Physical Modelling of Metal Forming

Processes
T. W A N H E I M , M. P. S C H R E I B E R , J. G R O N B A E K , A N D
J. D A N C K E R T

Based on the steps used in establishing a conceptual model for a theoretical analysis of a
problem in metal forming, analogous steps are suggested when the use of a physical
model is contemplated. Two lists of the types of information useful in the design of a
process are given: the aims of synthesis, and the aims of analysis. Based on this the
necessary idealizations must be made, whereupon a method of measurement is selected.
Suitable model materials for the specimen and the tool can then be selected, as can
friction conditions. Idealizations for facilitating measuring techniques and for the
selection of a model material are discussed. Measuring techniques for determination of
flow, strains, stresses, normal pressures in the specimen, and strains and stresses in the
tool are described. Equipment for measuring constancy of volume, stress-strain curves
and creep properties is shown and some results given.

INTRODUCTION sumptions and idealizations depending on the material,

the method of analysis selected and the application in
The rising demands on production engineering in the
hand. Such assumptions and idealizations can be:
last two decades have caused a shift away from the use
homogeneity, isotropy, incompressibility, yield criteri-
of rules of thumb and empirical knowledge and towards
on, flow rule, friction law, plane sections remain plane,
the application of engineering methods in the devel-
plane strain, perfectly plastic material, rigid tool, etc.,
opment of processes, determination of process data,
etc.
choice of lubricants and materials, and related aspects.
3) Carrying the analysis using the developed methods
Theoretical methods using for example slipline fields,
and programs, and arriving at the desired answers. (The
upper bounds, and slab approach have been extensively
aims of the analysis.)
developed in the same period.
4) Transforming these answers to useful information
The use of a theoretical method in this subject can be
for the tool maker, production engineer, and others.
described in 4 steps as follows:
(The aims of the synthesis.)
1) Selecting one of a number of methods of analysis,
Depending on which part of the process is in focus
such as the slab method, upper bound method, slipline-
and what type of information is wanted, different
field method, finite element method, etc.
fundamental assumptions, methods of analysis, partial
2) Making a certain number of fundamental as-
processes and idealizations may be chosen.
T. WANHEIM, M. P. SCHREIBER, J. GR~NBAEK, and Therefore this chain has to be started by identifying
J. DANCKERT, Laboratory for Mechanical Processing of the aims of the synthesis, thereafter establishing the
Materials, AMT, Technical University of Denmark. aims of the analysis, then selecting the best method for

J. A P P L I E D M E T A L W O R K I N G ISSN 0162-9700/80/0706-0005500.75/0 VOLUME 1, NUMBER 3--5

9 1980 A M E R I C A N SOCIETY FOR M E T A L S
this purpose, and as the fourth step making the nec-
essary fundamental assumptions.
The steps in the decision methodology will be as
shown in Table I.
Theoretical methods of solution have their draw-
backs, with the result that the possibility of calculating
relevant data for forces, deformations, stresses, strains
and temperatures have been difficult in a number of
processes. In analogous cases in the science of engi-
neering, the use of physical models is an accepted and
in m a n y cases necessary tool in design and develop-
ment.
The primary reason for using a model is that it can
yield information about the original process which
would be inaccessible or expensive to provide without
the model. The use of a model always implies that some
properties of the original are sacrificed in order to get
the relevant properties more clearly in view.
This paper deals with the use of waxes as model
materials for bulk metal forming and metal cutting, a
technique that has proven its value in numerous cases of
research work, tool development and teaching, but is
often looked u p o n - - b o t h from the academic and prac-
tical sides--with a degree of scepticism based on the
argument that "waxes don't behave like metals." In
some respect this is true, of course. To establish the
cases where the analogy is acceptable is, therefore, or
importance.
Let us first try to establish the decision methodology
leading to the choice of experimental conditions in a
model for metal forming. Such a methodology is
suggested in Table II. There are two major changes
compared with Table I. C "Method of analysis" has
been replaced by " M e t h o d of measurement", and D
" M a k e fundamental assumptions" has been replaced by
Table I. Decision Methodology for a Theoretical Analysis
A Identify aim of synthesis
I-
B Identify aim of analysis
Select method of analysis and make associated
C Area 1 is the deformation zone, where problems of
idealizations of situaton
D Make fundamental assumptions for material
and friction
E Do analysis and collect results
F Transform results of analysis into aims of
syntheses
6--VOLUME 1, NUMBER 3
Table II. Decision Methodology for a Model Material Experiment
A Identify aim of synthesis
Identify aim of analysis and define
partial process
Select method of measurement and make
C
associated idealization
Jt
D1 Select model material for specimen
D2 Select friction condition
D3 Select model material for tool
E Do experiment and collect results
Transform results of analysis for model into
F
aims of synthesis for real process
D1-D2-D3 "Select model material for specimen--Select
friction conditions--select model material for tool." We
shall discuss this in the following paragraphs.
I D E N T I F Y A I M S OF S Y N T H E S I S
The first step in any analytical approach is to define
the problem. In designing a process in metal forming,
answers must be given to a number of questions aiming
at the choice of number of steps, dimensions of tools,
type of lubricant, etc. The great number of questions of
this kind can be listed in groups belonging to different
parts of the process-tool-machine system. We can use
the approach of Lange 1 for this purpose. In eight areas
all problems are covered from the continuum-mechan-
ical and metallurgical aspects to product and process
development and the final production. (Fig. 1)
This system can be used for any type of metal
forming process a n d - - i n addition--also for problems in
metal cutting and abrasive processes.
flow, strain, stress, and temperature should be solved.
Area 2 covers the properties of the material before
deformation. The chemical composition and the me-
chanical properties play an important role here. Area 3
is concerned with the same properties after deforma-
tion. Of interest here are, for example, mechanical
properties, surface finish and dimensional accuracy.
The tribological problems of friction, lubrication and
wear are covered in Area 4, as is the change in the
J. APPLIED METALWORKING
 Table III. Aims of Synthesis

Aim of Synthesis (Which or What--?) Where in

System?

Principle of process
Material
Temperature General
Number of steps in process
Number of annealings in process

Risk of unwanted flow

Risk of unwanted metallurgical changes Deformation
Risk of instability zone
Risk of fracture

Form of part (including weight)

Tolerance of part Part
Surface condition of part prior to
Mechanical properties of part deformation

Form of part
Tolerance of part Part
Fig. l--System for problems in metal forming.t Surface condition of part after
Mechanical properties of part deformation

Surface conditioning Interface 4

surface affected by the contact between workpieces and Lubricant
tool. Geometry
Deformations, stresses, temperature of tool, and even Material
the economy of the process can be covered in Area 5. Surface condition
Dimensions Tool 5
Reactions between the part and the surrounding at-
Life
mosphere, for example, scale from hot working and
absorption of gases are covered in Area 6. Protective environment Free surface 6
The machine in Area 7 must give the necessary forces Type of machine
Machine 7
and is influenced by their magnitude and direction, Size of machine
from which demands arise on the stiffness and guidance
Auxiliary
of tools. Area 8 covers questions arising about the 8
equipment
auxiliary equipment, automation etc.
This grouping of questions of interest is listed in
Table III. In the past, answers to these questions were
often given by rules of thumb and based on experience. calculation (as those for "stress distribution", "spring
Applying an engineering approach to these problems back" and "mechanical deformation of machine.")
will, as mentioned, involve transformation of the ques- Some of these have been employed in different appli-
tions asked by the toolmaker to questions that can be cations, others have only been tested in one or a few
answered by the methods of engineering. applications, and some have never been tried.
For a few it is very uncertain whether any physical
model will be capable of giving any meaningful answer
(for example, "geometrical properties of surface" or
IDENTIFY AIMS OF ANALYSIS AND
"thermal deformation of machine.")
DEFINE PARTIAL PROCESS
The present state of knowledge and application at the
Examples of the results or aims of the analysis are authors' laboratory is indicated in Table IV. For some
suggested in Table IV, where Areas 0, 2 and 8 are left of the aims of analysis given in the table, modelling,
open. measuring and calculation techniques have been de-
For some of the aims such as "filling of tool" or "flow veloped.
picture" the measuring techniques are straightforward The level of development is indicated by the symbols
and have been used in a number of applications. o, x, + a n d . , which have the following meaning:
Others involve more sophisticated modelling and o Techniques have been applied to different
measuring techniques and possibly also a great deal of processes and are ready for daily use.

J. APPLIED METALWORKING VOLUME 1, NUMBER 3--7

 x Techniques have been tested on a single or a few - - a stage in a process where some condition for
processes and seems promising to other processes. steady-state or integration prevails, e.g. plane sections
+ Techniques have not been tested but are con- remain plane, direction of tangential stress in surface is
sidered as probably possible. constant or strain increments are proportional.
9 Techniques probably not possible.
Closely connected to the determination of the aim of
SELECT METHOD OF MEASUREMENT AND
the analysis is the definition of the partial process.
MAKE ASSOCIATED IDEALIZATIONS
The partial process can be:
- - o n e step in a multistep process, The selection of idealizations and the selection of a
- - a section of the specimen in a certain process, e.g. group of the fundamental assumptions are closely
the flash in a forging, interrelated and related as well to the method of
measurement (method of analysis in the theoretical
analogy) of the material properties.
Table IV. Aims of Analysis The selection of idealizations is also dependent on the
desired accuracy of the analysis.
Aim of analysis State Where in
Idealizations may be divided into three groups:
(Determination of) of Art System
l) Idealizations regarding geometry. In this group
General 0 both idealizations regarding the geometry of flow (plane
Filling of tool o strain, axisymmetric flow etc.) and idealizations re-
Strain increments o garding tool geometry, dead zone boundaries, etc.,
Strain distribution o
idealized by, for example, straight lines, circles and
Strain-rate distribution 0 Deformation
Temperature distribution x zone 1 parabolas are listed. The well-known assumptions that a
Stress distribution x circle is deformed in an ellipse, that the connecting line
Obtainable deformation between two neighbouring grid points is a straight line
Part prior to 2 after deformation, etc. are found in this group.
deformation 2) Idealizations regarding the interdependence of
Fibre structure parameters. In this group many dynamic and ther-
Hardness distribution modynamic idealizations will be included.
Strength Typical examples are:
Ductility
--Gravity forces have no influence on stress and
Porosity Part after
Residual stresses deformation 3 strain system.
Elastic unloading deformation --Inertia forces can be neglected.
Geometrical properties of surface - - H e a t produced in deformation does not influence
Mechanical properties of surface
yield stress.
Tangential stress - - H e a t produced does not leave deformation zone
Normal :stress
(adiabatic idealization).
Sliding length Interface 4
Wear - - H e a t produced leaves deformation zone completely
Deformation of surface (isothermal idealization).
Strain distribution X
3) Idealizations regarding the plastic state of the
Stress distribution X specimen, the friction in the interface, and the elastic
Temperature distribution Tool 5 state of the tool. In this group a number of idealizations
Elastic deformation X
can be listed, such as:
Yield! fracture load X
Post-failure condition + --Homogeneity
--Isotropy
Geometrical, mechanical and
chemical properties of surface
Free --Strain concept (engineering strain in Lagrangian or
6
Surface Eulerian definition, natural strain)
due to surface reactions
--Stress concept
Magnitude and direction of forces O
Load-displacement curve O
--Elastic stress-strain law (Hooke)
+ Machine 7 --Constancy of volume in plastic range
Mechanical deformation
Thermal deformation --Yield criteria (Tresca, von Mises)
Auxiliary 8
--Plastic stress-strain law (Levy-von Mises)
equipment --Strain-hardening in monotonic straining (e.g.
power law of hardening)

8--VOLUME 1, NUMBER 3 J. APPLIED METALWORKING

 --Strain-hardening in non-monotonic straining (iso-
tropic or kinematic hypothesis)
--Criteria of instability
--Criteria of fracture
--Models of friction (/~ or m)
The idealizations in Group 1 will be dealt with in this
paragraph, while idealizations from Groups 2 and 3 will
be dealt with later.
It is obvious, however, that the aims of analysis, the
selection of the partial process to be analyzed, and the
method of measurement, all influence the idealizations
and fundamental assumptions to be made, and thereby
the selection of a suitable model material.
Methods of Measurement
Below are listed the aims of analysis for which
measuring techniques using model materials have been
used successfully in the authors' laboratory.
A) Filling a tool, fibre structure, strain increments,
strain-rate distribution, strain distribution, sliding
length.
B) Temperature distribution, hardness distribution,
strength of part.
C) Stress distribution, normal stress in interface,
abrasive wear, magnitude and direction of forces,
load-displacement curve.
D) Strain distribution in tool, stress distribution,
elastic deformation, yield load.
Specimen Models
In Group A only the registration of model contour, a
painted grid on the surface, or a model made of
different colors is needed.
The deformation of the grid can be recorded on
videotape and/or photographed. The measuring of grid
deformation can be made either directly on the TV
screen or from the photographs by means of a trans-
parent measuring sheet. Measuring directly on the TV
screen is rather inaccurate and in most cases grid
deformation is determined from measuring the pho-
tographs.
Measuring the photographs is done on a profile
projector. The coordinate table of the profile projector
is supplied with two digital micrometers. The signals
from these are led through an electronic counter to a
data logger and from here to a PDP-8 computer, where
data are recorded on magnetic tape. With this meas-
uring system a grid can be measured quickly and
accurately. The accuracy of the measuring system is
0.002 mm. The hodograph corresponding to a slip-line
or an upper-bound field is also verified photographi-
J. APPLIED METALWORKING
cally either by measuring coordinates for a series of
points on the model material surface over several
negatives, or by letting the deformation take place with
the shutter open in the camera so that points painted on
the specimen reveal the distortions. A good control of
an assumed upper-bound field is to compare the
theoretical deformation of a square grid with a square
grid painted on the surface of a wax specimen. For
strain determination on specimen models the circular
grid method is being challenged by the square grid
method) IA2 For three-dimensional models grids on the
surface, and models made of different colors of wax are
used.
Two typical painted grids can be seen in Fig. 2(a) and
(b), and in 2(c) a specimen for axial symmetry is shown.
If an idealization of plane strain can be used, this will
facilitate the experimental work and thereby the method
of measurement. Provided the stress normal to the flow
plane is compressive, a glass plate may be inserted
parallel to the material flow, and the whole deformation
can be registered on one specimen. The same method
can be applied for three-dimensional flow with one
plane of symmetry.
This is of special interest for nonstationary processes,
where the alternatives--using a series of two-colored
specimens, deforming them to different steps of the
process and cutting them open--is a rather slow meth-
od.
In Table V flow geometries and possible grid tech-
niques are shown.
The aims of analysis listed in Group B need some
calculation, namely strain determination combined with
the stress-strain curve of the material being modelled.
Hardness measurements can be carried out directly if a
strain-hardening model material is used.
In Group C stresses are mentioned. Stresses in the
specimen have been determined in four ways: via a
slip-line field, with the aid of visioplasticity registration
of normal pressures and registration of hydrostatic
stress component in plane strain.
To determine the slip-line field or upper-bound field
the "slip-line wax6'' developed in the laboratory is most
often used. Another technique involving the determi-
nation of the principal axes of a deformed circular grid
has also been applied. The slip-lines can thereafter be
found as curves at angles of _ 45 deg to these directions
of principal axis of the deformed circles. L~
Furthermore, photo-plasticity and photo-elasticity
methods are employed in the determination of slip-line
fields.
To determine the surface pressure between specimen
and tool in model experiments, the pressure gauge
shown in Fig. 3 has been developed in the laboratory?,7
VOLUME 1, NUMBER 3--9
 The surface pressure between specimen and tool
causes the metal membrane to deflect towards the
Vickers pyramid which makes an indentation mark in
the membrane. By measuring the size of the indentation
mark after the process, it is possible to determine the
maximum surface pressure which has occurred during
the process. The pressure gauge is very small. (The
diameter of the pressure gauge shown is 6 mm.)
The hydrostatic pressure in a plane-strain experiment
is equivalent to the pressure against the glass plate,

Fig. 2---(a) square grid, (b) circular grid,

(c) "roulade" specimen.

Table V. Flow Geometry and Associated Experimental Technique, Aim of Analysis: Strain Distribution and increments

Material is
Passing
Through
Material is ~qot Passing Plane of
Through Plane of Interest Interest

Stress Normal to Plane is Compressive Stress Normal to Plane is Tensile

Plane Axial 3 dimensional Plane Axial 3 dimenstional

Strain Symmetry State Strain Symmetry State

1 specimen 1 specimen l specimen 1 specimen

Steady State 2 colors 2 colors 2 colors 2 colors
process 2D cartesian roulade 2D cartesian 3D cartesian
cz by vol. const, all strain
measured

serigraphic n specimen n specimen n specimen n specimen

Non Steady State grid 2 colors 2 colors 2 colors 2 colors
process + glassplate 2D cartesian roulade % by vol. const, all strain
measured

10--VOLUME 1, NUMBER 3 J. APPLIED METALWORKING

 SURFACEPRESSURE
: ETALMEMBRANE
I PARTINGLINEBETWEEN
L...!
~v/SPECIMENANDTOOL
~/ VICKER~SPYRAMID
H ~ JACKET
~/~ STEELHOUSINO
Fig. 3--Pressure gauge.
therefore a measurement of this pressure yields the
hydrostatic stress component.
Since the depth of the removed material in abrasive
and adhesive wear is proportional to the product of
normal pressure and sliding length, a rough estimate of
these wear processes can be gained through model
material experiments.
Other wear types such as thermal fatigue are of
course not measurable with this technique.
Measurement of magnitude and direction of forces
and the associated force-displacement curve is done by
using conventional force and displacement tranducers.
The following procedure proposed by Dancker04 is
used:
1) The model-process is carried out with a specimen
permitting determination of equivalent strains.
2) Based on the mean equivalent strain the mean
equivalent strain rate is determined.
3) The equivalent strain is determined for different
stages in the process.
4) The process is carried through with recording of
the load-displacement curve.
5) The stress-strain curve for the model material is
determined with a model specimen, manufactured at
the same time and from the same batch as the model
specimen in paragraph 4. Temperatures must identical,
and strain rate should be same as the mean strain rate in
the model process.
6) The yield stress for the model material Oo",and for
the real material o~, is determined for the equivalent
strains in paragraph 3.
7) The model forces pm are determined in the steps
from paragraph 3 and the load-displacement curve for
J. APPLIED METALWORKING
the real process can be determined from the relation
p~ = pm
r
~176
m
Oo
Tool Models
The aims of analysis in Group D are focused on stress
and strain in tools. Conventional means of experimental
stress analysis such as moir6, brittle coating and strain
gauges, can be applied to obtain the strain and stress
situation in the tool. An interesting technique is the use
of moir6 technique described by Danckert. ~4:5
In analysis of fractures it is possible to use a brittle
model material, e.g. paraffin or plaster of Paris, as tool
for measuring the maximum allowable stress concen-
tration.
SELECT MODEL MATERIAL FOR SPECIMEN
In order to simulate different metals with different
strain-hardening exponents, the laboratory has de-
veloped wax compositions consisting of the ingredients
indramic, natural resin and kaolin. (Indramic is a
byproduct from the refinement of crude oil)) By mixing
wax compositions of different ratios of the above-
mentioned ingredients, it is possible to obtain model
materials with nearly arbitrary yield stress in the range 0
to 2 N / m m 2.
The material properties of the model materials are
determined primarily by the percentage of indramic.
The composition 30/35/35 I n / R e / K a gives a material
with hardening exponent approximately 0 and yield
stress approximately 0.1 N / m m 2, and the composition
10/45/45 I n / R e / K a gives a material with hardening
exponent approximately 0.3 and the yield stress ap-
proximately 2 N / m m L The yield stress and the harden-
ing exponent vary approximately linearly in the above-
mentioned range with the content of indramic, though
this is also dependent on the melting and casting
procedure.
A commercial modelling wax, "Filia," is also used in
the laboratory, mixed with one or more of the above-
mentioned materials. Figure 4 shows examples of
stress-strain curves for different compositions.
Preparation of Wax Specimens
The individual ingredients are weighed, mixed and
heated, and when the mixture is molten, the material is
cast; most often in rectangular polished steel molds.
The mold is heated to the same temperature as the wax
and is placed on a vibrating table. The vibration causes
the wax material to fill out the mold completely and
VOLUME 1, NUMBER 3--11
 ,0"
0,35 1

0.30 d do
o do
(D do 9,4 do

t~ I:l -,-4
0,25 .o -,.4
,-4
M
'O
-,-4
tO
,-t
O
2 -,-4
H ~ t~

0,20 i
Fig. 4---Stress-strain curves for
96
different mixtures.

0,15 i00

, 6
96
0,10
96 4

0,05
95 5

90 5
0,1 0.2 0,3 0/-. 0.5 0,6

prevents formation of air bubbles. In this way it is
possible to make wax specimens with very fine surfaces
and tolerances. After casting, the mold is covered with a
heat-insulating material to make the wax solidify
slowly. After solidification the mold and material are
frozen to facilitate the removal of the specimen. If
desired, a grid is painted by a serigraphic technique.
Determination of Rheological Data
for the Wax Material
The most important demands for rheological prop-
erties to be fulfilled by the model materials in most
cases are those concerning stress-strain curve, homo-
geneity, isotropy, incompressibility, and creep proper-
ties. At the laboratory, experimental equipment has
been developed for determination of the above-men-
tioned rheological data for the wax materials.
fulfill this requirement during compression, the tool is
divided into sections which can be removed during the
experiment (indicated in Fig. 5).
Provided the friction coefficient can be maintained
low (/z ~ 0.01 to 0.02) it may be permissible to carry
through the stress-strain recording without removing
the outer tool parts and, thereby, avoid problems rising
from interrupting the deformation.
Homogeneity and Isotropy
Specimens are cut out of the plate in different
directions, compressed in the tool shown in Fig. 5, and
the stress-strain curves are compared. Investigations
I

Stress-Strain Curve

The stress-strain curve is determined from the com-

TOOL
pression of a wax specimen under plane-strain condi-
tions. In this way a greater strain (up to -----2) can be WAXSPECIMEN
obtained than by compressing cylindrical specimens.
Plane-strain conditions are obtained by making sure
that yielding in the wax specimen takes place in a
definite direction (direction 2, Fig. 5). Figure 5 shows an
outline of the tool employed.
The width-height proportion of the specimen should
be between 2 and 4 at the time of plotting. In order to Fig. 5 - - T o o l for d e t e r m i n a t i o n of stress-strain curve.

1 2 - - V O L U M E 1, N U M B E R 3 J. A P P L I E D M E T A L W O R K I N G
have shown that the method of manufacture described
earlier gives wax plates with good homogeneity and
isotropy.
Incompressibility
The compressibility of the different wax mixtures is
investigated by measuring the change of volume in a
cylindrical specimen exposed to pressure in a thick-
walled tube. The compressibility experiments show that
the wax mixtures can be considered to be relatively
incompressible for the pressures involved.
Creep Properties
The creep properties of the wax mixtures are inves-
tigated employing the apparatus shown in Fig. 6, where
a specimen is subjected to plane-strain conditions and
loaded under constant stress, and the creep is measured
with a dial gauge.
Fig. ~-Experimental equipment for investigating the
creep properties of wax)
CONTRA
WEIGHT
Fig. 7--Cigar test apparatus, 1: wax
specimen, 2,3: glass plates, 6,7 &
10: dial gage.
J. APPLIED METALWORKING
SELECT FRICTION CONDITION
Friction is of great importance to a number of
relations in a process. Two items of study are men-
tioned.
In most wax experiments the specimen is subjected to
plane-strain conditions. Plane condition is established
by deforming the wax specimen between two glass
plates, where friction between wax and glass is
practically zero. This friction has been investigated by
means of the so-called cigar test, 4 where a rectangular
bar from the model material is forged between two glass
plates covered by the lubricant. During deformation the
extension and height reduction of the bar are measured.
On the basis of these measurements the coefficient of
friction can be calculated. Investigations have shown
that by choosing the right lubricant, it is possible to
obtain a very low friction coefficient (0.01). Figure 7
shows the equipment.
The other study is connected with the actual mod-
elling of boundary conditions. Frictional stress is a
function of topography and mechanical properties of
the two surfaces, rheological and chemical properties of
A-A
DIALGAUGE
i
AX~SPECINIEN
I
I
EAD WEIGHT
I I
VOLUME 1, NUMBER 3--13
the lubricant, normal pressure, and sliding length.
Therefore, knowledge of frictional mechanisms in the
process itself is required, so that useful approximations
can be made, either by choosing relevant surface
topographies and lubricant viscosities in the model
situation, or by using intermediate layers suitable for
modelling r = mk situations. The use of simulative
techniques such as the ring test may also be considered.
SELECT MODEL MATERIAL FOR TOOL
In cases where the tools have to fulfill only geomet-
rical demands, it is easy to choose the material for
model tool production.
Wood, plastics and paraffin are often used in the
laboratory. Tools made of these materials are cheap,
and small changes of tool geometry can be made easily
and quickly. The latter is of special interest when
optimizing the tool geometry where many different
geometries have to be tested.
In analyzing conditions in the tools, they can be
made of photo-elastic materials (e.g. araldite). The
disadvantages of employing the photo-elasticity method
are that in connection with model materials (wax) it can
so far only be used to determine the stress-strain
conditions in plane tools with plane stress conditions,
the plastic specimen being in a state of plane strain.
In the laboratory a rubber model technique has been
developed enabling, in connection with the wax tech-
nique, a determination of the stress-strain conditions in
tools with axial symmetry.5.8.~4.~5 The basic idea is to
make a model of the tool to be analyzed in transparent
rubber. In the symmetry plane of the rubber tool, a grid
is applied which, when loaded, deforms together with
the tool.
The process is carried out with the specimen made of
wax, and the deformed grid in the rubber tool is
photographed. The grid is measured and on the basis of
these measurements the strains and stresses in the
rubber tool can be determined. By means of model
theories the stress-strain conditions in the real tool can
be determined from these results. By means of the
Moir6 technique the method has been developed to a
high resolving power.
As mentioned earlier, pilot experiments in the labo-
ratory have shown that paraffin and plaster of Paris can
be applied for modelling fractures in tools. The tool
fractures can be simulated by loading a model of the
real tool in paraffin to the point of fracture in a
deformation process with model material. The casting
and solidification of the model tool material may,
however, give serious problems causing poor reproduci-
bility of the mechanical properties.
14--VOLUME 1, NUMBER 3
DISCUSSION
The model material technique as described in this
paper is a relatively new method of analysis for the
investigation of deformation processes, and there is still
a long way to go before this model technique has
reached the same level as the model techniques used in
hydro- and aero-dynamics.
Although the model material technique has not thus
far been sufficiently developed, it can already be
applied in research as well as teaching.
In teaching the advantages of applying model mate-
rials are obvious since they make it possible to show e.g.
the deformation of the specimen in different processes,
which may contribute considerably to the students'
understanding of the process mechanism in different
processes.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors wish to express their gratitude to Mr. E.
Johansen for many years of devoted and invaluable
work with the practical aspects of this technique.
REFERENCES
1. K. A. Lange: A System for Investigation of Metal Forming
Processes, Proceedings of the lOth MTDR Conference, Manchester,
1969.
2. C. Bodsworth, I. Halling, and I. W. Barton: The Use of Parafine
Wax as a Model Material to Simulate the Plastic Deformation of
Metals, J. Iron Steel Inst., 1957, vol. 185.
3. H. B. Pedersen and T. Wanheim: Development of Model Materials
for Metal Forming, MM-Rapport no. 73.29.
4. D. C. Fricker and T. Wanheim: Low Friction Coefficient Esti-
mation for Model Material Experiments, Wear, 1974, vol. 27.
5. P. B. Andreasen and J. Danckert: Mfileteknik till modelmaterialer.
Eksamensprojekt AMT, 1974, MM. 74.19.
6. J. Danckert and T. Wanheim: Exp. Mech., 1976, vol. 16, no. 8, pp.
318-20.
7. P. Brondsted and T. Wanheim: Exp. Mech., 1977, vol. 17, no. 6,
pp. 32940.
8. J. Danckert: Scand. J. Metall., 1976, 1977, vol. 6, pp. 185-90.
9. J. Danckert: On the Contact Problem of a Sphere a Semiinfinite
Body, MM-publ. No. 75.24.
10 G . W . Rowe, J. M. Desai, and H. S. Shin: Transverse Deformation
in Section Rolling and Forging, Proc. 15 Int. MTDR Conf., 1975.
11. J. Danckert: Some Critical Remarks on the Circle Grid Strain
Analysis Method. Prod. Engnr., Proc., New Delhi, 1977, IU-
110-120.
12. J. Danckert and T. Wanheim: J. Mech. Work. Technol., 1979, vol.
3, pp. 5-15.
13. T. Wanheim, J. Danckert, and E. Johansen: Model Material
Technique Applied in the Analysis of Deformation Processes, Int.
Conf. Prod. Eng., Proc., New Delhi, 1977, IV-121-135.
14. J. Danckert: Model Materiale Teknik, 1977, AMT 78.13 A.
15. J. Danckert and T. Wanheim: The Friction Shear Stress Distri-
bution at the Material Tool Interface, When Upsetting a Flat
Circular Cylinder Between Flat Parallel Platens, ASM Materials &
Processing Congress, Chicago, 1979.
16. O. Nielsen and T. Wanheim: Development of a New Forming
Process for Gun Nail Heads by Simulation, ASM Materials &
Processing Congress, Chicago, 1979.
J. A P P L I E D METALWORKING