Fig. 8.6 Steering geometry error to add understeer.

Because of the symmetry of this case, both wheels will steer in the same
direction when the body rolls. For example, in a turn to the right (positive steer
by the SAE convention) the body rolls to the left inducing jounce on the left
wheel and rebound on the right. Thus both wheels steer to the left (out of the turn)
adding an understeer effect to the vehicle's directional response. Locating the
inboard joint of the tie rod above the ideal center produces an oversteer effect.
8.7 shows the roll steer behavior experimentally measured on a
Figure
vehicle. Lines sloping upward to the right reflect a roll steer which is understeer
in direction (i.e., in a left-hand turn, as the vehicle body rolls to the right, the
wheels steer to the right reducing the severity of turn). At any steer angle the
slope of the curve is the roll steer coefficient, \g=e\.The understeer gradient is then
given by:
^roll $ equati(8-3)
on $
steer da
Before leaving this subject, it should be noted that most suspensions swing
in plane that is skewed with respect the the vehicle longitudinal axis. The
a

analysis, as illustrated above, should actually be made in the swing plane and
transferred to the transverse plane.

FRONT WHEEL GEOMETRY

The important elements of a steering system consist not only of the visible
linkages just described, but also the geometry associated with the steer rotation
axis at the road wheel. This geometry determines the force and moment
Fig. 8.7 Roll steer behavior experimentally measured on a vehicle.

reactions in the steering system, affecting its overall performance. The

important features of the geometry are shown in Figure 8.8.
The steer angle is achieved by rotation of the wheel about a steer rotation
axis. Historically, this axis has the name "kingpin" axis, although it may be
established by ball joints or the upper mounting bearing on a strut. The axis is
normally not vertical, but may be tipped outward at the bottom, producing a
lateral inclination angle (kingpin inclination angle) in the range of 0-5 degrees
for trucks and 10-15 degrees on passenger cars.
It is common for the wheel to be offset laterally from the point where the
steer rotation axis intersects the ground. The lateral distance from the ground
intercept to the wheel centerline is the offset at the ground (sometimes called
"scrub") and is considered positive when the wheel is outboard of the ground
intercept. Offset may be necessary to obtain packaging space for brakes,
suspension, and steering components. At the same time, it adds "feel of the
road" and reduces static steering efforts by allowing the tire to roll around an
arc when it is turned [7].

Caster angle results when the steer rotation axis is inclined in the longitu-
dinal plane. Positive caster places the ground intercept of the steer axis ahead
of the center of tire contact. A similar effect is created by includinga
Fig 8.8 Steer rotation geometry at the road wheel.

longitudinal offset between the steer axis and the spin axis of the wheel
(spindle), although this is only infrequently used. Caster angle normally ranges
from 0 to 5 degrees and may vary with suspension deflection.
Wheel camber angles and toe-in normally have only secondary effects on
steering behavior and high-speed directional response. The typical fractional
angles specified for camber are selected to achieve near-zero camber angle for
the most common load conditions of the vehicle. The small static toe angles
are normally selected to achieve zero angle when driving forces and/or rolling
resistance forces are present on the road. The selection of these angles is
normally dominated by considerations of front tire wear rather than handling
[8, 9].

STEERING SYSTEM FORCES AND MOMENTS

The forces and moments imposed on the steering system emanate from
those generated at the tire-road interface. The SAE has selected a convention
by which to describe the forces on a tire, as shown in Figure 8.9. The forces
are measured at the center of the contact with the ground and provide a
convenient basis by which to analyze steering reactions.
The ground reactions on the tire are described by three forces and moments,
as follows: