONCLUSIONS
Analysis of paleo-liquefaction features provides an
alternative, fault independent means by which return
times of strong ground motions may be examined.
Features are likely to be present where host sediments are
preserved and provide a means by which paleo-
earthquakes may be detected. Paleo-liquefaction
investigations may be used to supplement paleo-seismic
hazard assessments in areas where many fault sources are
known to exist and/or the distribution of active faults is
uncertain. The identification of paleo-liquefaction features
relies on investigations to be undertaken in areas underlain
by sediments with a low cyclic resistance to liquefaction
and may be aided by the distributions of surface
manifestations from historical events.
The distributions of liquefaction following recent and
historical earthquakes in New Zealand indicate that areas
underlain by recent fluvial sediments in areas hosting
shallow water tables are highly susceptible to liquefaction.
Examination of sub-surface features formed during recent
events indicates liquefaction features typically comprise
sub-vertical and planar dikes composed of fine to medium
sand. Trenching in areas underlain by sediments with low
cyclic resistances to liquefaction across New Zealand has
revealed evidence for paleo-liquefaction preserved in the
geologic record. These features provide evidence for
paleo-earthquakes with site-specific ground accelerations
exceeding threshold values for liquefaction and therefore
may be used to make inferences on the return times of
strong ground motions. Further work is required to
determine approximate timing and epicentral locations of
previous earthquakes generating site-specific peak ground
accelerations exceeding the threshold value for
liquefaction.
Acknowledgements: We thank Martitia Tuttle, Peter Almond,
Pilar Villamor, for their discussions and assistance. This work was
funded by an EQC Capability Fund.
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