English Reviewer

1. Analogy
An analogy compares two things that are mostly different from each other but have some traits in common.
Sometimes, the things being compared are quite similar, but other times they could be very different. By
showing a connection between two different things, writers help to explain something important about one
thing by using a second thing you already know about. They are very much like logic puzzles! 
Example: tree : leaf :: flower : petal
This analogy highlights the relationship between the whole (a tree and a flower) and its parts (a leaf and
a petal). On tests of logic, one portion of the analogy is left blank and students are left to choose an answer
that makes sense to complete the comparison. 
Though there is no limit to the possibilities when it comes to word analogies, here are some types of analogy
to familiarize yourself with the concept: 

Synonym- Synonyms are words that have the same or nearly the same meaning as another word. In this type
of analogy, you will need to find words that are parallel in meaning.  
Ex. Happy : Joyful :: Sad : Depressed

Antonym- Some analogies are based on antonyms-words that have opposite meanings. In this type of
analogy, one word in each pair means the opposite of another.
Ex. Hot : Cold :: Weak : Strong

Characteristics- are those analogies that check for understanding about a characteristic that forms the
relationship between two words. 
Ex. Tropical : Hot :: Polar : Cold

Part to Whole- This type of analogy expresses a part to whole or part of relationship. The first word will be a
part of the second word or vice versa.
Ex. Finger : Hand :: Petal : Flower

Degree- Another type of analogy relationship is ‘Degree of intensity’. That is, the words in each pair have
similar meanings, but one word is stronger, more intense, than the other.
Ex. Mist : Fog :: Drizzle : Thunderstorm

Type-  In this type of analogy relationship, one word is the element/member of a group that the other word
describes.
Ex. Golden Retriever : Dog :: Salmon : Fish

Performer and Object- This kind of analogy usually links a person with the object they commonly use. 
Ex. Pen : Writer :: Microphone : Singer

Cause and Effect- In this type of analogy, one word in the pair describes a condition or action, while the
other word describes an outcome or effect to that action or condition.
Ex. Virus : Illness :: Storm : Flood

2. Genres of Materials/Films Viewed

A genre is a category of art, music, or literature. The following are some popular examples of genres, along
with some related sub-genres. Not only will you find literary genres, but some of the most popular music
genres as well.
A. Action and Adventure Genre
Action and adventure are sometimes considered two distinct genres, however, the two go hand-in-hand: they
involve exciting sequences and obstacles that must be overcome before reaching a goal. There are many
different categories of action-adventure stories.
1. Epic - An epic is a tale, often told in verse, of a heroic figure on a quest. You see epics in literature,
movies, and even music.
2. Military - The military genre usually involves stories of battle and espionage from the war front. Examples
of this genre.
3. Spy Fiction - This genre, in the James Bond vein, recounts the pulse-pounding expeditions of spies in
various agencies throughout the world.

B. Comedy Genre
Comedies are humorous stories intended to make the reader or viewer laugh. Whether it’s a literary genre or
found in the most popular music genre, comedy is just funny.
1. Black Comedy - Although these stories are intended to be funny, they also touch darker areas of
storytelling, such as death and fear. Black comedy makes it way into books, movies and songs.
2. Parodies - A parody intends to mimic another genre to humorous effect. Parodies can be intended to mock

and criticize as well as to pay homage.

3. Rom-com - Romantic comedies, or rom-coms, mix love stories together with comedic events.
4.Slapstick Comedy - This type of comedy features physical humor such as pratfalls, silly and exaggerated
body language, and unlikely scenarios.

C. Fantasy Genre
Stories about magic spells, mythical creatures, and fabled kingdoms are known as fantasies. This genre
sometimes includes witchcraft and wizardry, dragons and unicorns, and an emphasis on legend.
1. Fables - This type of fantasy story demonstrates a general truth or a parable.
2. Fairy Tales - These are often age-old stories that include magic and folklore in addition to traditional
fantasy characters like elves and goblins. Fairy tales are a popular movie genre but can be found in music and
literature as well.
3. Legends - While legends may include bits of historical fact, they are usually made to seem larger than life,
as in the Legend of King Arthur.
4. Scientific Fantasy - A fantasy story that may include elements of scientific fact is known as science-
fantasy.

D. Horror Genre
Horror stories are intended, as the name suggests, to horrify and scare an audience. The genre of horror has
been shocking audiences for many centuries and includes many sub-genres.
1. Ghost Story - These are stories where the dead return to life and haunt the living, such as Dickens' A
Christmas Carol. Sometimes the ghosts are trying to teach the living a lesson.
2. Monster Stories - Monster stories use creatures that frighten or threaten human beings as the antagonists.
3. Slasher Fiction - Popular in cinema, slasher stories tell of deranged killers who are out to punish regular
people.
4. Survival Story - These stories paint a future where humankind is up against a threat like zombies or
vampires and must survive against the odds.

E. Mystery Genre
Mystery always leaves you guessing. Not only are you guessing who did it, but what will happen next.
Explore several different subgenres of mystery along with music, movie, and literary examples of each.
1. Thriller - This genre will really get your heart racing.
2. Investigative - You’ve entered the world of whodunit. This thriller sub-genre uses ace detectives and
medical specialist to find out the who, what, and why.
3. Suspense - This genre leaves you on the edge of your seat waiting for that next moment of action.

F. Drama Genre
When you are ready for a good cry or just want to curl up to smile at a good romance, then it is time to look
for drama. You might find a heartwarming family story or a spicy romance set 100 years ago.
1. Romance - Love lost, love at first sight, and even forbidden love will be found here.
2. Historical/Period - Is your jam more history? You’ll find all different types of historical pieces in the
genre.
3. Tragedy Examples - Endless tears for days. Tragedies can be epic or everyday, but they always hit you
right in the heart strings.

G. Science Fiction Genre

Any story that uses scientific concepts to explain the world or the universe is known as science fiction, sci-fi,
or syfy. This genre is very similar in construction to fantasy, except that science is a central theme.
1. Apocalyptic/Dystopian Sci-fi - Any science fiction that has to do with the end of the world or the
destruction of mankind is known as "apocalyptic" or “dystopian” sci-fi.
2. Soft Sci-fi - Soft sci-fi typically deals less with the complications of applied science and more with the
effects of science.
3. Space Opera - This type of science fiction deals with the long-term effects of a life lived in space, such as
Star Trek or Star Wars.

NEWS FLASH - a single item of important news that aired separately and often interrupts other programs.
WEATHER REPORT - tells and foretells weather conditions on specific area
INTERNET-BASED PROGRAM - program that is informative and can be accessed through the website
MOVIE TRAILER – Short clip from a film
DOCUMENTARY - research-based reporting that deals with specific topic
3. Active and Passive Voice
The voice of a verb tells whether the subject of the sentence performs or receives the
action. In English there are two voices: active and passive.

ACTIVE VOICE - In active voice, the subject performs the action expressed by the verb.
It tells us what a person or thing does.

PASSIVE VOICE - In passive voice, the subject receives the action expressed by the verb.
It tells us what is done to someone or something.

TO CHANGE AN ACTIVE VOICE SENTENCE TO A PASSIVE VOICE SENTENCE:

1. Make the object of the active sentence into the subject of the passive sentence.
2. Use the verb “to be” in the same tense as the main verb of the active sentence. (It must agree to the number
of the subject.
3. Use the past participle of the main verb of the active sentence.
Present Tenses
Simple Present - Use the simple present tense to make a generalization, to present a state of being, or to
indicate a habitual or repeated action.
Present Progressive - Use the present progressive to describe an ongoing activity or a temporary action.
Present Perfect - Use the present perfect to describe an action occurring in the past but relevant to the present,
or extending to the present.

Past Tenses
Simple Past - Use the simple past to indicate a general or habitual action occurring in the past or at a specific
time in the past
Past Progressive - Use the past progressive to indicate an ongoing action in the past or an action continuing
through a specific past time.
Past Perfect - Use the past perfect to indicate an action completed prior to a particular time or before another
action in the past.
Past Perfect Progressive - Use the past perfect progressive to indicate a continuing action that began before a
past action or time.

Future Tenses
Simple Future -Use the future to indicate an action that is expected to take place at a future time.
Future Progressive -Use the future progressive to indicate an action in future with emphasis on continuing
action.
Future Perfect - Use the future perfect to indicate a future action expected to be completed before another
future action or time.
Future Perfect Progressive - Use the future perfect progressive to indicate an action projected to have been
going on for a while before a time in the future.

4. Past Simple and Past Perfect

SIMPLE PAST- The simple past tense is used to describe a completed activity that happened in the past.
PAST PERFECT - The Past Perfect Tense indicates that an action was completed (finished or "perfected")
at some point in the past before something else happened.
Subject + had + past participle
5. Direct and Indirect Speech
Direct speech is exactly what a person says. When we want to quote someone's exact words, we use
quotation marks. Ex. "The novel is really interesting," said Andrea.

Indirect Speech - When we want to report what someone said, we do not use quotation marks. We report
what they said, but we don't use their exact words.
Ex. Andrea said the novel was really interesting.

NOTE: When we use indirect speech, we are reporting what someone else said in a different time and
situation. Logically, we need to change some of the words from the original statement.
Changes: Person, Verb, Place, Time, Possesive Words

Changes in Person of Pronouns:

- 1st Person pronouns in reported speech are always changed according to the subject of the reporting
speech.
- 2nd Person pronouns in reported speech are always changed according to the object of the reporting
speech.
- 3rd Person pronouns in reported speech are not changed.
Reported or indirect speech is usually used to talk about the past, so we normally change the tense of the
words spoken. We use reporting verbs like 'say', 'tell', 'ask', and we may use the word 'that' to introduce the
reported words.

Verb Tenses
- If the reporting verb is in the Present or Future tense (e.g., say, will say) there is no change in the
tense of the verb in the Indirect speech.
- If Reporting Verb is in the Past Tense, the tense of the verbs in the reported speech or Indirect
Speech must be generally changed. (Present Tense in the Direct becomes past Tense)
- Past Tense in the direct becomes past perfect.
- If Reporting Verb is in the Past Tense, the tense of the verbs in the reported speech or Indirect
Speech must be generally changed.
- Past Tense in the direct becomes past perfect.
- Present Continuous in the direct becomes past continuous.
- Past Continuous in the direct becomes past perfect continuous.
- Present Perfect in the direct becomes past perfect.
- Present Perfect Continuous in the direct becomes past perfect continuous.
- ‘Will’ and ‘Shall’ are changed to ‘would’.

6. Phrases, Clauses, and Sentences

PHRASE - A phrase is a group of words that act as a part of speech but cannot stand alone as a sentence.
CLAUSE - Clauses are groups of words that have a subject and a predicate. Independent clauses express a
complete thought and can stand alone as a sentence but subordinate clauses depend on other parts of the
sentence to express a complete thought.
SENTENCE - A sentence expresses a complete thought and contains a subject, a noun or pronoun, and a
predicate, a verb or verb phrase. The four basic types of sentences—simple, compound, complex, and
compound-complex— use phrases and clauses in varying degrees of complexity.

1. PHRASE - A phrase is any group of related words that, unlike a sentence, has no subject-predicate
combination. The words in a phrase act together so that the phrase itself functions as a single part of speech.
For example, some phrases act as nouns, some as verbs, some as adjectives or
adverbs. Remember that phrases can’t stand alone as sentences.

A. The PREPOSITIONAL Phrase - Prepositional phrase begins with a preposition (in,

of, by, from, for, etc.) and includes a noun or pronoun that is the object of the preposition.
Ex. in the smoky, crowded room

B. The PARTICIPIAL Phrase - A participial phrase begins with a past or present participle and is followed
by its objects and modifiers. Like participles alone, participial phrases are used as adjectives.
Ex. Present Participle: Sniffing the fresh air, Jim realized he had found paradise.
 Past Participle: The soldiers, trapped by the enemy, threw down their guns.

C. The GERUND Phrase - Gerund phrase always acts as a noun in a sentence, not as an adjective. Like
other nouns, a gerund phrase can serve as the subject of a sentence, the object of a verb or preposition, or the
complement of a linking verb.
Ex. Riding the black stallion terrified Hugh.

D. The INFINITIVE Phrase - Infinitive phrases usually function as nouns, though they can be used as
adjectives and adverbs. An infinitive phrase contains an infinitive (for example, to sleep, to have slept, to
consider, to throw) and its objects and modifiers.
Ex. To sleep all night was his only wish.

2. CLAUSES – Are groups of words that have a subject and predicate.

A. INDEPENDENT – Grammatically complete statements like these are sentences that can stand alone.
When they are part of a longer sentence, they are referred to as INDEPENDENT CLAUSES. Two or more
independent clauses can be joined by using coordinating conjunctions (FANBOYS) or by using semicolons
(;).
NOTE: FANBOYS (For, And, Nor, But, Or, Yet, So)

B. DEPENDENT – A subordinate clause has a subject and predicate, but unlike an independent clause, it
can’t stand by itself. It depends on something else to express a complete thought, which is why it is also
called a dependent clause. Some subordinate conjunctions (although, because, if, unless, when, etc.)

NOTE: Types of Subordinating Conjunctions

Comparison, Time, Concession, Relative Pronoun, Reason, Condition, Place, Relative, Manner

3. SENTENCES - A sentence is that it is a group of words containing a subject and a predicate and
expressing a complete thought.
NOTE: Subject - What or whom the sentence is about.
Predicate tells what the subject does or is or what is done to the subject.

TYPES OF SENTENCES
1. SIMPLE - has one independent clause and no subordinate clauses.
2. COMPOUND - contains one independent clause and one or more subordinate clauses.
Two independent clauses may be joined by a semicolon when they have an implied logical relationship. Two
independent clauses may be joined by a comma and a coordinating conjunction. The seven coordinating
conjunctions are easily remembered with the mnemonic device FANBOYS.
3. COMPLEX - has two or more independent clauses, joined by coordinating conjunctions,
and no subordinate clauses.
The dependent clauses may be located in any of the following positions within a complex sentence: before
the independent clause, after the independent clause, before and after the independent clause, or interrupting
the independent clause.

7. Types of Reading
Reading is the process of looking at a series of written symbols and getting meaning from them. When we
read, we use our eyes to receive written symbols (letters, punctuation marks and spaces) and we use our brain
to convert them into words, sentences and paragraphs that communicate something to us. Reading can be
silent (in our head) or aloud (so that other people can hear). Reading is a receptive skill - through it we
receive information. But the complex process of reading also requires the skill of speaking, so that we can
pronounce the words that we read. In this sense, reading is also a productive skill in that we are both
receiving information and transmitting it (even if only to ourselves).

According to (Tarigan (1990:7) in Jaenal 2010 argues that reading is a process that is carried
and used by readers who want to get the message delivered by the author through the
medium of words or written language.

According to (Oka (1983:15) in Jaenal 2010 if viewed in terms of differences in scope, it can
be distinguished three kinds of meaning to read: Understanding the first is a narrow sense,
namely the sense that regards reading it as a process of written symbols recognition. Into
this process included the recognition of words carefully, in a wide range, and quickly.

According David Nunan (1989:33) “Reading is not an invariant skill, that there are different
types of reading skills that correspond to the many different purposes we have for reading”.
So, in the classroom, in students’ reading activities, the writer is sure that they have many
purposes, among others are to graduate from their school and to provide themselves with
the knowledge to continue their studies whatever their purposes are. In order to achieve the
goal, the comprehension ability in reading is needed.

Summing it up, Reading is a very vital skill to get meanings, acquire knowledge and broaden
our perspective, but, aside from learning what and how to read is not enough. We also need
to learn The Use of Appropriate Reading Style for One’s Purpose.

There are different styles of reading texts: skimming, scanning, and in-depth reading, inside in-depth
reading, intensive and extensive reading, and we have the special speech reading. Each is used for a
specific purpose.

1. Skimming
Skimming is sometimes referred to as gist reading. Skimming may help in order to know what the text is
about at its most basic level. You might typically do this with a magazine or
newspaper and would help you mentally and quickly shortlist those articles which you might consider for a
deeper read. You might typically skim to search for a name in a telephone directory. You can reach a speed
count of even 700 words per minute if you train yourself well in this particular method. Comprehension is of
course very low and understanding of overall content very superficial.

Skimming will certainly save you a lot of time. But as stated above, it is not the best way to read
because you’re comprehension will be lowered. However, skimming is useful when your goal is to preview
the text to get a better idea of what it’s about. It will help prepare you for deeper
learning.

The Use of Appropriate Reading Style for One’s Purpose

This strategy makes it much easier to recall what you’re about to read.
1. Take a look at the table of contents first.
2. Review the subheadings in each chapter
3. Quickly read the first paragraph in that section
4. Check out anything in your text that is in bold or italics
5. If there is a chapter summary, now is a good time read it over.
This completely prepares your brain to have an overview of what this chapter is about. You can then go on to
use scanning to find specific important ideas.

2. Scanning
Picture yourself visiting a historical city, guide book in hand. You would most probably just scan the guide
book to see which site you might want to visit. Scanning involves getting your eyes to quickly scuttle across
sentence and is used to get just a simple piece of information. Interestingly, research has concluded that
reading off a computer screen actually inhibits the pathways to effective scanning and thus, reading of paper
is far more conducive to speedy comprehension of texts. Something most
people sometimes do not give enough importance to is illustrations.
These should be included in your scanning. Pay special attention to the introduction and the
conclusion.

3. Extensive
Extensive reading involves reading for pleasure. Because there is an element of enjoyment in
extensive reading it is unlikely that students will undertake extensive reading of a text they do not like. It also
requires a fluid decoding and assimilation of the text and content in front of
you. If the text is difficult and you stop every few minutes to figure out what is being said or to
look up new words in the dictionary, you are breaking your concentration and diverting
your thoughts.

4. Intensive
You need to have your aims clear in mind when undertaking intensive reading. Remember this is going to be
far more time consuming than scanning or skimming. If you need to list the chronology of events in a long
passage, you will need to read it intensively. This type of reading has indeed beneficial to language learners
as it helps them understand vocabulary by deducing the meaning of words in context. It moreover, helps with
retention of information for long periods of time and knowledge resulting from intensive reading persists in
your long term memory. Intensive reading is just what the name implies! It’s reading where testing,
evaluating and increasing knowledge is the primary focus. Understanding the literal meaning of what’s being
read is vital. Reading intensively often includes note-taking and attention to details. Some possible examples
of intensive reading material are reports, contracts, news articles,
blog posts and short pieces of text such as short stories.

5. Speech
Speech reading (or lip reading) is a building block that helps a child with hearing loss
understand speech. The child watches the movements of a speaker’s mouth and face,
and understands what the speaker is saying. About 40% of the sounds in the English
language can be seen on the lips of a speaker in good conditions — such as a well-
lit room where the child can see the speaker’s face. Children and adults often use speech reading in
combination with other building blocks — such as auditory training (listening), cued speech, and others. But
it can’t be successful alone. Babies will naturally begin using this building block if they can see the speaker’s
mouth and face. But as a child gets older, he or she will still need some training to use this building block.
Sometimes, when talking with a person who is deaf or hard-of-hearing, people will exaggerate their mouth
movements or talk very loudly. Exaggerated mouth movements and a loud voice can make speech reading
very hard. It is important to talk in a normal way and look directly at your child’s face and make sure he or
she is watching you.

Reviewer Made By: Edison Rae M. Ramos, VII - Discoverers