S5 COURSE Study Skills and Research Methodology

Moualy Ismail University
School of Arts & Humanities

Department of English
S5: Study skills and research methods
Instructors: Mohammed Yachoulti & Az-eddine Khelloufi
1. Course content
Session Contents
What is Research: meanings, characteristics, objectives, motivations, types,
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significance and ethics
2 The research process:
3 Research paper: definitions, characteristics, types and elements
Elements of the research paper: Introduction, review of literature, theoretical
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background , methods & materials, results, discussion, sources and appendices
5 Writing the research paper 1: Title, abstract, table of contents
6 Writing the research paper 2: Table of contents
Writing the research paper 3:
5 Writing the introduction : the research problem, purpose of the research, objectives
of the research, the significance of research, the structure of the research
Writing the research paper 3:
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Review of literature: Summarizing, paraphrasing, quoting and synthesizing.
9-10 Research variables, designs and sampling
11 Writing a research proposal
2. Assessment
- The end of the semester, the two-hours written exam will consist of a variety of exercises
similar to those seen and done in class
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FOUNDATIONS OF RESRACH
I. PERLIMINARIES
- John W. Best has rightly said, “The secret of our cultural development has been research,
pushing back the areas of ignorance by discovering new truths, which, in turn, lead to better
ways of doing things and better products.”
II. DEFINITIONS OF RESRACH

- Word ‘Research’ comprises two words = Re+Search. It means to search again. So research
means a systematic investigation or activity to gain new knowledge of the already existing
facts. This means that research is directed toward the solution of a problem. (Research
involves the quest for an answer to un-solved problems + Research is generated by a specific
research question, hypothesis or problem).
- The following are the important definitions of research:

- “Research is an endeavor / attempt to discover, develop and verify knowledge. It is an
intellectual process that has developed over hundreds of years ever changing in purpose and
form and always researching to truth.” J. Francis Rummel
- “Research is an honest, exhaustive (Rigorous), intelligent searching for facts and their
meanings or implications with reference to a given problem. The product or findings of a
given piece of research should be an authentic, verifiable contribution to knowledge in the
field studied.” P.M. Cook
- “Research is considered to be the more formal, systematic intensive process of carrying on
the scientific method of analysis. It involves a more systematic structure of investigation,
usually resulting in some sort of formal record of procedures and a report of results or
conclusion.” John W. Best
- “Research comprises defining and redefining problems, formulating hypothesis or suggested
solutions, collecting, organizing and evaluating data, making deductions and reaching
conclusions and at last careful testing the conclusions to determine whether they fit the
formulated hypothesis.” Clifford Woody
- “Social research may be defined as a scientific undertaking which by means of logical and
systematized techniques aims to discover new facts or verify and test old facts , analyse their
sequences , interrelationships and casual explanation which were derived within an
appropriate theoretical frame of reference , develop new scientific tools , concepts and
theories which would facilitate reliable and valid study of human behavior.” P.V. Younge
III. CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH

- Research begins with a question in the mind of the researcher (either direct or indirect)
- Research requires the identification of a problem, stated in clear, unambiguous terms
- Research implies an organization (plan, outline)
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- Research deals with a main problem through sub-problems (ex, phenomenon, its causes and
its consequences )
- Research deals with facts and their meanings (interpretations which are based on evidence)
- To qualify as research, the process must have certain characteristics:
 Systematic-this implies that the procedure adopted to undertake an investigation follow a
certain logical sequence. The different steps cannot be taken in a haphazard way. Some
procedures must follow others.
 Controlled- in real life there are many factors that affect an outcome. The concept of control
implies that, in exploring causality in relation to two variables (factors), we set up our study in
a way that minimizes the effects of other factors affecting the relationship. This can be
achieved to a large extent in the physical sciences (cookery, bakery), as most of the research
is done in a laboratory. However, in the social sciences (Hospitality and Tourism) it is
extremely difficult as research is carried out on issues related to human beings living in
society, where such controls are not possible. Therefore in Hospitality and Tourism, as you
cannot control external factors, you attempt to quantify their impact.
 Rigorous-you must be careful in ensuring that the procedures followed to find answers to
questions are relevant, appropriate and justified. Again, the degree of rigor varies markedly
between the physical and social sciences and within the social sciences.
 Valid and verifiable-this concept implies that whatever we conclude on the basis of our
findings is correct and can be verified by us and others.
 Empirical-this means that any conclusion drawn are based upon hard evidence gathered from
information collected from real life experiences or observations.
 Critical-critical scrutiny of the procedures used and the methods employed is crucial to a
research enquiry. The process of investigation must be foolproof and free from drawbacks.
The process adopted and the procedures used must be able to withstand critical scrutiny.
IV. CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD RESEARCHER

- It is very essential for an investigator to possess the following characteristics:
 He/she should be sensitive in his nature and problem-minded.
 He/she should have mastery on the area and should have specialization in the field studied.
 He/she should have a scientific outlook about the area.
 He/she should be able to think reflectively on the field studied.
 He/she should have tolerance and patience and be honest and devotee to his/her work.
 He/she should have the curiosity to find out something new or to answer some questions
which are still to be answered.
V. OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH
- Though each research study has its own specific purpose, some general objectives of research
are as follows:
a) To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it. (Studies with this
object in view are termed as exploratory or formative research studies).
b) To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a
group.(Studies with this object in view are known as descriptive research studies).
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c) To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated
with something else. (Studies with this object in view are known as diagnostic research
studies). 4
d) To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables. (Such studies are known as
hypothesis-testing research studies).
e) To provide solutions to a problem.
f) To generate new knowledge.
g) A combination of two or more of any of the above.
VI. MOTIVATIONS OF RESARCH

- The possible motives for doing research may be either one or more of the following:
h) Intrinsic motivation/Personal motivation - individual values linked to personality.
Examples include: power; harmony; achievement; generosity; public recognition;
authenticity; knowledge; security; pleasure, the love of the work itself, interest, challenge,
learning, meaning, purpose, creative flow.
i) Extrinsic motivation - rewards for good work or punishments for poor work. Extrinsic
motivations include: money; fame; awards; praise; status; opportunities; deadlines;
commitments; bribes; threats. Research shows that too much focus on extrinsic motivation
can block creativity.
j) Interpersonal motivation - influences from other people. Much of our behaviour is a
response to people around us, such as: copying; rebellion; competition; collaboration;
commitment; encouragement.
VII. FUNCTIONS AND SIGNIFICANCE OF RESEARCH

- Research provides the basis for nearly all government policies in our economic system.
- Research has its special significance in solving various operational and planning problems of
business and industry.
- Research is equally important for social scientists in studying social relationships and in
seeking answers to various social problems. Research in social sciences is concerned both
with knowledge for its own sake and with knowledge for what it can contribute to practical
concerns.
- The significance of research can also be understood keeping in view the following points:
a) To those students who are to write a master’s or Ph.D. thesis, research may mean a
careerism or a way to attain a high position in the social structure;
b) To professionals in research methodology, research may mean a source of livelihood;
c) To philosophers and thinkers, research may mean the outlet for new ideas and insights;
d) To literary men and women, research may mean the development of new styles and
creative work;
e) To analysts and intellectuals, research may mean the generalizations of new theories.
Thus, research is the fountain of knowledge for the sake of knowledge and an important
source of providing guidelines for solving different business, governmental and social
problems. It is a sort of formal training which enables one to understand the new
developments in one’s field in a better way.
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VIII. RESEARCH TYPES
- When carrying out research, our purposes are different. Therefore research types will vary
according to our purposes.
- The major research types will fall under application, objectives, inquiry mode, and sometimes
we may use mixed method research.
A. Application (Pure and applied research)
 Applied research is "hands-on", which means that the researcher is actually working with the
topic/subjects while conducting the research. Generally, applied research focuses on "practical
problems" such as climate change in order to come up with solutions to better or improve an
existing condition.
 Basic research is often considered researching for the sake of increasing knowledge as
opposed to applied where the research truly is intended to solve a problem. Basic Research is
often called "pure" research and is considered the foundation for applied research
B. Objectives (Descriptive, Co-relational, Exploratory and Explanatory)

 Descriptive research is also called statistical research. The main goal of this type of research
is to describe the data and characteristics about what is being studied. The idea behind this
type of research is to study frequencies, averages, and other statistical calculations. Although
this research is highly accurate, it does not gather the causes behind a situation.
 Correlation research measures the relationship between two or more variables or gives an
indication of how one variable may predict another.
 Exploratory research is a type of research conducted because a problem has not been clearly
defined. Exploratory research helps determine the best research design, data collection
methods, and selection of subjects. Given that it is fundamental in nature, exploratory
research often concludes that a perceived problem does not actually exist.
 Explanatory research explores "why," and attempts to explain as the purposes of explanatory
research. It builds on exploratory and descriptive research and further identifies the reasons
for something that occurs. It looks for causes and reasons.
C. Inquiry mode (qualitative, quantitative and mixed method ) The inquiry mode of research
can be categorized as qualitative and quantitative:
 Qualitative research is research undertaken to gain insights concerning attitudes, beliefs,
motivations and behaviours of individuals, to explore a social or human problem. Qualitative
research methods include focus groups, in-depth interviews, observation research, and case
studies. You can use qualitative research to study past events or current events. When you
use it for past events, it is specifically called historical research. The salient features of
qualitative research are:
 Conducted to have an insight and better understanding of not only about the current
situation is but also why it is so.
 More open and responsive to the research participants.
 Uses a variety of methods and data collection strategies,
 Offers opportunities for descriptive and exploratory studies.
 Quantitative research is research concerned with the measurement of attitudes, behaviours
and perceptions. It includes interviewing methods such as telephone, intercept, and door-to-
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door interviews, as well as self-completion methods such as mail outs and online surveys.
Quantitative research:
 Means the data is collected and analyzed in terms of numbers.
 Predicts and explains data in the form of statistical analysis.
 Uses the numerical method to analysis and interpret the results.
 Finds out the relationship among quantifiable variables and the results are inferred.
 Mixed methods research: a research that involves collecting, analyzing and
integrating quantitative and qualitative research. Mixed methods research is needed:
 When one wants to validate or corroborate the results obtained from other methods.
 When one wants to continuously look at a research question from different angles,
and clarify unexpected findings and/or potential contradictions.
 When one wants to elaborate, clarify, or build on findings from other methods.
 When one wants to develop a theory about a phenomenon of interest and then test
it. (Usually, qualitative research is more suitable to build theory, while quantitative
research provides a better way of testing theories).
- PRACTICE : WHICH OF THESE CAN BE CLASSIFIED AS RESEARCH?

1. Encik Samad prepared a paper on “computer usage in secondary schools” after reviewing
literature on the subject available in his university library and called it a piece of research.
2. Encik Muthu says that he has researched and completed a document which gives information
about the age of his students, their SPM results, their parents income and distance of their
schools from the District Office.
3. Encik Lim participated in a workshop on curriculum development and prepared what he calls,
a research report on the curriculum for building technicians. He did this through a literature
survey on the subject and by discussing with the participants of the workshop.
 CONSIDER THE FOLLOWING CASE AND DISCUSS HOW DOES IT DIFFER

FROM THE FIRST ONES :
 A general manager of a car producing company was concerned with the complaints received
from the car users that the car they produce have some problems with rating sound at the dash
board and the rear passenger seat after few thousand kilometers of driving.
- He obtained information from the company workers to identify the various factors influencing
the problem.
- He then formulated the problem and generated guesses (hypotheses).
- He constructed a checklist and obtained requisite information from a representative sample of
cars.
- He analyzed the data thus collected, interpreted the results in the light of his hypotheses and
reached conclusions.
 MATCH EACH TYPE WITH ITS PROPER DEFINITION

Applied research, Basic research, Descriptive research, Correlation research, Exploratory
research, Explanatory research, Qualitative research, Quantitative research
- …………………concentrates on finding facts to ascertain the nature of something as it exists.
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- …………………is carried out as more to satisfy intellectual curiosity, than with the intention
of using the research findings for any immediate practical application.
- ………………studies such aspects of the research subject which are not quantifiable, and
hence not subject to measurement and quantitative analysis.
- ………………….. is a type of research conducted because a problem has not been clearly
defined. It helps determine the best research design, data collection methods, and selection of
subjects
- …………………….makes substantial use of measurements and quantitative analysis
techniques
- …………………is carried out to find answers to practical problems to be solved and as an
aid in decision making in different areas including product design, process design and policy
making
- ……………….explores "why," and attempts to explain as its substantial purpose. It builds on
exploratory and descriptive research and further identifies the reasons for something that
occurs. It looks for causes and reasons.
- ……………………. is a type of non-experimental research in which the researcher measures
two variables and assesses the statistical relationship between them with little or no effort to
control extraneous variables.
- ………………....Researchers may investigate ways to Improve agricultural crop production,
Treat or cure a specific disease and Improve the efficiency of offices or modes of
transportation
- ………………………Finding the most frequent disease that affects the children of a town.
The reader of the……………………… research will know what to do to prevent that disease,
thus more people will live a healthy life.
- The favorite crime investigation TV programs give a pretty good example of the research
design. These shows typically start with a crime that needs to be investigated. The initial step
is to look for hints which can help establish what has happened. The clues found in the
………………………. phase of the research usually point in the direction of a specific
hypothesis or explanation of the events which happened, and investigators start focusing their
efforts in this direction, performing interviews with witnesses and suspects
……………..…………….
- A researcher interested in WHY more males attended the 2002 Winter Olympics would be
undertaking ……………………..…….. research.
- ………………………………..) science investigations would probe for answers to questions
such as How did the universe begin? How do slime molds reproduce? And What are protons,
electrons, and neutrons composed of?
- A sample of 66 participants, all of them children 12 months of age, were taken. Among these
participants, 35 children had older siblings with a clinical diagnosis of autism. The remaining
31 children had siblings who did not have any degree of autism…………………….
- ………….……..…….. research at its most simple can take the form of observation. In
observation, the researcher simply observes the research matter, in the way Jane Goodall
observed apes or the way a child psychologist may watch a kid play
- The objective of ……………………….. research is to develop and employ mathematical
models, theories or hypothesis pertaining to phenomena.
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ETHICS OF RESARCH
I. PRELIMINARIES
- The ethics of research concern the appropriateness of the researcher’s behaviour in relation to
the subjects of the research or those who are affected by it.
- Since research in the real world inevitably deals with people and the things that affect them,
ethical issues can arise at the planning, implementation and reporting stages of research.
II. THE IMPORTANCE OF ETHICS IN RESREARCH

- Ethics in research are very important because of what follows:
 Research necessitates the participation of all parties and ethics can become guidelines for
researchers to conduct their research and make sure that there are no parties who are in
harm or hurt.
 The researcher and participants (individuals, groups, organizations and communities),
should understand the process and take the significant action.
 Ethics guarantee that nobody is actually or potentially harmed as a result of the research
work. This is a very minimal goal given the potential for good that a study can have”.
 Today, research ethics are not only ‘nice if we have got time’ but also are a ‘must do’ in
research.
 Ethical behavior will not necessarily improve our study, but behaving unethically will
certainly adversely affect our research.
III. ETHICAL PRINCIPLES

1. Harm to participants
- Research that is likely to harm participants is regarded by most people as unacceptable. But
what is harm?
- Harm can entail a number of facets: physical harm; harm to participants’ development or self-
esteem; stress; harm to career prospects or future employment; and ‘inducing subjects to
perform reprehensible acts’
- A researcher ‘must take all reasonable precautions to ensure that respondents are in no way
directly harmed or adversely affected as a result of their participation in a marketing research
project’.
- The issue of harm to participants is further addressed in ethical codes by advocating care over
maintaining the confidentiality of records and anonymity of accounts. This means that the
identities and records of individuals and organizations should be maintained as confidential. If
a respondent’s identity is to be revealed,
o ‘(a) the respondent must first have been told to whom the information would be supplied and
the purposes for which it will be used, and also
o (b) the researcher must ensure that the information will not be used for any non-research
purpose
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- A further area of ethical consideration relates to the possibility of harm to the researcher
himself/herself. Anything that may expose a researcher to physical or emotional harm
should be avoided
2. Voluntariness
- The participant’s consent to participate in the research must be voluntary and free of any
coercion or inflated promise of benefits from participation. Care should be taken that the
consent form is administered by someone who does not hold authority over the participant.
3. Lack of informed consent

- The principle means that prospective research participants should be given as much
information as might be needed to make an informed decision about whether or not they wish
to participate in a study. Informed consent means that respondents should be told, normally at
the beginning of the interview, if observation techniques or recording equipment are to be
used. However, implementing the principle of informed consent ‘is easier said than done’. At
least two major points stand out here.
 It is extremely difficult to present prospective participants with absolutely all the
information that might be required to make an informed decision about their
involvement. In fact, relatively minor transgressions probably pervade most business
research, such as deliberately underestimating the amount of time that an interview is
likely to take so that people are not put off being interviewed, and not giving absolutely
all the details about one’s research for fear of contaminating people’s answers to
questions.
 In ethnographic research, the researcher is likely to come into contact with a wide
spectrum of people, and ensuring that absolutely everyone has the opportunity for
informed consent is not practicable, because it would be extremely disruptive in
everyday contexts. Also, even when all research participants in a certain setting are
aware that the ethnographer is a researcher, it is doubtful whether they are all similarly
(let alone identically) informed about the nature of the research.
- Covert observation transgresses that principle, because participants are not given the
opportunity to refuse to cooperate. They are involved whether they like it or not.
4. Invasion of privacy
- The right to privacy is a tenet that many of us hold dear, and transgressions of that right in the
name of research are not regarded as acceptable. Therefore, all codes of research are clear:
‘the objectives of any study do not give researchers a special right to intrude on a
respondent’s privacy nor to abandon normal respect for an individual’s values’.
- Privacy is very much linked to the notion of informed consent, because, to the degree that
informed consent is given on the basis of a detailed understanding of what the research
participant’s involvement is likely to entail, he or she in a sense acknowledges that the right to
privacy has been surrendered for that limited domain. Of course, the research participant does
not abrogate the right to privacy entirely by providing informed consent. When people agree
to be interviewed, they will frequently refuse to answer certain questions on whatever grounds
they feel are justified. Often, these refusals will be based on a feeling that certain questions
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delve into private realms or cover topic areas that they find sensitive and they do not wish to
make these public, regardless of the fact that the interview is conducted in private.
5. Deception
- Deception occurs when researchers represent their research as something other than what it is.
- Deception in various degrees is probably quite widespread in much research, because
researchers often want to limit participants’ understanding of what the research is about so
that they respond more naturally to the experimental treatment.
- The ethical objection to deception seems to turn on two points.
 First, it is not a nice thing to do. Codes of research recognize that deception is
widespread in social interaction, it is hardly desirable.
 Secondly, there is the question of professional self-interest. If business researchers
became known as snoopers who deceived people as a matter of professional course,
the image of our work would be adversely affected and we might experience
difficulty in gaining financial support and the cooperation of future prospective
research participants.
6. Copyright
- A further issue affected by legal considerations is copyright.
- Copyright is an intellectual property right that protects the owner of copyright from
unauthorized copying. Most research publications, reports, and books, as well as raw data
such as spreadsheets and interview transcripts, are protected by copyright.
- The important thing to remember is that, if you want to share your data with other researchers,
you will need to get copyright clearance from the interviewee for this at the time of the
interview.
- There are also particular copyright issues pertaining to the use of visual data. For example, in
order to reproduce a photograph in publication, consent may be required from the subject in
the photograph as well the person who took it, who is usually the first owner of copyright; in
such cases copyright is jointly shared.
7. Plagiarism
- According to the Merriam-Webster online dictionary, to "plagiarize" means:
o to steal and pass off (the ideas or words of another) as one's own
o to use (another's production) without crediting the source
o to commit literary theft
o to present as new and original an idea or product derived from an existing source
- In other words, plagiarism is an act of fraud. It involves both stealing someone else's work
and lying about it afterward. But can words and ideas really be stolen?
- The answer is yes. The expression of original ideas is considered intellectual property and is
protected by copyright laws, just like original inventions. Almost all forms of expression fall
under copyright protection as long as they are recorded in some way (such as a book or a
computer file).
- All of the following are considered plagiarism:
o turning in someone else's work as your own
o copying words or ideas from someone else without giving credit
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o failing to put a quotation in quotation marks
o giving incorrect information about the source of a quotation
o changing words but copying the sentence structure of a source without giving
credit
o copying so many words or ideas from a source that it makes up the majority of
your work, whether you give credit or not (see our section on "fair use" rules)
- Most cases of plagiarism can be avoided, however, by citing sources. Simply acknowledging
that certain material has been borrowed and providing your audience with the information
necessary to find that source is usually enough to prevent plagiarism. See our section
on citation for more information on how to cite sources properly
8. Affiliation and conflicts of interest

- In all areas of scientific study, it is recognized that affiliations, particularly those related to
funding, have the potential to influence the way that research issues are defined and findings
presented.
- It is recommended that universities set up ethics committees to monitor the sources of
sponsorship and funding, and to ensure that the source of funding is acknowledged in any
publication because ethical implications arise when research is financially underwritten by a
source that has a vested interest in the results.
IV. ETHIC AND THE ISSUE OF QUALITY

Possibly one of the most interesting developments in connection with ethical issues is that a
criterion of ethical integrity of an investigation is its quality. For example, it is stated that
“research should be designed, reviewed and undertaken in a way that ensures its integrity and
quality”
PRACTICE: CONSIDER EACH OF THE FOLLOWING CASES AND EVALUATE

EACH ONE SEPARATELY
 Case 1
Raj knew he was smart. His classmates always turned to him for help on assignments and he
always knew the answers to the questions his teachers asked in class. Raj just didn't study for
tests so his grades were often mediocre. He knew he could do better in school, it was just that
school was so... well, boring. School was coming to an end for the year and Raj needed to get
a good job this summer, after all this was the end of his junior year. He desperately wanted to
work at the famous Research Institute. Raj felt that if he got a job there as a summer intern, it
would really boost his chances of getting admitted to the graduate engineering program of his
choice. He knew the institute hired very few summer interns and generally these were
students from private schools who had excellent academic records and high standardized test
scores. So, Raj decided to "tweak" his resume. He rounded his GPA up from 3.0 to a more
respectable 3.5 and listed his SAT scores as 700 verbal and 820 math (in reality they were 600
verbal and 720 math). Raj reasoned that these changes really didn't matter because he would
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show them who he really was through the quality of the work he did for the Institute once he
was hired...
1. What is the action or inaction that is the cause for concern?
2. Who or what may be affected?
3. How will they be affected? (i.e., what are the possible consequences?)
4. Are there any laws, regulations written or unwritten that may apply?
5. What actions might be taken and what would the consequences of these actions be?
6. Can anything be done to prevent this from reoccurring or to minimize the severity of
the consequences?
 Case 2
Late in the afternoon, Lisa finally had a chance to Google for information on "problem-based
learning" for her course assignment due the next morning. Though she was tired, she couldn't
help but wonder when she noticed the same article appearing on the first two websites was
almost identical word-for-word. Both websites were for education courses being taught by
two different faculty at two different academic institutions located in different states. Curious,
she emailed the authors of both papers concerning her observation and printed out a copy of
both pages to bring with her to class the next morning.
the consequences?
 Case 3
Lisa, a postdoctoral student in Prof. X's lab is told that she will not be re-appointed when her
current 1-year contract expires. Lisa feels that Prof. X has the funds to support her but that he
simply doesn't like her and that is why he is not reappointing her. Angry with Prof. X and
determined to get back at him, Lisa decides that she will take her lab notebooks, some lab
supplies, and several critical laboratory reagents when she leaves. Lisa is surprised a month
later when armed policemen show up at her parents' home to arrest her...
the consequences?
 Case 4
Tom was working with supervision provided by a graduate student Mr. Li on a proprietary
summer research project in Professor Zhou's lab which enjoyed private financial support. The
project which was nearing completion was an exciting one on a currently hot topic in
nanoscience and the results were so exciting that the university and the company had jointly
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filed for an international patent. As the project involved significant intellectual property
everyone working on the project including Tom had been required to sign a confidentiality
agreement at the outset. One day Tom overheard Mr. Li discussing the research project with a
friend who is a graduate student from another research group in the department at the
university.
Consider each of the following questions and evaluate the case study:
the consequences?
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RESRACH PROCESS
I. WHAT IS A RESEARCH PROCESS
- The process of gathering information for the purpose of initiating, modifying or terminating a
particular investment or group of investments.
- Research process consists of series of actions or steps necessary to effectively carry out
research and the desired sequencing of these steps.
II. STEPS OF THE RESEARCH PROCESS

1. Selection Of Topic
This is the hardest step in the process. Use this interaction to develop and refine possible
questions.
Veal (1997) and Saunders et al. (2000) provide a number of possible sources to help you:
- Existing literature: past research topics are a useful source of ideas.
- Social concerns: explore contemporary concerns and problems.
- Popular issues: newspapers or websites may help uncover these issues.
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- Personal characteristics: what are your strengths and interests? What is your career
inspirations? You may encounter an idea that interests you, and one that you’ll want to
elaborate on.
- Brainstorming: discuss with others to develop possible questions and ideas.
- Tutors: ask their guidance.
- Daily events: You may encounter an idea that interests you, and one that you’ll want to
elaborate on. Veal (1997) provides a number of ways to use existing ideas in an original way:
• Geographically: applying the research in a different area or country. You may find
research focused in the US, and you can undertake similar research in MA. Or maybe a
research was applied in urban areas, you can apply it in rural.
• Socially: applying the research on different social group. You may find certain social
groups have received less attention than others.
• Temporally: applying an old theory in contemporary society.
• Contextually: applying theories from outside your field of study.
• Methodologically: Applying the research using different data.
PRACTICE: Use the following topics to develop research topics

- Marriage - The Amazigh language
- Corruption - Gender and politeness
- Illiteracy - Teaching grammar
- Technology - Sexual harassment
- Education system - Child labor
- Gossiping - Early mariage
- Misbehaviour - Dating
- Violence
2. Extensive Literature Survey/ A Review Of Literature :

- Once the problem is formulated, a brief summary of it should be written down.
- At this juncture the researcher should undertake extensive literature survey connected with the
problem. For this purpose, the abstracting and indexing journals and published or unpublished
bibliographies are the first place to go to. Academic journals, conference proceedings,
government reports, books etc., must be tapped depending on the nature of the problem. In
this process, it should be remembered that one source will lead to another. The earlier studies,
if any, which are similar to the study in hand should be carefully studied. A good library will
be a great help to the researcher at this stage.
3. Development of Theoretical and Conceptual Frameworks

- It helps alerts the researcher on the possible problems that may occur.
- The theoretical framework refers to the underlying theoretical approach that you adopt to
underpin your study.
- The conceptual framework defines and organizes the important concepts in your study.
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4. Clarification of the Research Problem and Hypothesis
A. Clarification of research question
i. Problems associated with the research question
- Research questions can be rejected for a number of reasons:
• It lacks sufficient focus.
• The conceptual framework has encountered problems in defining or measuring the
appropriate concepts.
• There are too many variables.
• The project is unfeasible.
ii. Solutions to narrow the research question

- In order to focus your research question, you need to consider Clarke et al (1998) acronym
CAFE to ensure that the research question is feasible.
 ■ Complexity. A particular topic may involve several competing theories, or just one
complex theory. Could you do the topic justice within your research if this is the case?
This may be the case if you are limited by time or resources, or in terms of your own
personal background. Do you have the ability to undertake a research project in the
chosen area?
 ■ Access. How easy will it be for you to collect the data? How realistic is it, for
example, to send questionnaires to professional sports club owners, or elite athletes and
expect a response? There is often a tendency to be overoptimistic in terms of response
rates and so on, and you need to consider this carefully.
 ■ Facilities and resources. Consider the demands of your research. Will you require
extensive travel to carry out interviews? Will you be able to afford to send out a large
number of questionnaires, each containing a pre-paid reply envelope? You need to
identify any specialist resources at this stage.
 ■ Expertise. Consider your expertise. Would you be happy undertaking a research
project that necessitated the use of complex multivariate analysis? Would you have the
relevant sociological or psychological expertise to examine group behaviour in sport? If
you are undertaking a dissertation as part of a taught programme, it may well also be
wise to consider the expertise of your tutors, especially if they are particularly renowned
in a certain field.
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PRACTICE: Use the following topics to develop research questions
 Marriage  Misbehaviour  Sexual harassment
 Corruption  Violence  Child labor
 Illiteracy  The Amazigh  Early mariage
 Technology language  Dating
 Education system  Gender and politeness
 Gossiping  Teaching grammar
B. Clarification of the research hypothesis

- After extensive literature survey, researcher should state in clear terms the working hypothesis
or hypotheses.
- A working hypothesis is tentative assumption made in order to draw out and test its logical or
empirical consequences. It should be very specific and limited to the piece of research in
hand because it has to be tested.
- The role of the hypothesis is to guide the researcher by delimiting the area of research and to
keep him on the right track. It sharpens his thinking and focuses attention on the more
important facets of the problem. It also indicates the type of data required and the type of
methods of data analysis to be used.
- NB: Working hypotheses arise as a result of a-priori thinking about the subject, examination
of the available data and material including related studies and the counsel of experts and
interested parties. Working hypotheses are more useful when stated in precise and clearly
defined terms
5. Research Design: the research strategy to conduct research

- The preparation of the research design involves the following:
 The means of obtaining the information.
 The availability and skills of the researcher and his staff.
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 Explanation of the way data is organized and the reasoning behind the selection.
 The time available for research and the cost factor relating to research.
6. Data Collection
- Primary data can be collected through different ways:
 Observation: data is collected through the investigator’s own observation without
interviewing the respondents. It is not suitable in inquiries with large samples.
 Interviews: a rigid procedure is followed and pre-conceived questions are asked.
 Questionnaires
 Archives
 Documents
7. Data Analysis
• Coding: the categories of data are transformed into symbols that may be tabulated and
counted.
• Editing: procedure that improves the quality of the data for coding.
• Tabulation: technical procedure wherein the classified data are put in the form of tables.
- After tabulation, the data is based on the computation of various percentages, coefficients, etc.
8. Drawing Conclusions
• In this stage, the answer to the research question should be clear.
• Did I achieve my research objectives?
• What are the strengths and weaknesses of my research
FINAL REMARKS
- A research paper is easier to write when it is broken down into distinct elements. And, those
same elements can be used to write other academic papers.
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RESEARCH PAPER: DEFINITIONS, TYPES & ELEMENTS
I. WHAT IS A RESEARCH PAPER?

 A research paper is a piece of academic writing that requires a critical and thoughtful level of
inquiry. It presents the results of your investigation on a selected point. Based on your own
thoughts, the facts and ideas you have gathered from a variety of sources, a research paper is a
creation that is uniquely yours. The experience of gathering, interpreting and documenting
information, developing and organizing ideas and conclusions, and communicating them
clearly will prove to be an important and satisfying part of your education
 A research paper is an extended essay that shows your examination and contention on an
engaged point taking into account the data you assembled. It exhibits not just your
comprehension of accessible data from specialists in the territory of your research, but also
your assessment and understanding of the topic through a precise and coherent presentation of
your contention.
 A research paper requires exactly what the name implies---a lot of research. However, it is
more than just a regurgitation of facts or an explanation of a topic. A research paper must give
a perspective or make an argument. For example, if the topic of a research paper is abortion,
then the writer should take a stance on abortion rather than just list the history of abortion.
While it does not need to be for or against abortion, it needs to analyze one of these stances.
II. WHAT ARE THE CHARACTERISTICS OF A DECENT RESEARCH PAPER?

- A researcher paper usually
 Stays concentrated on one postulation.
 Contentions and focuses are sorted out in a coherent manner.
 Every point is bolstered by influential certainties and samples.
 Restricting perspectives are incorporated and disproved to show why the creator's
contention is more legitimate.
 Demonstrates the creator's solid comprehension of the theme and the material being
utilized.
 Each source is archived and credited accurately in a perceived reference style.
III. AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF WRITING A RESEARCH PAPER

- Writing a research paper is an integral part of the study programme of any academic
educational institution. Its aim is to develop students’ abilities of scientific research and to
foster their creativity and independent learning skills. The objectives are to develop the
following skills:
 In-depth study of a selected topic
 Orientation in the literature on the subject
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 Logical organization of ideas
 Formulation of arguments
 Analysis and synthesis
 Planning and implementation of a research experimental part
 Data gathering, processing and analyzing
 Making conclusions
IV. TYPES OF RESEARCH PAPERS

- There are multiple different types of research papers. Therefore, it is important to know which
type of research paper is required for your assignment, as each type of research paper requires a
different preparation. Below is a list of the most common types of research papers:
a- Analytical Research Paper: In an analytical research paper you pose a question and then
collect relevant data from other researchers to analyze their different viewpoints. You focus
on the findings and conclusions of other researchers and then make a personal conclusion
about the topic. It is important to stay neutral and not show your own negative or positive
position on the matter.
b- Argumentative (Persuasive) Research Paper: The argumentative paper presents two sides
of a controversial issue in one paper. It is aimed at getting the reader on the side of your
point of view. You should include and cite findings and arguments of different researchers
on both sides of the issue, but then favor one side over the other and try to persuade the
reader of your side. Your arguments should not be too emotional though, they still need to
be supported with logical facts and statistical data.
c- Interpretative Paper: An interpretative paper requires you to use knowledge that you have
gained from a particular case study, for example a legal situation in law studies. You need to
write the paper based on an established theoretical framework and use valid supporting data
to back up your statement and conclusion.
d- Experimental Research Paper: This type of research paper basically describes a particular
experiment in detail. It is common in fields like biology, chemistry or physics. Experiments
are aimed to explain a certain outcome or phenomenon with certain actions. You need to
describe your experiment with supporting data and then analyze it sufficiently.
e- Survey Research Paper: This research paper demands the conduction of a survey that
includes asking questions to respondents. The conductor of the survey then collects all the
information from the survey and analyzes it to present it in the research paper.
V. ELEMENTS OF THE RESEARCH PAPER

- The basic elements of a research paper are:
 Title
 Acknowledgments
 Dedication
 Abstract
 Table of Contents/outline
 Introduction
 Literature review
 Methods
 Results
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 Discussion
 Conclusion
 References/bibliography
 Appendices
1. Title
- It may seem silly to include the title as an important element, but it really is vital. Think about
the books at libraries and bookstores. They are lined up in stacks on tables and shelves. There
are so many. How do you decide which one to even consider? By its title. If one doesn't grab
your attention, you skip it. So, take your title seriously. Even the title of a research paper.
Essentially, it expresses the main idea of your paper.
2. Acknowledgments
- A page of acknowledgements is usually included at the beginning of draft of the research
paper.
- The acknowledgment page is where you write the name of the person or people or group who
had helped (zero-cost) or you are indebted to in the completion of your paper.
- Acknowledgements enable you to thank all those who have helped in carrying out the
research. Careful thought needs to be given concerning those whose help should be
acknowledged and in what order. The general advice is to express your appreciation in a
concise manner and to avoid strong emotive language.
- Note that personal pronouns such as 'I, my, me …' are nearly always used in the
acknowledgements while in the rest of the project such personal pronouns are generally
avoided.
- The following list includes those people who are often acknowledged.
o Supervisor
o Other academic staff in your department
o Technical or support staff in your department
o Academic staff from other departments
o Other institutions, organizations or companies
o Past students
o Family *
o Friends *
- If you wish to acknowledge the help of family members or friends make sure you restrict the
wording of your thanks to a relatively FORMAL REGISTER.
- The following vocabulary/phrases are often used when expressing acknowledgements and
they may be of help when writing your own acknowledgements.
 I would like to express my very great appreciation to XXXXXX
 I would like to offer my special thanks to XXXXXX
 Advice given by XXXXXX has been a great help in XXXXXX
 I am particularly grateful for the assistance given by XXXXXX
 Assistance provided by XXXXXX was greatly appreciated.
 I wish to acknowledge the help provided XXXXXX
 Dr XXXXXX provided me with very valuable XXXXXX
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 I would like to thank the following companies for their assistance with the collection
of my data: XXXXXX XXXXXX
 My special thanks are extended to the staff of XXXXXX company for XXXXXX
3. Dedication
- The Dedication page (optional) is where you write the name of the person/people to whom
you want to offer your paper.
- After putting so much work into this paper, it is a chance for the student to recognize the
people who influenced the process.
- Dedicating the research paper to someone is a way to honor them.
- There are so many ways in which you can easily address your dedication. For example
 “This is dedicated to …”
 “I would like to dedicate my work to…”
 “I dedicate this book to…”
 “In dedication to my…”
 “It is our genuine gratefulness and warmest regard that we dedicate this work to…”
- NB: It is better option to keep your dedication as concise and simple as it can be.
4. Abstract
- The abstract is a paragraph that briefly and succinctly summarizes your paper . It should:
 give a background statement
 affirm your purpose ;
 explain how data was gathered, handled, and examined;
 condense your results;
 identify the main research deductions.
5. Table of contents (with page numbers for each section)

- The Table of Contents(TOC) must appear in your research paper. It acts as a map for the
reader, making it easier for them to find information in the document based on title and page
number.
- A good Table of Contents should be organized, easy to read and simple to use.
- In general, your document needs to be broken into Chapters/ Sections
- The page numbers listed in the Table of Contents must match the page numbers of items as
they appear in the text. For example, if the chapter title, “Chapter 1 Review of literature” is
used on page 5 of the text, the Table of Contents should list Chapter 1 Review of literature”
…………….5
- Chapter sections and subsections should appear consistently in the Table of Contents.
6. Introduction
- The introduction leads the reader from a general subject area to a particular topic of inquiry. It
establishes the scope, context, significance, the purpose of the work , the hypothesis (es),
the set of questions, the methodological approach used to examine the research problem, and
a brief outline of the structure and organization of the paper.
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7. Literature review
- A literature review considers current published works that focus on the subject matter and
evaluates what others have already done.
8. Methods
- Illustrate how your research was carried out and provide detail about your techniques. They
should be sharply detailed and rationalized. The reader should be able to clearly imagine
and/or duplicate your methods themselves.
9. Results
- The results section is where you report the findings of your study based upon the
methodology [or methodologies] you applied to gather information. The results section should
state the findings of the research arranged in a logical sequence without bias or interpretation.
A section describing results is particularly necessary if your paper includes data generated
from your own research.
- Leaving out your personal opinion, detail your results but don't explain. Graphics and tables
are recommended in order to help the reader visualize and understand your findings, but don't
rely on the graphics and tables to do all the work.
10. Discussion
- The purpose of the discussion is to interpret and describe the significance of your findings in
light of what was already known about the research problem being investigated and to explain
any new understanding or insights that emerged as a result of your study of the problem. The
discussion will always connect to the introduction by way of the research questions or
hypotheses you posed and the literature you reviewed, but the discussion does not simply
repeat or rearrange the first parts of your paper; the discussion clearly explain how your study
advanced the reader's understanding of the research problem from where you left them at the
end of your review of prior research.
11. Conclusion
- The conclusion is intended to help the reader understand why your research should matter to
them after they have finished reading the paper. A conclusion is not merely a summary of the
main topics covered or a re-statement of your research problem, but a synthesis of key points
and, if applicable, where you recommend new areas for future research. For most college-
level research papers, one or two well-developed paragraphs is sufficient for a conclusion,
although in some cases, three or more paragraphs may be required.
12. References/bibliography
- Your paper will not be thorough until you list your references. The bibliography is an
alphabetized list of academic authorities. The easiest way to create a bibliography is to jot
down the information concerning each original source, every time you use it. Just note the
title, author, publication location, publisher, and publication date, and you'll have a complete
list by the end of your paper.
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13. Appendices
- An appendix contains supplementary material that is not an essential part of the text itself but
which may be helpful in providing a more comprehensive understanding of the research
problem or it is information that is too cumbersome to be included in the body of the paper.
- A separate appendix should be used for each distinct topic or set of data and always have a
title descriptive of its contents.
- Appendices are always supplementary to the research paper. As such, your study must be able
to stand alone without the appendices, and the paper must contain all information including
tables, diagrams, and results necessary to understand the research problem. The key point to
remember when including an appendix is that the information is non-essential; if it were
removed, the reader would still be able to comprehend the significance, validity, and
implications of your research.
- Things to include in the appendix are :
 Correspondence -- if your research included collaborations with others or outreach to others,
then correspondence in the form of letters, memorandums, or copies of emails from those you
interacted with could be included.
 Interview Transcripts -The full transcript from an interview is important so the reader can
read the entire dialog between researcher and respondent. The interview protocol [list of
questions] should also be included.
 Non-textual elements -- figures, tables, maps, charts, photographs, drawings, or graphs, think
about highlighting examples in the text of the paper but include the remainder in an appendix.
 Questionnaires - Always include the questionnaires in an appendix so the reader understands
not only the questions asked but the sequence in which they were asked.
FINAL REMARKS
- Essentially, any well-written paper will employ this basic structure to some extent. It doesn't
matter how simple or complex the topic or important the paper. Once you master these
elements, you can carry them throughout your education and adjust them in order to write
anything, be it a lab report or term paper or even a doctorate. You can even take them
through your career, where you might be asked to write a grant proposal or speech or just an
opinion.
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WRITING THE RESEARCH PAPER I: TITLE & ABSTRACT

A. TITLE OF THE PAPER
1- What should a title include ?
• Research title should describe
– (a) the topic,
– (b) the method,
– (c) the sample,
– (d) the results of your study.
• [Result]: A [method] study of [topic] among [sample]

Example:
Meditation Makes Nurses Perform Better:
A Quantitative Study of Mindfulness Meditation among German Nursing Students
2- Other tips for writing an effective research title

• Avoid unnecessary words and jargons. (It should be comprehensible even to people who are
not experts in your field).
• Indicate accurately the subject and scope of the study.
• Use words that create a positive impression and stimulate reader interest.
• Use current terminology from the field of study.
• Identify key variables, both dependent and independent.
• Suggest a relationship between variables which supports the major hypothesis.
• Keep it short. Make sure your title is between 5 and 13 words in length.
• Titles are usually in the form of a phrase, but can also be in the form of a question.
• Use correct grammar and capitalization with all first words and last words capitalized,
including the first word of a subtitle.
• All nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs that appear between the first and last
words of the title are also capitalized.
• In academic papers, rarely is a title followed by an exclamation mark. However, a title or
subtitle can be in the form of a question.
3- Things to avoid
• The period generally has no place in a title (even a declarative phrase can work without a
period)
• Likewise, any kind of dashes to separates title parts (however, hyphens to link words is fine)
• Chemical formula, like H2O, CH4, etc. (instead use their common or generic names)
• Avoid roman numerals (e.g., III, IX, etc.)
• Semi-colons, as in “;” (the colon, however, is very useful to make two-part titles)
• Avoid using abbreviations (except for those standardized and widely known).
• Avoid question marks
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• Uncommon words (a few are okay,)
• Numerical exponents, or units (e.g. km-1 or km/hr)
• Vague terms
• Obvious or non-specific openings with a conjunction: e.g., “Report on”, “A Study of”,
“Results of”, “An Experimental Investigation of”, etc. (these don’t contribute meaning!)
• Italics, unless it is used for the species names of studied organisms
B. SUBTITLES
- Subtitles are quite common in social science research papers. Examples of why you may
include a subtitle:
• Explains or provides additional context, e.g., "Linguistic Ethnography and the Study of
Welfare Institutions as a Flow of Social Practices: The Case of Residential Child Care
Institutions as Paradoxical Institutions.“
• Adds substance to a literary, provocative, or imaginative title, e.g., "Listen to What I Say,
Not How I Vote: Congressional Support for the President in Washington and at Home.“
• Qualifies the geographic scope of the research, e.g., "The Geopolitics of the Eastern Border
of the European Union: The Case of Romania-Moldova-Ukraine.“
• Qualifies the temporal scope of the research, e.g., "A Comparison of the Progressive Era
and the Depression Years: Societal Influences on Predictions of the Future of the Library,
1895-1940.“
• Focuses on investigating the ideas, theories, or work of a particular individual, e.g., "A
Deliberative Conception of Politics: How Francesco Saverio Merlino Related Anarchy and
Democracy."
C. ABSTRACT
1- What is an abstract
• An abstract is a brief summary of the contents of a study, and it allows readers to quickly
survey the essential elements of a project.
• It is placed at the beginning of studies, and it is useful to have both for proposals for studies
and for the final thesis or dissertation.
• The abstract can be the most important single paragraph in a study.
• It also needs to be accurate, non-evaluative (by adding comments beyond the scope of the
research), coherent, readable, and concise.
• Its length varies, and some colleges and universities have requirements for an appropriate
length but generally most abstracts are 3% of the academic research (usually between 150
and 350).
2- Qualities of a good research paper abstract

• When writing an abstract for your research paper, you should keep in mind the following:
– Conciseness and specificity-the abstract should be brief, informative and should only have
important information such as the purpose of the research, the results and the conclusions.
– Accuracy-It should be a reflection of the contents in the research paper. It is advisable to
compare the contents of the abstract with the outline to ascertain that you have not added new
information or have left out important information.
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– Coherence and readability-The abstract should be clear and easy to understand. To achieve
this, use active voice but do not use personal pronouns, verbs rather than nouns, third person,
past tense in reference to specific variables and present tense to describe results.
– Independence- The research paper abstract should be a complete write-up on its own.
3- Elements of an abstract
• The content varies for abstracts for a report, a literature review, a theory-oriented paper, and
for a methodological paper
• However, It is recommend that an abstract should include the following seven elements:
– Element 1: The abstract has to start with a brief theme sentence to orientate the reader about
the overall issue addressed in the thesis. The sentence should grab the reader’s attention.
– Element 2: The abstract should then indicate the main aim or purpose of the study.
– Element 3: Next, the academic and/or practical importance of the study should be explained.
– Element 4: The methodology used in the study should also be described.
– Element 5: The main findings of the study should be summarized.
– Element 6: Statements of conclusions should indicate the contribution made by the study in
filling gaps in the literature.
– Element 7: Finally, the practical or managerial implications of the study’s findings should be
highlighted where appropriate (highly applicable for social science studies).
Sample abstract
The issue that this study addresses is the lack of women in martial arts competitions. To address
this problem, the purpose of this study will be exploring motivation of female athletes in Tae
Kwon Do competitions. To gather data, interviews with 4 female Tae Kwon Do tournament
competitors were conducted. The interviews were transcribed and analyzed. This data lead to
the following 3 themes: social support, self-efficacy, and goal orientation. These themes will be
useful for understanding the optimal way to increase motivation in female martial artists.
4- Things to avoid in an abstract

• The abstract SHOULD NOT contain:
– Lengthy background or contextual information,
– Redundant phrases, unnecessary adverbs and adjectives, and repetitive information;
– Acronyms or abbreviations,
– References to other literature [say something like, "current research shows that..." or
"studies have indicated..."],
– Using ellipticals [i.e., ending with "..."] or incomplete sentences,
– Jargon or terms that may be confusing to the reader,
– Citations to other works,
– Any sort of image, illustration, figure, or table, or references to them.
• Do not repeat the title or introduce new information
• The research paper abstract should not be more 3% of the entire text
• The research paper abstract does not include keywords as in journal articles
Practice
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WRITING THE RESEARCH PAPER II- TABLE OF CONTENTS

- The Table of Contents (TOC) is an organized listing of the chapters and major sections of your
document. Readers will immediately be able to see how your manuscript is organized and then
skip down to sections that are most relevant to them. A clear, concise, and well formatted TOC
is the first indicator of a good research paper.
I. Uses /functions of a table of contents

- Aids in the process of writing
- Helps you organize your ideas
- Presents your material in a logical form
- Shows the relationships among ideas in your writing
- Serves as complete communication in itself
II. Types of tables of contents/outline

- Types of tables of contents are classified by their format or wording
A. Format: The alphanumerical table of content versus scratched table of contents :
a- The alphanumerical table of contents. This is the most common outline and
usually instantly recognizable to most people. The formatting follows these
characteristics:
 Roman Numerals (I, II, III, IV, etc)
 Capitalized Letters(A, B, C, D, etc)
 Arabic Numerals(1, 2, 3, 4, etc)
 Lowercase Letters(a, b ,c, d, etc)
b- The scratched table of contents: This is an informal outline. It is only a rough list
of the main points (and sub-points as well) of an essay. This type of an outline will
help you organize information while you are still gathering it
B. Wording: The topic table of contents versus full sentences table of contents
a- The topic table of contents: The items in a topic outline are words or brief phrases
b- The full sentence table of contents: Full sentences are required at each level of the
outline. This outline is most often used when preparing a traditional essay
III. Characteristics of a table of contents
A. Coordination: All the information contained in Heading 1 should have the same significance as
the information contained in Heading 2. The same goes for the subheadings (which should be
less significant than the headings). Example:
I. Visit and evaluate college campuses
II. Visit and evaluate college websites
A. Note important statistics
B. Look for interesting classes
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B. Subordination: The information in the headings should be more general, while the information
in the subheadings should be more specific. Example:
I. Describe an influential person in your life
A. Favorite high school teacher
B. Grandparent
C. Division: Each heading should be divided into 2 or more parts. Example:

I. Compile resume
A. List relevant coursework
B. List work experience
C. List volunteer experience
NB: Technically, there is no limit to the number of subdivisions for your headings; however, if
you seem to have a lot, it may be useful to see if some of the parts can be combined.
D. Other key features of a contents page are:

 Page numbers that indicate where each section of the research paper can be found
 All level one and two headings should be included in the table of contents. Level three
headings are optional and should be omitted if you run over two pages.
Example of heading levels
Level one → Chapter 3. Methodology
Level two → 3.1 Sampling Method
Level three → 3.1.1 Participant Recruitment
IV. CHECKLIST FOR TABLE OF CONTENTS

 Appropriately formatted
 Lists all main sections of the document starting with the Dedication page. If the Dedication
page is not used, then starts with the Abstract page.
 Lists the titles of each chapter, plus all Heading Level 2's -- these are the main sections
within each chapter. Do not list any subsections.
 All titles and headings match what appears in the text exactly.
 All page numbers are correct.
V. Sample table of contents
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30
WRITING THE RESEARCH PAPER III – INTRODUCTION

- The introduction leads the reader from a general subject area to a particular topic of inquiry. It
should include
 The research problem statement
 Research purpose statement
 Objectives of the research
 The significance of research
 The structure of the research
A- RESEARCH PROBLEM STATEMENT

1- What Is A Research Problem?
- The first and most important step in any research is to identify and delineate the research
problem: that is, what the researcher wants to solve and what questions he/she wishes to
answer.
- A research problem may be defined as an area of concern, a gap in the existing knowledge, or
a deviation in the norm or standard that points to the need for further understanding and
investigation.
- Although many problems turn out to have several solutions (the means to close the gap or
correct the deviation), difficulties arise where such means are either not obvious or are not
immediately available. This then necessitates some research to reach a viable solution.
- A statement of the problem is used in research work as a claim that outlines the problem
addressed by a study. The statement of the problem briefly addresses the question: What is the
problem that the research will address?
2- Sources Of Research Problems

- The selection of a suitable problem is always a challenging task.. The following are the main
sources that are helpful in this regard:
1. Personal experiences of the investigator in the field of interest are the main source for
identifying suitable problem. For example, many of the problems confronted in the
classroom, the school or the community lend themselves to investigation and they are perhaps
more appropriate for the beginning researcher than are problems more remote from his own
teaching experiences.
2. The other source is the extensive study of available literature-research abstracts, journals,
hand-books of research international abstracts etc. He can draw an analogy for selecting a
research problem or can think parallel problem in the field studied.
3. The new innovations, technological changes and curricular developments are constantly
bringing new problems and new-opportunities for Social Studies Research.
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4. The most practical source of problem is to consult supervisor, experts of the field and most
experienced person of the field. They may suggest most significant problem of the area. He
can discuss certain issues of the area to emerge a problem.
3- Why do Need to Define a Research Problem?

- The definition of a problem serves the following purposes:
1. The definition of a problem sets the direction of the study
2. The definition reveals the methodology or procedure of the study.
3. The definition of the problem suggests and specifies the variables to be taken up into the
investigation through a problem involved into so many variables.
4. The-definition makes the research work practicable.
5. It makes the research work feasible.
6. It delimits the scope of the problem.
7. It establishes the proper frame of reference.
8. It sets forth certain conditions of the study.
9. It aids in the development of testable hypotheses.
10. It helps in establishing the population and extent of generalization.
4- What are the Key Characteristics of a Statement of the Problem?

- A good research problem should have the following characteristics:
a. It should address a gap in knowledge.
b. It should be significant enough to contribute to the existing body of research
c. It should lead to further research
d. The problem should render itself to investigation through collection of data
e. It should be of interest to the researcher and suit his/her skills, time, and resources
f. It should be stated “clearly and unambiguously in question form.”
g. It should be stated clearly and unambiguously, usually in question form.
5- How Formulating a Research Problem

- A persuasive statement of problem is usually written in three parts:
 Part A (The ideal): Describes a desired goal or ideal situation; explains how things should
be.
 Part B (The reality): Describes a condition that prevents the goal, state, or value in Part A
from being achieved or realized at this time; explains how the current situation falls short of
the goal or ideal.
 Part C (The consequences): Identifies the way you propose to improve the current situation
and move it closer to the goal or ideal.
Example 1
 Part A: According to the XY university mission statement, the university seeks to provide
students with a safe, healthy learning environment. Dormitories are one important aspect of
that learning environment, since 55% of XY students live in campus dorms and most of these
students spend a significant amount of time working in their dorm rooms.
However,
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 Part B: Students living in dorms A B C, and D currently do not have air conditioning units,
and during the hot seasons, it is common for room temperatures to exceed 80 degrees F. Many
students report that they are unable to do homework in their dorm rooms. Others report
having problems sleeping because of the humidity and temperature. The rooms are not only
unhealthy, but they inhibit student productivity and academic achievement.
 Part C: In response to this problem, our study proposes to investigate several options for
making the dorms more hospitable. We plan to carry out an all-inclusive participatory
investigation into options for purchasing air conditioners (university-funded; student-
subsidized) and different types of air conditioning systems. We will also consider less
expensive ways to mitigate some or all of the problems noted above (such as creating climate-
controlled dorm lounges and equipping them with better study areas and computing space).
PRACTICE: Evaluate the following research problems taken from MA papers
Investigating Intercultural Communicative Competence among Moroccan EFL University

students: 3rd Year English Department Students as a Case Study
Research Problem and objectives of the study

Given the fact that developing ICC has become an important focus of modern
language education, teachers are becoming aware that one of the main goals of English
language teaching (ELT) is to enable learners to communicate effectively with people from
diverse cultural backgrounds. However, several authors such as Lázár (2003) point out that
despite the recommendations of the Common European Framework of Reference to
Languages (CEF), the focus of language learning is still the study of grammatical and lexical
competence. Byram (1997) and Haneda (2007) also explain that cultural competence has
often been ignored in EFL because language teaching has been influenced by the study of
grammatical forms.
Certainly, acquisition of grammar rules and language fluency is not enough to
establish meaning negotiation and cross-cultural communication. Therefore, as indicated by
Kramsch (1993), the main goal of second language learning should not only be effective
communication, but the search for the understanding of cultural boundaries and the attempt to
come to terms with those boundaries.
In relation to the Moroccan Context, ELT nowadays is heavily pressured to create
highly qualified graduates with a high level of interculturality so as to purposefully and
effectively function in a globalised world as intercultural citizens. In this sense, to decipher
the important ideas regarding the cultivation of the Moroccan students' ICC, there are five
major objectives that can serve as a propeller of this study:
1- To assess and discover whether the Moroccan EFL university students do possess the
necessary intercultural communicative competence that enables them to effectively
and appropriately act while interacting in cross-cultural communication encounters.
2- To describe the obstacles that arise from cultural differences in intercultural
interactions.
33
3- To examine the reasons behind the Moroccan students' failures intercultural
communication and learn how to overcome them.
4- To explore what intercultural knowledge should be taught in class.
5- To provide recommendations for the Moroccan university English teacher effective
teaching practices and approaches that can help improve students' ICC
Investigating Learners' Competence in the Acquisition of English Locative Prepositions:

The Case of Moroccan EFL 3rd Year University Students
The research problem

There is a general assumption in the field of lexical acquisition that English locative
prepositions represent a significant problem for EFL students. That is to say, when it comes to
mastering a foreign language one of the most troublesome areas to language learners is the
accurate usage of prepositions. “Among those who teach or learn the English language,
prepositions have earned a reputation for difficulty if not downright unpredictability.”
(Pittman, 1966). EFL learners usually tend to make connection in the use of English
prepositions to their L1 however, there is a great difference between the acquisition of a first
language (L1) and the acquisition of a second (L2) or a foreign language (FL), in the sense
that in L1 acquisition concepts and words are acquired simultaneously, whereas in L2
acquisition already has a complete developed set of conceptual representations. Verspoor
(2001: 75). Learning how to use prepositions correct foreign language is a colossal task in the
sense that the learning process of prepositions is usually not accomplished, and that many
learners never manageto master thoroughly. “As any English teacher well knows, our
prepositions are a particularly troublesome lot to the non-native speaker of English.”
(McCarthy, 1972).
In this respect, the present study attempts to explore the mysterious system of the
processing and learning of English locatives. Equally important, this research tries to measure
Moroccan EFL learners' competence in the use of this language construction and to detect the
sources of difficulty and linguistic problems that they encounter in the process of learning. In
addition to that, the present work is conducted to specifically find out whether standard
Arabiclanguage has some influence on Moroccan EFL students in the learning of this
language structure. It further attempts to see the extent to which the target language's
pecificities can hinder the process of learning.
Measuring the Impact of Dialogue-circles on the Moroccan First Year EFL Learners'
Speaking Skill.School of Arts and Humanities in Meknes as a case study
Problem statement
Developing speaking skill successfully calls for offering students opportunities to use
their language in situations similar to those they experience in face-to-face interactions. In a
discussion of naturalistic views to language learning, Harmer (2007) proposes three basic
elements for successful, natural language learning: exposure, motivation, and opportunity to
use the language. Consequently, students need more informal, natural exposure and
opportunities to learn and use the target language tactfully. From this perspective, the basic
issue 'do dialogue circles organized by students provide constructive opportunities like those
34
available in natural settings that could enhance their speaking skill?' is approached in this
study. Even though a large number of studies have reported the positive effect of classroom
group work on students speaking and interactional skills (e.g. Long & Porter, 1985), research
has overlooked discussion circles organized by students themselves outside the classroom
confines mainly at a tertiary level. Whether or not discussion circles at the university could
enable students to develop their speaking skill remains a fresh area worth investigation.
Practice: Use the following research topics to formulate e the research problem and
questions you will address
 Brain drain  Violence
 Marriage  The Amazigh language
 Corruption  Gender and politeness
 Illiteracy  Teaching grammar
 Technology  Sexual harassment
 Education system  Child labor
 Gossiping  Early mariage
 Misbehaviour
B- PURPOSE STATEMENT
• A purpose statement announces the purpose, scope, and direction of the paper. It tells the
reader what to expect in a paper and what the specific focus will be.
• Common beginnings usually include:
 “This paper examines . . .,”
 “The aim of this paper is to . . .,”
 “The purpose of this essay is to . . .”
• A purpose statement makes a promise to the reader about the development of the argument
but does not preview the particular conclusions that the writer has drawn.
• A purpose statement tells exactly what a study intends to achieve and, often, how it will
achieve it.
• NOTE: The purpose statement may be expressed in several sentences or even an entire
paragraph. In other words, a purpose statement is too complex to fit into one sentence,
especially for documents that intend to achieve several different purposes.
1- Characteristics of purpose statment

 A good purpose statement is:
– Specific and precise,
– Clear,
– Concise,
– Able to lead to more than one objective or question,
– Grounded in a well-established rationale/problem statement
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2- Tips on writing the purpose of the study
 Key points to keep in mind when preparing a purpose statement.
– Try to incorporate a sentence that begins with “The purpose of this study is . . .” This
will clarify your own mind as to the purpose and it will inform the reader directly and
explicitly.
– Clearly identify and define the central concepts or ideas of the study.
– Identify the specific method of inquiry to be used.
– Identify the unit of analysis in the study.
Sample of a purpose statement

The purpose of this paper is to describe four common causes of co-worker conflict in
organizations and explain how to use a five-step procedure to constructively manage this
conflict.
C- OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH
1- What do we mean by objectives of research
 They refer to set tasks or goals that a person wishes to accomplish.
o Objectives are more concrete and are clearly defined by certain steps that will
eventually allow the person to fulfill that particular goal.
o Purpose statements are realized through a set of research objectives or questions.
Research objectives serve to narrow the purpose statement and are linked directly to
the research findings.
o Research objectives are the specific things you will achieve (or questions you will
answer) in your research in order to accomplish your overall purpose
o Good research objectives are explicit and clearly defined, and there is a high
probability of meeting them.
o Research objectives serve to narrow the purpose statement and are linked directly to
the research findings.
2- Characteristics of objectives of research

 Research objective is a concrete statement describing what the research is trying to achieve.
 A well-known objective will be SMART
• S – SPECIFIC
• M – MEASURABLE.
• A – ATTAINABLE.
• R – REALISTIC.
• T – TIME BOUND
Sample of objectives of research

the objectives of the research are:
– First, to critically review the literature on management of change in organizations.
– Second, to critically review managing the process of change in curriculum in general
and CfE in particular
– Third, to investigate teachers’ perspectives on management of the process of change to
CfE using Lenzie Academy as a case study.
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– Fourth, to analyse the data through comparison with research to date on educational
change
– Finally, to suggest recommendations on best approach for managing the process of
change for CfE in Scotland.
3- How many objectives

– Only the number that you can realize in the duration of the assignment .
– You must ensure that your proposed research design is achievable and that you are able to
tackle all of the stated objectives (or questions) within the constraints of your timeline and
proposed budget.
D- SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

• The significance of the study is also a part of the introduction
• It makes the purpose worth pursuing.
• Your study should have a value not only to yourself but also to the community and the
respondents.
• It should have an impact on your field of specialization and you should mention the sectors
that will be benefited by your studies.
• It should determine who benefits from the study and how that specific audience will
benefit from its findings.
• The significance of the study answers the questions:
– Why is your study important? Why should my study be conducted ?
– To whom is it important?
– What benefit(s) will occur if your study is done?
– What significant scientific contribution is my study making to my field of research.
1- Tips on writing the importance of the study

• To Explain the importance of the study, you should refer to
– The rationale, timeliness, and/or relevance of the study
– Possible solutions to existing problems or improvement to unsatisfactory conditions.
– Who are to be benefited and how they are going to be benefited.
– Possible implications.
Sample
The present study will have an additive value to the field of teaching English as a foreign
language (TEFL). This significance is three-fold. First, it will identify the relation between the
derivational morphemes and vocabulary breadth among EFL learners studying at the faculty of
arts and humanities. Second, it will deepen our understanding and provide more insights about
the extent to which EFL learner’s vocabulary knowledge affects their understanding of bound
morphemes. Third, this thesis will be of paramount importance for language teachers as it will
provide practical implications and recommendations on how to foster the EFL learners’
vocabulary teaching in light with morphological awareness.
37
E- STRUCTURE OF THE STUDY
• Research structure is basically an outline of the work and you are expected to provide the
research structure towards the end of introduction of the research
• The following is a sample of a research structure and language used:
– Chapter One explains ……………………….
– Chapter Two constitutes ….………………….
– Chapter Three addresses …………………………………..
– Chapter Four constitutes discussions and analyses.
– Chapter Five concludes / summarizes
• NOTE: don’t just outline the basic structure but discuss , defend and justify the choice of the
structure and explain the link
38
WRITING THE RESEARCH PAPER III: REVIEW OF LITERATURE

- A literature review surveys scholarly articles, books and other sources relevant to a
particular issue, area of research, or theory, and by so doing, providing a description,
summary, and critical evaluation of these works. Literature reviews are designed to provide
an overview of sources you have explored while researching a particular topic and to
demonstrate to your readers how your research fits into the larger field of study.
I. WHY REVIEWING THE EXISTING LITERATURE

- you need to review the existing literature/
 To demonstrate your familiarity with, and knowledge of the subject.
 To provide an outline of the relevant theories and concepts important within your research
project.
 To clearly identify the knowledge gap and then focus the research question.
 To determine the extent of past research into the subject matter.
 To develop a hypothesis.
 To identify methodologies and methods that have been successfully utilised in the past.
 To help ensure all relevant variables are identified.
 To allow comparison of your findings with the findings of others.
II. SOURCES OF LITERATURE

- There are a number of varied information sources, of which the main ones available to you are
as follows
o Books.
o Peer-reviewed journals.
o Conference papers.
o The Internet.
o Past theses.
o Newspapers/magazines.
o Trade journals.
III. TIPS ON WRITING LITERATURE REVIEW

o Gain familiarity with the subject before writing.
o Construct your bibliography as quickly as possible – identify and access the key sources that
you will need at the earliest possible stage.
o Allow yourself much more time than you initially think you need to write the review. It is rare
to complete the review in one go, and generally a number of rewrites are necessary. You
should be prepared for this.
o Work from an initial plan, but be prepared to continually refine and develop your structure.
39
o Include subheadings where necessary to guide the reader.
o Summarise your key findings regularly in longer literature reviews.
o Be selective – include literature that is relevant to your research, and spend more time on
higher quality or important articles.
o Extract the relevant information from each study you use. Do not spend an inordinate amount
of time describing each study in depth.
o Be up to date. Look at the dates from your bibliography. Are the key works recent, or are
they several years old? If the latter, are they still ‘cutting edge’ or have they been superseded
by more recent works? Do include, however, ‘classic’ works in your field wherever
appropriate.
IV. WRITING YOUR LITERATURE REVIEW

- When writing your review, keep in mind these issues.
1. Use Evidence
- A literature review in this sense is just like any other academic research paper. Your
interpretation of the available sources must be backed up with evidence to show that what you
are saying is valid.
2. Be Selective
- Select only the most important points in each source to highlight in the review. The type of
information you choose to mention should relate directly to the research problem, whether it
is thematic, methodological, or chronological.
3. Use Quotes Sparingly

- Some short quotes are okay if you want to emphasize a point, or if what the author said just
cannot be rewritten in your own words. Sometimes you may need to quote certain terms that
were coined by the author, not common knowledge, or taken directly from the study. Do not
use extensive quotes as a substitute your own summary and interpretation of the literature.
4. Summarize and Synthesize

- Remember to summarize and synthesize your sources within each paragraph as well as
throughout the review. Recapitulate important features of a research study, but then
synthesize it by rephrasing the study's significance and relating it to their own work
5. Keep Your Own Voice

- While the literature review presents others' ideas, your voice (the writer's) should remain front
and center. For example, weave references to other sources into what you are writing but
maintain your own voice by starting and ending the paragraph with your own ideas and
wording.
6. Use Caution When Paraphrasing

- When paraphrasing a source that is not your own, be sure to represent the author's information
or opinions accurately and in your own words. Even when paraphrasing an author’s work, you
still must provide a citation to that work.
40
moualy Ismail University
TECHNIQUES OF WRITING LITERATURE REVIEW : 1) SUMMARIZING
I. Preliminaries
 Summarizing is a powerful reading strategy. It increases comprehension and retention of
information
 When you summarize, you restate the most important information of a text, using your own
words.
 Summarizing is:
• Keeping: Keep only the important information and main ideas.
• Deleting : Do not include supporting details in your summary
• Paraphrasing: Use your own words!!!
II. Definition
A Summary may be defined as “a brief restatement, in your own words, of the content of a
passage (a group of paragraphs, a chapter, an article, a book). This restatement should focus
on the central idea of the passage. (…..) ( a )complete summary will indicate, in condensed
form, the main points in the passage that support or explain the central idea. It will reflect the
order in which these points are presented and the emphasis given to them. It may even include
some important examples from the passage. But it will not include minor details. It will not
repeat points simply for the purpose of emphasis. And it will not contain any of your own
opinions or conclusions” (Laurence M. Behrens, 1994 ).
III. Qualities of a good summary

- A good summary should be comprehensive, concise, coherent, independent and objective. These
qualities are explained below:
A. A summary must be comprehensive. You should isolate all the important points in the
original passage and note them down in a list. Review all the ideas on your list, and include in
your summary all the ones that are indispensable to the author's development of his/her thesis
or main idea.
B. A summary must be concise. Eliminate repetitions in your list, even if the author restates the
same points. Your summary should be considerably shorter than the source. You are hoping
to create an overview; therefore, you need not include every repetition of a point or every
supporting detail.
C. A summary must be coherent. It should make sense as a piece of writing in its own right; it
should not merely be taken directly from your list of notes or sound like a disjointed
collection of points.
D. A summary must be independent. You are not being asked to imitate the author of the text
you are writing about. On the contrary, you are expected to maintain your own voice
throughout the summary. Don't simply quote the author; instead use your own words to
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express your understanding of what you have read. After all, your summary is based on your
interpretation of the writer's points or ideas. However, you should be careful not to create any
misrepresentation or distortion by introducing comments or criticisms of your own.
E. A summary must be Objective : Objectivity could be difficult to achieve in a summary.
Writing a summary requires you to select some aspects of the original and leave out others.
Therefore, your interpretation of a passage may differ from another person’s. Still, despite all
this, it’s possible to produce a reasonably objective summary of a passage if you make a
conscious, good-faith effort to be unbiased and to prevent your own feelings on the subject
from coloring your account of the author s text
IV. Writing a summary

A. Steps involved in writing a summary
- Like any other skill, the ability to summarize improves with practice. Here are a few pointers
to get you started. They represent possible stages, or steps, in the process of writing a
summary. These pointers are not meant to be ironclad rules; rather, they are designed to
encourage habits of thinking that will allow you to vary your technique as the situation
demands.
 Examine the context. Note the credentials, occupation and publications of the author.
Identity the source in which the piece originally appeared. This information helps illuminate
the author’s perspective on the topic he is addressing.
 Note the title and subtitle. Some titles are straightforward; the meaning of others become
clearer as you read. In either case, titles typically identify the topic being addressed and often
reveal the author’s attitude toward that topic .
 Identify the main point. Whether a piece of writing contains a thesis statement in the few
paragraphs or builds its main point without stating it up front, look at the entire piece to
arrive at an understanding of the overall point being made.
 Identify the subordinate points. Notice the smaller sub-points that make up the main point,
and make sure you understand how they relate to the main point if a particular sub-point
doesn’t clearly relate the main point you’ve identified, you may need to modify your
understanding of the main point.
 Break the reading into sections. Note which paragraph make up a piece’s introduction, body
and conclusion. Break up the body paragraph into sections that address the writer’s various
sub-points.
 Distinguish between points, examples, and counterarguments. Critical reading requires
careful attention to what the writer is doing well as what he or she is saying. When a writer
quotes someone else or relays an example of something, ask yourself why this is being done.
What point is the example supporting? Is another source being quoted as support for a point
or as counterargument that the writer sets out to address
 Watch for transitions within and between paragraphs. In order to follow the logic of a
piece of writing as well as to distinguish between points, examples and counterarguments, pay
attention to the transitional words and phrases writers use. Transitions function like road
signs preparing the reader for what’s next.
 Read actively and recursively. Don’t treat reading as a passive, linear progression through a
text. Instead, read as thought you are engaged in a dialogue with the writer. Ask questions of
the text as you read, make notes in the margin, underline key ideas in pencil, put question or
42
exclamation marks next to passages that confuse or excite you. Go back to earlier points once
you finish a reading, stop during your reading to recap what’s come so far and move back and
move back and forth through a text.
B. Techniques involved in writing a summary

Summarizing paragraphs
1. The statement what the paragraph is about. That is, the statement of the theme of the
paragraph
2. The division of the theme into parts. That is to say, the division of the paragraph into sections
and the writing of the sentence for each situation
3. The expansion of each of the section sentence
4. The writing of the forts and the final draft of the summary of the whole paragraph with special
attention given to the linking words
Summarizing Shorter Texts (ten pages or fewer)

1. Formulate a single sentence that summarizes the whole text.
2. Write a one-sentence summary of each paragraph.
3. Write a paragraph (or more): begin with the overall summary sentence and follow it with the
paragraph summary sentences.
4. Rearrange and rewrite the paragraph to make it clear and concise, to eliminate repetition and
relatively minor points, and to provide transitions. The final version should be a complete,
unified, and coherent whole
Summarizing Longer Texts (eleven pages or more)

1. Outline the text. Break it down into its major sections--groups of paragraphs focused on a
common topics – and list the main supporting points for each section.
2. Write a one or two sentence summary of each section.
3. Formulate a single sentence to summarize the whole text, looking at the author's thesis or
topic sentences as a guide.
4. Write a paragraph (or more):begin with the overall summary sentence and follow it with the
section summary sentences.
5. Rewrite and rearrange your paragraph(s) as needed to make your writing clear and concise, to
eliminate relatively minor or repetitious points, and to provide transitions. Make sure your
summary includes all the major supporting points of each idea. The final version should be a
unified, complete, and coherent whole
V. How long should a summary be?

 The length of a summary depends both on the length of the original passage and on the use to
which the summary will be put. If you are summarizing an entire article, a good rule of thumb
is that your summary should be no longer than one-fourth the length of the original passage.
Of course, if you were summarizing an entire chapter or even an entire book, it would have to
be much shorter than that.
43
 In general, summaries should be between 10 to 25 percent of the original text’s length (1
percent for novels). If the summary is more than 25% of the original text’s length, you need to
delete more details and keep only the important information.
- Highlight or underline necessary information. Write your summary
a. The English were not the first Europeans to land their ships on American soil. The Vikings
had discovered North America in the 11th century. Columbus landed in the Bahamas in 1492
for Spain, and the French began expeditions to the New World in 1524. But the first English
presence in North America is important because the thirteen English colonies that would later
be established eventually became the country now known as the United States of America.
b. If you are reading this right now, you are taking part in the wonder of literacy. Because of
printed words, people can send information across both time and space. Ideas are put in
writing and sent to readers across thousands of miles and years. Because of writing, the words
of distant people can influence events, offer knowledge, and change the world. Much of the
credit for the development of this phenomenon can be attributed to one man
- Summarize the following passage in no more than 120 words

Valentine's Day is a holiday celebrated on February 14. In America, Europe and now many
countries, it is the traditional day on which lovers express their love for each other by sending
Valentine's Day cards, presenting flowers or offering confectionery.
This special day is most closely associated with the mutual exchange of love notes in the form
of `valentines'. These are Valentine symbols that include the heart-shaped outline, doves and the
figure of the winged Cupid. The popularity of Valentine's Day cards in 19th-century America was
a harbinger of the future commercialization of holidays in the United States.
Esther Howland, the woman who produced the first commercial American valentines in the
1840s, sold a then mind-boggling $5,000 in cards during her first year of business. The valentine
industry in the United States has been booming ever since. The United States Greeting Card
Association estimates that approximately one billion Valentine's Day cards are sent each year
worldwide, making this day the second largest card-sending holiday following behind Christmas
and New Year cards. Card giving goes back to when the English settlers first arrived in the
United States. As it was against the law to display affection in public at that time, giving cards to
loved ones was a way of showing one's affection without doing something illegal and inviting
public ridicule.
The United States Greeting Card Association estimated that women purchase approximately
85 percent of all valentines. In addition to cards, there are millions of boxes of chocolates and
bouquets of roses purchased, mostly by men. Today, Valentine's Day beaus give their girls
flowers, candy, cards, jewelry or some other gift. A candlelight dinner usually follows, either
homemade or at a romantic restaurant. Children and families celebrate too. Children make hearts
and valentine crafts in school to bring to their mothers and fathers, and the family might have a
special dinner and celebrate the love that keeps them together.
Many people feel that Valentine's Day is too commercialized. They ask if we need just that
one day to show our loved ones we love them. They feel that we should not need an excuse to
44
show our love. In fact, love should be shown every day. Moreover, it does not serve a good
purpose for millions of people to spend more than what they can afford on just one day.
On that day, shops begin to see the dollar sign as they cash in on the occasion. Everywhere
are thousands of different cards with all those endearing words. Big massive teddies sit in shop
windows clutching a big red heart with loving words. Florists are working through the night tying
ribbons around dozens of red roses and running out to deliver. Restaurants are fully booked with
the men treating their lady to a romantic dinner. This is typically what a Valentine's Day is today
45
TECHNIQUES OF WRITING LITERATURE REVIEW : 2) PARAPHRASING

I. What is paraphrasing?
- Paraphrasing means using your own words to describe somebody else’s argument
- "A paraphrase is a restatement, in your own words, of a passage of text. Its structure reflects
the structure of the source passage. Paraphrases are sometimes the same length as the source
passage, sometimes shorter. In certain cases-- particularly if the source passage is written in
densely constructed or jargon-laden prose--the paraphrase may be even longer than the
original. . . . Keep in mind that only an occasional word (but not whole phrases) from the
original source appears in the paraphrase, and that a paraphrase's sentence structure does not
reflect that of the source ( Rosen and Behrens 1994 p580 )
II. Why paraphrasing?

- Paraphrasing is a technique used to avoid plagiarism.
- The passage is too long to use as a quotation and you don’t want to be accused of plagiarizing
- The register of writing is not suitable (for example informal than informal )
- The language is not suitable, too technical or too difficult for the target audience or dense,
abstract, archaic, or possibly confusing
III. How to paraphrase? Some useful Techniques

- Make sure that you understand the source passage.
- Rearrange your own sentences so that they read smoothly. Sentence structure, even sentence
order, in the paraphrase need not be based on that of the original. A good paraphrase, like a
good summary, should stand by itself.
- Your paraphrase can be longer or shorter than the original.
- Concentrate on the meaning and not on the words to get the paraphrase in your own "voice."
- Exclude unnecessary information and include only what is important to your topic. Keep the
essential meaning to the original
- Use your own words and don’t merely substitute synonyms for words
- Look up any technical words that you don’t know. Understand all specialized vocabulary.
Don’t include your own comments
- Introduce your paraphrase with a signal phrase. If you don’t use a signal phrase, cite your
source after words
- Use some or all of the paraphrasing techniques listed below:
46
TECHNIQUE ORIGINAL SENTENCE PARAPHRASED
SENTENCE
Change word form or part of American news coverage is When American
speech. frequently biased in favor of journalists cover events,
Western views. they often display a
Western bias.
Use synonyms of Budget shortfalls at the state level Higher university tuition
"relationship words" such have resulted in higher tuition costs are due to lack of
as contrast, cause, costs at universities. money in the state budget.
or effect, and substitute a
word or phrase that conveys a
similar meaning.
Use synonyms of phrases and There was a resurgence of At the beginning of the
words. tuberculosis at the start of the 1980s, the incidence of
decade. tuberculosis increased.
Change the word order. Under the early admission system, Universities accept students
students are accepted by colleges before their high school
before they graduate from high graduation under the early
school. admission system.
Use reversals or negatives This unusual species is only found This species is not found on
that do not change the underwater. land
meaning.
Change passive voice to Passive Voice: The Active Voice: Over one-
active and move phrases and entrance exam was failed by over third of the applicants failed
modifiers. one-third of the applicants. the entrance exam.
Do not change concept Gamma rays consist of high High-energy photons that
words, special terms, or energy photons that have neither do not
proper names. mass nor charge. have mass or charge form
Gamma rays.
Eight Paraphrase Pitfalls

- Misreading the original
- Including too much of the original
- Leaving out important information
- Adding your opinion
- Summarizing rather than paraphrasing
- Substituting inappropriate synonyms
- Expanding or narrowing the meaning
- Forgetting to document
IV. Signal words
a. Alert your reader that the upcoming text contains information from an outside source. You
can introduce a paraphrase with the source’s name
 According to the policy book at Colorado State University, minors who are caught drinking
will be fined
47
b. Remember that there are a number of phrases that you can use for variety. Action verbs are
particularly useful as signal words
 Argues  Proves
 Suggests  Claims
 Illustrates  Rejects
 Observes  Believes
 Notes
V. Length of a paraphrase
- Paraphrases are generally about the same length as (and sometimes shorter than) the passages
on which they are based. But sometimes clarity requires that a paraphrase be longer than a
tightly compacted source passage.
PRACTICE
I. Read the following passage and paraphrase it by putting it into your own words.
- In American society, Introverts are outnumbered about three to one. As a result, they must
develop extra coping skills early in life because there will be an inordinate amount of
pressure on them to “shape up,” to act like the rest of the world. The Introvert is pressured
daily, almost from the moment of awakening, to respond and conform to the outer
world. Classroom teachers unwittingly pressure Introverted students by announcing that
“One-third of your grade will be based on classroom participation.” From Otto Kroeger and
Janet M. Thuesen, Type Talk: The 16 Personality Types that Determine How We Live, Love
and Work. New York: Dell Publishing, 1989.
- In 1610, Galileo Galilei published a small book describing astronomical observations that
he had made of the skies above Padua. His homemade telescopes had less magnifying and
resolving power than most beginners’ telescopes sold today, yet with them he made
astonishing discoveries: that the moon has mountains and other topographical features; that
Jupiter is orbited by satellites, which he called planets; and that the Milky Way is made up
of individual stars. From David Owen, “The Dark Side: Making War on Light Pollution,”
The New Yorker (20 August 2007): 28.
Possible Paraphrase
There is not a single correct answer, but you could paraphrase the above passage by writing
something like this:
- Otto Kroeger and Janet Thuesen in their book, Type Talk: The 16 Personality Types
that Determine How We Live, Love and Work argues that there are many more
extroverts than introverts in America. This puts a lot of pressure on introverts to fit in
and be like everybody else. Even in school, teachers add to this pressure by making class
participation part of the student's grade. Consequently, introverts have to acquire
additional skills to deal with these pressures.
48
- Galileo was able to make some amazing discoveries with his telescope. He made
discoveries about the moon, about Jupiter, and about the Milky Way. He was able to do
this with a telescope that was less powerful than even today's most basic telescopes.
Read the following passages and paraphrase them by putting them into your own words.
1. "The Antarctic is the vast source of cold on our planet, just as the sun is the source of our
heat, and it exerts tremendous control on our climate," [Jacques] Cousteau told the camera.
"The cold ocean water around Antarctica flows north to mix with warmer water from the
tropics, and its upwellings help to cool both the surface water and our atmosphere. Yet the
fragility of this regulating system is now threatened by human activity." From "Captain
Cousteau," Audubon (May 1990):17.
2. The twenties were the years when drinking was against the law, and the law was a bad joke
because everyone knew of a local bar where liquor could be had. They were the years when
organized crime ruled the cities, and the police seemed powerless to do anything against it.
Classical music was forgotten while jazz spread throughout the land, and men like Bix
Beiderbecke, Louis Armstrong, and Count Basie became the heroes of the young. The flapper
was born in the twenties, and with her bobbed hair and short skirts, she symbolized, perhaps
more than anyone or anything else, America's break with the past. From Kathleen Yancey,
English 102 Supplemental Guide (1989): 25.
49
TECHNIQUES OF WRITING LITERATURE REVIEW 3) QUOTING

- A literature review surveys scholarly articles, books and other sources relevant to a particular
issue, area of research, or theory, and by so doing, providing a description, summary, and
critical evaluation of these works. Literature reviews are designed to provide an overview of
sources you have explored while researching a particular topic and to demonstrate to your
readers how your research fits into the larger field of study. In order to develop and write a
good and efficient review of literature and avoid problems of plagiarism, the researcher needs
to master the techniques of quoting, summarizing, paraphrasing and synthesizing
- In your academic writing, you have to support your points with concrete evidence taken from a
variety of valid sources, and name the author/source of your evidence in your writing. Here are
some particular rules for quoting information from authors in your writing:
1. Direct quotations
2. Indirect quotations (paraphrases or summaries)
3. Quoting authors in action
I. DIRECT QUOTATIONS
- Occasionally, you may use direct quotes (the EXACT words of the author) as evidence in your
writing. It is useful sometimes to use the original words of the author when those exact words
carry special significance. You should NOT use too many direct quotes in your writing as they
are not highly valued. There are specific rules for using direct quotes in your writing:
 Rule 1: If it is a SHORT DIRECT QUOTE (less than 40 words), use double inverted
commas and include the quote in the text. All direct quotes must have page or paragraph
number.
 Examples with Author/in the narrative

James (2001) claims that there is a consumerist approach emerging in higher education “that is a
direct result of the expectation that students contribute a greater a proportion of the cost of their
education” (p. 378).
 Example with Author/ in parenthesis (round brackets)

There are claims that there is a consumerist approach emerging in higher education “that is a direct
result of the expectation that students contribute a greater proportion of the cost of their education”
(James, 2019, p. 378). At the end of a short quote, the full stop goes AFTER the in-text reference
 Rule 2: If the quote is a LONG DIRECT QUOTE or BLOCK QUOTE (more than 40
words), indent the quote. Do NOT use any inverted commas. Examples (long direct quote
of 57 words)
50
 Example with Author/in the narrative
In recent times, academic staff members have been reporting changes in university clientele and
their attitude to the university learning experience. James (2001) reports: (Note the colon to
introduce the long quote)
Further evidence of changing student expectations is showing up in the consumer orientation
of many students. . . . Many believe a consumerist pattern of thinking among students,
which they believe is a direct result of the expectation that students contribute a greater
proportion of the cost of their education, is now emerging during their day-to-day interaction
with students. (p. 378)
 Example Author/ in parenthesis (round brackets)

In recent times, academic staff members have been reporting changes in university clientele and
their attitude to the university learning experience:
Further evidence of changing student expectations is showing up in the consumer orientation
of many students. . . . Many believe a consumerist pattern of thinking among students,
which they believe is a direct result of the expectation that students contribute a greater
proportion of the cost of their education, is now emerging during their day-to-day interaction
with students. (James, 2001, p. 378) At the end of a long quote, the full stop goes BEFORE
the in-text reference
 Rule 3: Direct quotations must be copied word for word from the source, but you can
make some modifications if you follow these rules:
Making a change Correct convention
Leaving out some words because you may not need Use an ellipsis signal . . . (three full
all of the words in the middle of the quote stops with a space before, between,
and after)
Changing the capitalisation of a letter Use square brackets [ ] around the
letter e.g. [J]
Adding words to the quote (no change to the Use square brackets [ ] around the
meaning) added words
Indicating an error in the quote (e.g. spelling) Insert [sic] in square brackets & italics
after the error
51
 Examples of Modifying Quotations
1)[S]tudents include four quotations where one would do. This can 1) & 4 Shows capital
give the impression that you don’t have enough to say and are using letters have been added
quotations to take up space 2)[a common strategy for some to the original text.
students]. Also, the excessive use of quotes... may be taken to
indicate that you don’t understand the position well enough to 2) & 5) Shows a
explain it in your own words (Dartmouth, 2008, p.11). 4[S]tudents comment has been
include four quotations where one would do. This can give the added to the original
impression that you don’t have enough to say and are using text.
quotations to take up space 5) [a common strategy for some
students]. Also, the excessive use of quotes 6) ... may be taken to 6) Shows some words
indicate that you don’t understand the position well enough to have been left out of the
explain it in your own words (Dartmouth, 2008, p.11). original text.
II. INDIRECT QUOTATIONS (PARAPHRASES AND SUMMARIES)

If you use your own words to express the ideas or opinions of other writers (i.e. paraphrase or
summarise the work of another author), the result is an indirect quote which must also be
referenced. Indirect quotes are included in the text and quotation marks are NOT used.
There is some debate about the desirable educational goals of higher Indirect quote
education. Saul (1997) asserts that the essential role of higher  No quotation
education is to teach critical thinking skills, and teaching which marks are required
focuses on mechanistic skills rather than independent thinking will as you have
not properly educate. His claim supports the argument that if students paraphrased the
have not been taught how to think they will find it hard to be genuinely words of the
responsible citizens. This is the major reason why the corporatist author. (Business
model of the modern university (Karelsky et al., 1989) that values & linguistics use
economic performance over quality of mind may be regarded as page numbers)
deficient. Indeed recent trends that favour vocational skilling over the
traditional teaching of thinking devalue the higher purposes of
disciplined and reflective thought.
III. QUOTING AUTHORS IN ACTION

There is some debate about the desirable educational goals of 1 &2. Indirect
higher education.1) Saul (1997) asserts that the essential role quote
of higher education is to teach critical thinking skills, and  No quotation
teaching which focuses on mechanistic skills rather than marks are
independent thinking will not properly educate. His claim required as
supports the argument that if students have not been taught you have
how to think they will find it hard to be genuinely responsible paraphrased
citizens. This is the major reason why the corporatist model of the words of
the modern university 2) (Karelsky et al., 1989) that values the author.
economic performance over quality of mind may be regarded (Business &
52
as deficient. Indeed recent trends that favour vocational linguistics use
skilling over the traditional teaching of thinking devalue the page
higher purposes of disciplined and reflective thought. This is numbers)
particularly so in current attitudes towards communication
4.Modifying skills:
quotes 3) The modern school 4)[including tertiary 3. Long quote
• Adding institutions] gives the impression that communication (56 words)
your own skills are merely techniques whose mastery is  No quotation
comments important for scoring high on tests and doing well on marks
the job. But is there transcendent value in learning  Start new line
how to speak and write exactly?5 . . . Can there be  Indent to the
5. Ellipsis true independence of thought without mastery of right
(leaving out language? (Hicks, 1991, p. 12)  Use the same
some words) line spacing
Bloom’s higher-order thinking skills of analysis, synthesis and as the rest of
evaluation (as cited in Harrison, 1999) relate to the process of the
analysis, reflection and editing that accompanies good quality paragraph
writing. They also form the foundation of critical thinking.
Too often, however, the word ‘critical’ is associated with 6. Short quote
negative criticism rather than the ability to apply 6) “skilful  Double
judgement as to the truth or merit of a situation” (The quotation
Macquarie Dictionary, 2009). Ultimately, independence of marks
thought contributes to intercultural debate and to the growth of  enclose the
equity, justice, solidarity and liberty which are part of the direct words
renewal proposed by the recent World Conference on of the author
Education (UNESCO, 2001). Responsible citizenship is
arguably the most valuable outcome of genuine education.
NB: DO NOT USE QUOTATIONS INCORRECTLY

 NEVER end a paragraph with a block quote
 NEVER let a quote stand alone; instead, join the quote to your text in a way that is
grammatically correct, and explain its significance
 NEVER alter the text or punctuation of a direct quote UNLESS you follow the set
guidelines (see rule 3)
NEVER use a quote without acknowledging the source and page or paragraph number
PRACTICE
Following are passages from four sources. Read each one, and then, as if you were writing a
paper, quote four sentences from each, one directly quoting the author’s words and one
indirectly quoting the author’s ideas. Finally, write a paraphrase and a brief summary of each
passage.
53
Source 1
In most cultures throughout history music, dance, rhythmic, drumming, and chanting have been
essential parts of healing rituals. Modern research bears out the connection between music and
healing. In one study, the heart rate and blood pressure of patients went down when quite music was
piped into their hospital coronary care units. At the same time, the patients showed greater
tolerance for pain and less anxiety and depression. Similarly, listening to music before, during or
after surgery has been shown to promote various beneficial effects-from alleviating anxiety to
reducing the need for sedation by half. When researchers played Brahms’ “Lullaby” to premature
infants, these babies gained weight faster and went home from the hospital sooner than babies who
did not hear the music. Music may also affect immunity by altering the level of stress chemicals in
the blood. An experiment at Rainbow babies and Children’s Hospital found that a single thirty-
minute music therapy session could increase the level of salivary IgA an immunoglobulin that
protects against respiratory infections
Institute of Notices Science with William Poole
The Heart of Healing. Atlanta:
Turner Publishing 1993 .134 print
 Direct quotation………………………………………………………………………………
 Direct quotation…………………………………………………………………………………..
 Parapharse ………………………………………………………………………………………
 Summary …………………………………………………………………………………………
Source 2
Assuming they reach maturity with consciousness intact, the current crop of teenagers will have
spent years watching commercials. No one has done the numbers on what happens if you factor in
radio, magazine, newspaper advertisement, and billboards, but today’s teens probably have spent
the equivalent of a decade of their lives being bombarded by bits of adverting information. In 1915,
a person could go entire weeks without observing an ad. The average adult today sees three
thousand every day
James B Twitchell, Adcult USA. New York:
Columbia University Pres,s 1996 :2 print
 Parapharse ………………………………………………………………………………………
 Summary …………………………………………………………………………………………
Source 3
Binge drinking, according to criteria used in periodic surveys by the Harvard research, is defined as
five or more drinks on one occasion for a man or four or more drinks on one occasion for a woman.
Students who reported one or two such episodes in the two weeks preceding the survey were
classified as occasional binge drinkers; those reporting three or more were considered frequent
binge drinkers.
Okies, Susan. “Survey 44% of College Students Are binge are binge drinkers.”
Washington Post 25 Mar. 2002: A6. Print
54
 Parapharse ………………………………………………………………………………………
 Summary …………………………………………………………………………………………
Source 4
The image of kitchen God (alternatively know as the Heart God) usually stood above the family
above, from where he would observe the household. Every New Year, he was said to visit heaven to
give an account of the behavior of the family in the past year
Willis, Roy. Dictionary of World Myth. London:
Duncan Baird Publishers, 1995: 116. Print
 Parapharse ………………………………………………………………………………………
 Summary …………………………………………………………………………………………
Source 5
The risk of stroke increases with the number of fast food restaurant in a neighborhood
…..Researchers found [ that] residents of neighborhood with the highest number of fast food
restaurants had a 13 percent higher relative risk of suffering ischemic strokes than those living in
areas with the lowest numbers of restaurants
American Heart Association “Number of fast
food Restaurants in neighborhood Associated with
Stroke Risk“ ScienceDaily. Science Daily LLC 20 Feb
2009. Web 24Feb 2009
 Parapharse ………………………………………………………………………………………
 Summary …………………………………………………………………………………………
55
TECHNIQUES OF WRITING REVIEW OF LITERATURE : 4) SYNTHESIZING
I. WHAT IS SYNTHESIZING
- Learning to write a synthesis paper is a critical skill which is important to organizing and
presenting information in academic contexts.
- Synthesizing involves combining ideas and information gleaned from different sources. As a
critical reading strategy, synthesizing can help you see how different sources relate to one
another – for example, by offering supporting details or opposing arguments.
- When you synthesize material from different sources, you construct a conversation among
your sources, a conversation in which you also participate. Synthesizing contributes most to
critical thinking when writers use sources not only to support their ideas but to challenge
and extend them as well” (B. Axelord and R. Cooper, 2002, p. 533).
II. STRATEGIES FOR WRITING A SYNTHESIS.

- Find and read each of the sources on your topic with care, annotating the passages and
searching for the main ideas and the important information.
- Develop a thesis. If you ask a question, present a tentative answer. Begin your paper with
the thesis, clearly outlining the ideas you will develop.
- Look for patterns among your sources, identifying the similarities and differences, and
possibly supporting or refuting your ideas or those of other sources.
- Gather the different ideas in a logical and coherent way. Do not sound like listing unrelated
ideas and unrelated authors.
- Write your synthesis paper using quotation, paraphrase, and summary to present what your
references say about your topic.
III. STUDY AND COMMENT ON THE FOLLOWING SYNTHESIS:

Given that the present work is of a hypotheses testing nature, an essential requirement is that
it is based on data to either confirm or disconfirm those hypotheses. To collect data, different
studies call for different data collection procedures depending on the nature of data required,
the number of informants, the setting where data collection takes place, and overall the scope
and focus of questions under investigation. The techniques used to collect data for the present
study are presented in this chapter which is made up of two parts. The first one considers the
data collection methods that evaluation studies employ, and the second one focusses on the
three techniques used in this research; namely, ‘critical incidents’, ‘a Multiple Choice
Questionnaire’, and ‘a Discourse Completion Task’, as well as some other methodological
factors. Before considering these issues, it is worthwhile justifying the use of the term
evaluation rather than, for example, assessment in the thesis.
Some researchers use these terms -evaluation and assessment- interchangeably; however,
according to Nunan (1992) and Rea-Dickins and Germaine(1992), evaluation has a broader
56
perspective than assessment. Whereas the latter “refers to the processes and procedures
whereby we determine what learners are able to do in the target language” (Nunan, op. cit.
185), the former includes, in addition to assessment, insights to gain information to bring
about change and innovation. Concerning the relationship between these two notions, Nunan
(op. cit.) reporting Hudson (1989) argues that:
The measurement of student performance is the key to program evaluation. For Hudson, the
essential question to be asked by a program evaluator is ‘whether an examinee has mastered
the content he or she has been taught, or has reached a level of competence defined as
mastery. (p.185)
Nevertheless, Nunan posits three factors which should be taken into consideration by any
researcher who uses assessment as a key element in program evaluation. These are, “(1) the
nature of evidence to be used, (2) the relationship between the evaluation and the program
goals, and (3) the appropriate measurement instruments to be used.”(p.186)
The term evaluation rather than assessment is used in the present thesis, following Nunan and
Hudson (op. cit.), with the intention being to make decisions on the learners’ achievement and
progress, and also to include in the study some insights on program evaluation gained from
learners’ assessment; for as Nunan (op. cit.: 190) views, “evaluation is concerned with
determining what learners have learned from a program, and also with making judgments
about why instruction has or has not been successful.” Along these lines, Bachman (1990)
discussing the distinctive characterestics of the terms ‘measurement’, ‘test’, and ‘evaluation’,
argues that :
Tests are often used for pedagogical purposes, either as a means of motivating students to
study, or as a means of reviewing material taught , in which case no evaluative decision is
made on the basis of the test results. Tests may also be used for purely descriptive purposes. It
is only when the results of tests are used as a basis for making a decision that evaluation is
involved. An example of a test used for purposes of evaluation … is the use of an
achievement test to determine student progress. (p. 23).
Thus, Bachman’s view conforms with those of Nunan and Hudson. The use of the term
evaluation in the thesis is ,then, essential. The next section presents one of the main concerns
of this chapter – data collection procedures in evaluation studies –, which is related to the
methodological issues of this research.
57
RESEARCH VARIABLES
I. WHAT IS RESEARCH VARIABLES
- A variable is a quantity which can vary from one individual to another. The quantity which
can vary from person to person. For example; height, weight, income, age etc.
- In any scientific study or research, the aim is to analyze the functional relationship of the
variables.
- Variables may vary over cases, over time, or over both cases and time. For example, among
individuals, any set of characteristics that may differ for different people, such as age (range
of years), gender (male and female), and marital status (single, married, divorced, widowed,
etc.), is a variable. And for an individual, any characteristic that may vary from one time
period to the next, such as age, level of education (first grade, second grade, etc.), and income
(dollars earned per year), is a variable.
Research question/ Unit of analysis Variables

hypothesis
What one wants to What entities are With respect to what
know described and characteristics
compared
Are old people more afraid of Individuals Age, fear of crime
crime that younger ones?
The greater the growth of air Cities Growth of air traffic,
passenger traffic at a city's economic growth
airport, the greater the
economic growth.
The higher the proportion of Factories Proportion of employees
female employees, the lower who are female, average
the wages in nineteenth- wage
century factories.
Does economic development Nations Level of economic
lower the birth rate development, birth rate
The longer the engagement Couples Length of engagement,
period, the longer the marriage. marriage duration
Fan support in the NBA, as NBA teams Racial composition of the
measured by attendance, is not team, average attendance
related to the proportion of
black players on the team.
58
II. TYPES OF VARIABLES
1. Independent (Experimental, Manipulated, Treatment, Grouping) Variable-
- That factor which is measured, manipulated, or selected by the researcher to determine its
relationship to an observed phenomenon. “In a research study, independent variables are
antecedent conditions that are presumed to affect a dependent variable. They are either
manipulated by the researcher or are observed by the researcher so that their values can be
related to that of the dependent variable. For example, in a research study on the relationship
between mosquitoes and mosquito bites, the number of mosquitoes per acre of ground would
be an independent variable” (Jaeger, 1990, p. 373)
- While the independent variable is often manipulated by the researcher, it can also be a
classification where subjects are assigned to groups. In a study where one variable causes the
other, the independent variable is the cause. In a study where groups are being compared, the
independent variable is the group classification.
2. Dependent (Outcome) Variable-

- That factor which is observed and measured to determine the effect of the independent
variable, i.e., that factor that appears, disappears, or varies as the experimenter introduces,
removes, or varies the independent variable. “In a research study, the independent variable
defines a principal focus of research interest. It is the consequent variable that is presumably
affected by one or more independent variables that are either manipulated by the researcher or
observed by the researcher and regarded as antecedent conditions that determine the value of
the dependent variable. For example, in a study of the relationship between mosquitoes and
mosquito bites, the number of mosquito bites per hour would be the dependent variable”
(Jaeger, 1990, p. 370). The dependent variable is the participant’s response.
- The dependent variable is the outcome. In an experiment, it may be what was caused or what
changed as a result of the study. In a comparison of groups, it is what they differ on.
3. Extraneous Variable-
- Those factors which cannot be controlled. Extraneous variables are independent variables that
have not been controlled. They may or may not influence the results. One way to control an
extraneous variable which might influence the results is to make it a constant (keep everyone in
the study alike on that characteristic). If SES were thought to influence achievement, then
restricting the study to one SES level would eliminate SES as an extraneous variable.
 PRACTICE
I. For each of the problem statements listed below, identify the independent (IV) and
dependent (DV) variable
1. Will students' scores on an achievement test differ between directive teachers and non-
directive teachers?
2. Are students aged 55 and older more likely to drop out of college than students of ages
between 30 and 40?
3. How do three counseling techniques—rational-emotive, gestalt, and no-counseling—differ
in their effectiveness in decreasing test anxiety in high school juniors?
59
4. The main purpose of this study is to compare the effectiveness of two reading methods, sight
and phonics, in increasing verbal comprehension.
5. The study investigated whether the ability to discriminate among parts of speech increased
with chronological age and educational level.
II. The following table includes 10 research study objectives. Read each of the following
statements carefully; find the dependent and independent variable(s) Note: you may
find more than ONE dependent and/or independent variables!
Statement Independent Dependent variable

variable
The effect of structural empowerment and
organizational commitment on nurses' job
satisfaction
Factors influencing smoking behavior among
Saudi adolescent boys
The Effectiveness of a Pressure Ulcer care on
the Prevalence of Hospital Acquired Pressure
Ulcers
Use of social media and Internet to obtain
health information by working mothers
Nursing students' perceptions of teamwork in a
hospital clinical setting.
The relationship between nurses’ job
satisfaction and their tendency to leave
hospital work setting.
60
RESEARCH DESIGN
I. DEFINITION OF RESEARCH PLAN/DESIGN
- Reduced to the simplest of terms, “research design is a mapping strategy. It is essentially a
statement of the object of the inquiry and the strategies for collecting the evidences, analyzing
the evidences and reporting the findings.”
- A research design is the framework or guide used for the planning, implementation, and
analysis of a study: It is the plan for answering the research question or hypothesis.
- Research design is a choice of an investigator about the components of his/her project and
development of certain components of the design. A design of research does not consist of an
ordered sequential step by-step procedure.
- It is a planning stage of research which is usually made logically visualizing its practicability.
- The selection of research components is done keeping in view of the objectives of the
research.
- Research hypotheses also provide the basis for designing a research work.
- A research design includes the following components:
(a) Research method or research strategy
(b) Sampling design.
(c) Choice of research tools, and
(d) Choice of statistical techniques.
II. CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD RESEARCH DESIGN

- The following are the specific characteristics of a good research design:
- Neutrality: The results projected in research design should be free from bias and neutral.
Understand opinions about the final evaluated scores and conclusion from multiple
individuals and consider those who agree with the derived results.
- Reliability: If a research is conducted on a regular basis, the researcher involved expects
similar results to be calculated every time. Research design should indicate how the
research questions can be formed to ensure the standard of obtained results and this can
happen only when the research design is reliable.
- Validity: There are multiple measuring tools available for research design but valid
measuring tools are those which help a researcher in gauging results according to the
objective of research and nothing else. The questionnaire developed from this research design
will be then valid.
- Generalization: The outcome of research design should be applicable to a population and not
just a restricted sample. Generalization is one of the key characteristics of research design.
- Statistical precision. There should be a statistical precision. The hypotheses can be tested by
employing most appropriate statistical technique. There should be enough scope to impose the
control over the situation. There are basically four ways by which control can be enhanced:
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a) Through the method of Randomization.
b) Holding conditions or factors constant.
c) Building conditions or factors into the design as independent variables
d) Statistical adjustment.
III. GENERAL RESEARCH DESIGNS

- Research designs are divided into cross-sectional and longitudinal designs. These research
designs apply to every particular type of study: experimental design; survey design; case
study design; and comparative design.
1. Cross-sectional designs
- A cross-sectional design entails the collection of data on more than one case (usually quite a
lot more than one) and at a single point in time in order to collect a body of quantitative or
quantifiable data in connection with two or more variables (usually many more than two),
which are then examined to detect patterns of association.
 More than one case. Researchers employing a cross-sectional design are interested in
variation. That variation can be in respect of people, families, organizations, nation states, or
whatever. Variation can be established only when more than one case is being examined.
Usually, researchers employing this design will select a lot more than two cases for a variety
of reasons: they are more likely to encounter variation in all the variables in which they are
interested; they can make finer distinctions between cases; and the requirements of sampling
procedure are likely to necessitate larger numbers
 At a single point in time. In cross-sectional design research, data on the variables of interest
are collected more or less simultaneously. When an individual completes a questionnaire,
which may contain fifty or more variables, the answers are supplied at essentially the same
time. This contrasts with an experimental design. Thus, in the classical experimental design,
someone in the experimental +group is pre-tested, then exposed to the experimental treatment,
and then post-tested. Days, weeks, months, or even years may separate the different phases.
2. Longitudinal design(s)
- With a longitudinal design, a sample is surveyed and is surveyed again on at least one further
occasion. It is common to distinguish two types of longitudinal design: the panel study and
the cohort study.
- The longitudinal design represents a distinct form of research design. Because of the time and
cost involved, it is a relatively little-used design in social research, so it is not proposed to
allocate a great deal of space to it. In the form in which it is typically found in social science
subjects such as sociology, social policy, and human geography, it is usually an extension of
survey research based on a self-completion questionnaire or structured interview research
within a cross-sectional design.
- Consequently, in terms of reliability, replication, and validity, the longitudinal design is little
different from cross-sectional research. However, a longitudinal design can allow some
insight into the time order of variables and therefore may be more able to allow causal
inferences to be made.
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IV. SPECIFIC RESEARCH DESIGNS
ACTION RESEARCH DESIGN

Definition and Purpose
The essentials of action research design follow a characteristic cycle whereby initially an
exploratory stance is adopted, where an understanding of a problem is developed and plans are
made for some form of interventionary strategy. Then the intervention is carried out (the action in
Action Research) during which time, pertinent observations are collected in various forms. The new
interventional strategies are carried out, and the cyclic process repeats, continuing until a sufficient
understanding of (or implement able solution for) the problem is achieved. The protocol is iterative
or cyclical in nature and is intended to foster deeper understanding of a given situation, starting with
conceptualizing and particularizing the problem and moving through several interventions and
evaluations.
What do these studies tell you?
1. A collaborative and adaptive research design that lends itself to use in work or community
situations.
2. Design focuses on pragmatic and solution-driven research rather than testing theories.
3. When practitioners use action research it has the potential to increase the amount they learn
consciously from their experience. The action research cycle can also be regarded as a
learning cycle.
4. Action search studies often have direct and obvious relevance to practice.
5. There are no hidden controls or preemption of direction by the researcher.
CASE STUDY DESIGN

A case study is an in-depth study of a particular research problem rather than a sweeping statistical
survey. It is often used to narrow down a very broad field of research into one or a few easily
researchable examples. The case study research design is also useful for testing whether a specific
theory and model actually applies to phenomena in the real world. It is a useful design when not
much is known about a phenomenon.
1. Approach excels at bringing us to an understanding of a complex issue through detailed
contextual analysis of a limited number of events or conditions and their relationships.
2. A researcher using a case study design can apply a vaiety of methodologies and rely on a
variety of sources to investigate a research problem.
3. Design can extend experience or add strength to what is already known through previous
research.
4. Social scientists, in particular, make wide use of this research design to examine
contemporary real-life situations and provide the basis for the application of concepts and
theories and extension of methods.
5. The design can provide detailed descriptions of specific and rare cases.
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DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH DESIGN
Descriptive research designs help provide answers to the questions of who, what, when, where, and
how associated with a particular research problem; a descriptive study cannot conclusively ascertain
answers to why. Descriptive research is used to obtain information concerning the current status of
the phenomena and to describe "what exists" with respect to variables or conditions in a situation.
1. The subject is being observed in a completely natural and unchanged natural environment.
True experiments, whilst giving analyzable data, often adversely influence the normal
behavior of the subject.
2. Descriptive research is often used as a pre-cursor to more quantitatively research designs,
the general overview giving some valuable pointers as to what variables are worth testing
quantitatively.
3. If the limitations are understood, they can be a useful tool in developing a more focused
study.
4. Descriptive studies can yield rich data that lead to important recommendations.
5. Appoach collects a large amount of data for detailed analysis.
EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
A blueprint of the procedure that enables the researcher to maintain control over all factors that may
affect the result of an experiment. In doing this, the researcher attempts to determine or predict what
may occur. Experimental Research is often used where there is time priority in a causal relationship
(cause precedes effect), there is consistency in a causal relationship (a cause will always lead to the
same effect), and the magnitude of the correlation is great. The classic experimental design specifies
an experimental group and a control group. The independent variable is administered to the
experimental group and not to the control group, and both groups are measured on the same
dependent variable. Subsequent experimental designs have used more groups and more
measurements over longer periods. True experiments must have control, randomization, and
manipulation.
1. Experimental research allows the researcher to control the situation. In so doing, it allows
researchers to answer the question, “what causes something to occur?”
2. Permits the researcher to identify cause and effect relationships between variables and to
distinguish placebo effects from treatment effects.
3. Experimental research designs support the ability to limit alternative explanations and to
infer direct causal relationships in the study.
4. Approach provides the highest level of evidence for single studies.
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EXPLORATORY DESIGN
An exploratory design is conducted about a research problem when there are few or no earlier
studies to refer to. The focus is on gaining insights and familiarity for later investigation or
undertaken when problems are in a preliminary stage of investigation.
The goals of exploratory research are intended to produce the following possible insights:
 Familiarity with basic details, settings and concerns.
 Well grounded picture of the situation being developed.
 Generation of new ideas and assumption, development of tentative theories or hypotheses.
 Determination about whether a study is feasible in the future.
 Issues get refined for more systematic investigation and formulation of new research
questions.
 Direction for future research and techniques get developed.
1. Design is a useful approach for gaining background information on a particular topic.
2. Exploratory research is flexible and can address research questions of all types (what, why,
how).
3. Provides an opportunity to define new terms and clarify existing concepts.
4. Exploratory research is often used to generate formal hypotheses and develop more precise
research problems.
5. Exploratory studies help establish research priorities.
OBSERVATIONAL DESIGN
This type of research design draws a conclusion by comparing subjects against a control group, in
cases where the researcher has no control over the experiment. There are two general types of
observational designs. In direct observations, people know that you are watching them. Unobtrusive
measures involve any method for studying behavior where individuals do not know they are being
observed. An observational study allows a useful insight into a phenomenon and avoids the ethical
and practical difficulties of setting up a large and cumbersome research project.
1. Observational studies are usually flexible and do not necessarily need to be structured
around a hypothesis about what you expect to observe (data is emergent rather than pre-
existing).
2. The researcher is able to collect a depth of information about a particular behavior.
3. Can reveal interrelationships among multifaceted dimensions of group interactions.
4. You can generalize your results to real life situations.
5. Observational research is useful for discovering what variables may be important before
applying other methods like experiments.
6. Observation researchd esigns account for the complexity of group behaviors.
PRACTICE Answer the following questions.

I. What is a research design
a- A way of conducting research that is not grounded in theory
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b- The choice between using qualitative or quantitative methods
c- The style in which you present your research findings, e.g. a graph
d- A framework for every stage of the collection and analysis of data
II. If a study is "reliable", this means that:
a- It was conducted by a reputable researcher who can be trusted
b- The measures devised for concepts are stable on different occasions
c- The findings can be generalized to other social settings
d- The methods are stated clearly enough for the research to be replicated
III. "Internal validity" refers to:
a- Whether or not there is really a causal relationship between two variables
b- Whether or not the findings are relevant to the participants' everyday lives
c- The degree to which the researcher feels that this was a worthwhile project
d- How accurately the measurements represent underlying concepts
IV. Naturalism has been defined as:
a- Viewing natural and social objects as belonging to the same realm
b- Being true to the nature of the phenomenon under investigation
c- Minimising the intrusion of artificial methods of data collection into the field
d- All of the above
V. In an experimental design, the dependent variable is:
a- The one that is not manipulated and in which any changes are observed
b- The one that is manipulated in order to observe any effects on the other
c- A measure of the extent to which personal values affect research
d- An ambiguous concept whose meaning depends on how it is defined
VI. What is a cross-sectional design?
a- A study of one particular section of society, e.g. the middle classes
b- One that is devised when the researcher is in a bad mood
c- The collection of data from more than one case at one moment in time
d- A comparison of two or more variables over a long period of time
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SAMPLING
I. SAMPLING: DEFINITION
- Sampling is defined as the process of selecting certain members or a subset of the population
to make statistical inferences from them and to estimate characteristics of the whole
population. Sampling is widely used by researchers in all types of research so that they do
not need to research the entire population to collect actionable insights. It is also a time-
convenient and a cost-effective method and hence forms the basis of any research design.
- For example, if a drug manufacturer would like to research the adverse side effects of a drug
on the population of the country, it is close to impossible to be able to conduct a research
study that involves everyone. In this case, the researcher decides a sample of people from
each demographic and then conducts the research on them which gives them an indicative
feedback on the behavior of the drug on the population.
II. FACTORS AFFECTING THE CHOICE OF A SAMPING DESIGN

- Time – As a general rule, the more in-depth the method the more time consuming it is. Also,
doing your own primary research tends to take longer than using secondary sources.
- Money – As a general rule, the more in-depth the method the more money it costs. Also,
doing your own primary research tends to be more expensive than using secondary sources.
- Opportunity and Access to Respondents – Some research topics and some kinds of
respondents are more difficult to gain access to. It will probably be more difficult to gain
access to research pupils in schools compared to teachers for example, and some people may
be less willing to engage with research than others – those engaged in deviant or illegal
activity might not want to be researched because what they are doing is not socially
acceptable.
- Personal Situation, Characteristics and Skills of the researcher – Family and work
commitments may prevent researchers from doing long term field work such as participant
observation, and not everyone has the emotional intelligence or resilience required to engage
in long-term empathetic field work. Some research topics might also be better suited to
researchers with certain personal characteristics – girls in education might respond more
openly to female researchers for example.
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III. TYPES OF SAMPLING: SAMPLING METHODS
- Any type of research study requires two essential types of sampling. They are Probability
Sampling and Non-Probability Sampling.
1. Probability Sampling Methods

- Probability Sampling is a sampling method that selects random members of a population by
setting a few selection criteria. These selection parameters allow every member to have the
equal opportunities to be a part of various samples.
- It a sampling technique in which sample from a larger population are chosen using a method
based on the theory of probability. This sampling method considers every member of the
population and forms samples on the basis of a fixed process. For example, in a population
of 1000 members, each of these members will have 1/1000 chances of being selected to be a
part of a sample. It gets rid of bias in the population and gives a fair chance to all members
to be included in the sample.
i- Types of probability sampling technique

A. Simple Random Sampling: One of the best probability sampling techniques that helps
in saving time and resources, is the Simple Random Sampling method. It is a
trustworthy method of obtaining information where every single member of a
population is chosen randomly, merely by chance and each individual has the exact
same probability of being chosen to be a part of a sample. For example, in an
organization of 500 employees, if the HR team decides on conducting team building
activities, it is highly likely that they would prefer picking chits out of a bowl. In this
case, each of the 500 employees has an equal opportunity of being selected.
B. Cluster Sampling: Cluster sampling is a method where the researchers divide the entire
population into sections or clusters that represent a population. Clusters are identified
and included in a sample on the basis of defining demographic parameters such as age,
location, sex etc. which makes it extremely easy for a survey creator to derive effective
inference from the feedback. For example, if the government of the United States
wishes to evaluate the number of immigrants living in the Mainland US, they can divide
it into clusters on the basis of states such as California, Texas, Florida, Massachusetts,
Colorado, Hawaii etc. This way of conducting a survey will be more effective as
the results will be organized into states and provides insightful immigration data.
C. Systematic Sampling: Using systematic sampling method, members of a sample are
chosen at regular intervals of a population. It requires selection of a starting point for the
sample and sample size that can be repeated at regular intervals. This type of sampling
method has a predefined interval and hence this sampling technique is the least time-
consuming. For example, a researcher intends to collect a systematic sample of 500
people in a population of 5000. Each element of the population will be numbered from
1-5000 and every 10th individual will be chosen to be a part of the sample (Total
population/ Sample Size = 5000/500 = 10).
D. Stratified Random Sampling: Stratified Random sampling is a method where the
population can be divided into smaller groups, that don’t overlap but represent the entire
population together. While sampling, these groups can be organized and then draw a
sample from each group separately. For example, a researcher looking to analyze the
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characteristics of people belonging to different annual income divisions, will create
strata (groups) according to annual family income such as – Less than $20,000, $21,000
– $30,000, $31,000 to $40,000, $41,000 to $50,000 etc. and people belonging to
different income groups can be observed to draw conclusions of which income strata
have which characteristics. Marketers can analyze which income groups to target and
which ones to eliminate in order to create a roadmap that would definitely bear fruitful
results.
ii- Advantages of Probability Sampling Method

- There are multiple uses of the probability sampling method. They are:
 Reduce Sample Bias: Using the probability sampling method, the bias in the sample
derived from a population is negligible to non-existent. The selection of the sample largely
depicts the understanding and the inference of the researcher. Probability sampling leads to
higher quality data collection as the population is appropriately represented by the sample.
 Diverse Population: When the population is large and diverse, it is important to have
adequate representation so that the data is not skewed towards one demographic. For
example, if Square would like to understand the people that could their point-of-sale
devices, a survey conducted from a sample of people across US from different industries
and socio-economic backgrounds, helps.
 Create an Accurate Sample: Probability sampling helps the researchers plan and create an
accurate sample. This helps to obtain well-defined data.
2. Types of Sampling: Non-probability Sampling Methods

- The non-probability sampling method is reliant on a researcher’s ability to select members at
random. This sampling method is not a fixed or pre-defined selection process which makes it
difficult for all elements of a population to have equal opportunities to be included in a sample.
- It is a sampling method that involves a collection of feedback on the basis of a researcher
sample selection capabilities and not on a fixed selection process. In most situations, output of
a survey conducted with a non-probable sample leads to skewed results, which may not totally
represent the desired target population. But, there are situations such as the preliminary stages
of research or where there are cost constraints for conducting research, where non-probability
sampling will be much more effective than the other type.
i. Types of non-probability sampling

 Convenience sampling: This method is dependent on the ease of access to subjects such as
surveying customers at a mall or passers-by on a busy street. It is usually termed
as convenience sampling, as it’s carried out on the basis of how easy is it for a researcher to
get in touch with the subjects. Researchers have nearly no authority over selecting elements
of the sample and it’s purely done on the basis of proximity and not representativeness. This
non-probability sampling method is used when there are time and cost limitations in
collecting feedback. In situations where there are resource limitations such as the initial
stages of research, convenience sampling is used. For example, startups and NGOs usually
conduct convenience sampling at a mall to distribute leaflets of upcoming events or
promotion of a cause – they do that by standing at the entrance of the mall and giving out
pamphlets randomly.
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 Judgmental or Purposive Sampling: In judgemental or purposive sampling, the sample is
formed by the discretion of the judge purely considering the purpose of study along with the
understanding of target audience. Also known as deliberate sampling, the participants are
selected solely on the basis of research requirements and elements who do not suffice the
purpose are kept out of the sample. For instance, when researchers want to understand the
thought process of people who are interested in studying for their master’s degree. The
selection criteria will be: “Are you interested in studying for Masters in …?” and those who
respond with a “No” will be excluded from the sample.
 Snowball sampling: Snowball sampling is a sampling method that is used in studies which
need to be carried out to understand subjects which are difficult to trace. For example, it will
be extremely challenging to survey shelterless people or illegal immigrants. In such cases,
using the snowball theory, researchers can track a few of that particular category to
interview and results will be derived on that basis. This sampling method is implemented in
situations where the topic is highly sensitive and not openly discussed such as conducting
surveys to gather information about HIV Aids. Not many victims will readily respond to the
questions but researchers can contact people they might know or volunteers associated with
the cause to get in touch with the victims and collect information.
 Quota sampling: In Quota sampling, selection of members in this sampling technique
happens on basis of a pre-set standard. In this case, as a sample is formed on basis of
specific attributes, the created sample will have the same attributes that are found in the total
population. It is an extremely quick method of collecting samples.
ii. Advantages of Non-Probability Sampling Method

- There are multiple uses of the non-probability sampling method. They are:
 Create a hypothesis: The non-probability sampling method is used to create a hypothesis
when limited to no prior information is available. This method helps with immediate return
of data and helps to build a base for any further research.
 Exploratory research: This sampling technique is widely used when researchers aim at
conducting qualitative research, pilot studies or exploratory research.
 Budget and time constraints: The non-probability method when there are budget and time
constraints and some preliminary data has to be collected. Since the survey design is not
rigid, it is easier to pick respondents at random and have them take
the survey or questionnaire
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RESEARCH PROPOSAL
I. DEFINITION
- The goal of a research proposal is to present and justify the need to study a research problem
and to present the practical ways in which the proposed study should be conducted. Research
proposals contain extensive literature reviews. They must provide persuasive evidence that a
need exists for the proposed study. In addition to providing a rationale, a proposal describes
detailed methodology for conducting the research consistent with requirements of the
professional or academic field and a statement on anticipated outcomes and/or benefits derived
from the study's completion.
II. ELEMENTS OF A RESEARCH PROPOSAL
 COVER PAGE
- Follow the style prescribed by the style manual suggested by the university, department
or adviser.
 TITLE
- Should contain key words or phrases to give a clear and concise description of the scope
and nature of the report, and key words should allow bibliographers to index the study
in proper categories (Van Dalen, 1979:406).
o Indicate major variables
o Indicate nature of research
* descriptive
* correlational
* experimental
o Indicate target population
o Avoid words like:
 "A Study of........”
 "An Investigation of ........”
 "A Survey of ........”
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
- Follow appropriate style
- Gives bird’s-eye view of the research
 CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY
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- “The introduction is the part of the paper that provides readers with the background information
for the research reported in the paper. Its purpose is to establish a framework for the research,
so that readers can understand how it is related to other research” (Wilkinson, 1991, p. 96)
- In an introduction, the writer should
1. create reader interest in the topic,
2. lay the broad foundation for the problem that leads to the study,
3. place the study within the larger context of the scholarly literature, and
4. reach out to a specific audience. (Creswell, 1994, p. 42)
- The introduction should include:

1- Statement of the Problem
- “The problem statement describes the context for the study and it also identifies the general
analysis approach” (Wiersma, 1995, p. 404)
- It is important in a proposal that the problem stand out—that the reader can easily recognize
it. Sometimes, obscure and poorly formulated problems are masked in an extended
discussion. In such cases, reviewers and/or committee members will have difficulty
recognizing the problem.
- A problem statement should be presented within a context, and that context should be
provided and briefly explained, including a discussion of the conceptual or theoretical
framework in which it is embedded.
- Effective problem statements answer the question “Why does this research need to be
conducted.” If a researcher is unable to answer this question clearly and succinctly, and
without resorting to hyperspeaking then the statement of the problem will come off as
ambiguous and diffuse.
2- Purpose of the study

- The purpose statement should provide a specific and accurate synopsis of the overall
purpose of the study” (Locke, Spirduso, & Silverman, 1987, p. 5). If the purpose is not clear
to the writer, it cannot be clear to the reader.
- Briefly define and delimit the specific area of the research. You will revisit this in greater
detail in a later section.
- Key points to keep in mind when preparing a purpose statement.
 Try to incorporate a sentence that begins with “The purpose of this study is . . .”
This will clarify your own mind as to the purpose and it will inform the reader directly
and explicitly.
 Clearly identify and define the central concepts or ideas of the study. Some committee
Chairs prefer a separate section to this end. When defining terms, make a judicious
choice between using descriptive or operational definitions.
 Identify the specific method of inquiry to be used.
 Identify the sample in the study.
3- Research Questions and Hypothesis

- What is the hypothesis that you are testing? What are the questions that you seek to answer?
Based on what is known in this field, explain what you expect to see and hope to show
through your result? This is where you share your thoughts.
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4- Significance of the Study
- Indicate how your research will refine, revise, or extend existing knowledge in the area
under investigation. Note that such refinements, revisions, or extensions may have either
substantive, theoretical, or methodological significance. Think pragmatically (i.e., cash
value).
- Think about implications—how results of the study may affect scholarly research, theory,
practice, educational interventions, curricula, counseling, policy.
- When thinking about the significance of your study, ask yourself the following questions.
i- What will results mean to the theoretical framework that framed the study?
ii- What suggestions for subsequent research arise from the findings?
iii-What will the results mean to the practicing educator?
iv- Will results influence programs, methods, and/or interventions
v- Will results contribute to the solution of educational problems?
vi- Will results influence educational policy decisions?
vii- What will be improved or changed as a result of the proposed research?
viii- How will results of the study be implemented, and what innovations will
come about?
 CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

- The chapter should be sufficiently comprehensive to map out the literature foundation on which
the study is situated. The review should be organized conceptually or thematically, which
establishes a framework for the investigation.
- “The review of the literature provides the background and context for the research problem. It
should establish the need for the research and indicate that the writer is knowledgeable about
the area” (Wiersma, 1995, p. 406)
- The literature review accomplishes several important things.
i- It shares with the reader the results of other studies that are closely related to the
study being reported (Fraenkel & Wallen, 1990)
ii- It relates a study to the larger, ongoing dialogue in the literature about a topic, filling
in gaps and extending prior studies (Marshall & Rossman, 1989).
iii- It provides a framework for establishing the importance of the study, as well as a
benchmark for comparing the results of a study with other findings.
iv- It “frames” the problem earlier identified.
v- In a proposal, the literature review is generally brief and to the point. Be judicious in
your choice of exemplars—the literature selected should be pertinent and relevant
(APA, 2001). Select and reference only the more appropriate citations. Make key
points clearly and succinctly.
vi- Committees may want a section outlining your search strategy—the procedures you
used and sources you investigated (e.g., databases, journals, test banks, experts in the
field) to compile your literature review. Check with your Chair.
 CHAPTER TWO: THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

- The theoretical or conceptual framework identifies variables impacting on the research
questions and their interrelationships and/or identifies theoretical and philosophical
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assumptions underpinning the study. The theoretical framework is often summarised as a flow-
chart diagram, which shows relationships between theories, concepts and variable of the study
- Theories, theoretical frameworks, and lines of inquiry may be differently handled in
quantitative and qualitative endeavors.
o “In quantitative studies, one uses theory deductively and places it toward the
beginning of the plan for a study. The objective is to test or verify theory. One thus
begins the study advancing a theory, collects data to test it, and reflects on whether
the theory was confirmed or disconfirmed by the results in the study. The theory
becomes a framework for the entire study, an organizing model for the research
questions or hypotheses for the data collection procedure” (Creswell, 1994, pp. 87-
88).
o In qualitative inquiry, the use of theory and of a line of inquiry depends on the
nature of the investigation. In studies aiming at “grounded theory,” for example,
theory and theoretical tenets emerge from findings. Much qualitative inquiry,
however, also aims to test or verify theory, hence in these cases the theoretical
framework, as in quantitative efforts, should be identified and discussed early on.
 CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY AND PROCEDURES

- “The methods or procedures section is really the heart of the research proposal. The activities
should be described with as much detail as possible, and the continuity between them should be
apparent” (Wiersma, 1995, p. 409).
- Indicate the methodological steps you will take to answer every question or to test every
hypothesis illustrated in the Questions/Hypotheses section.
o Research Design- describe and justify the design choice (e.g. experimental, survey,
case study, phenomenology, ethnography, descriptive,)
o Site and Participant Selection
o Data Collection techniques : Outline the general plan for collecting the data. This
may include survey administration procedures, interview or observation procedures.
Include an explicit statement covering the field controls to be employed. If
appropriate, discuss how you obtained entré.
o Data Analysis techniques: This section describes how you will use the data you
collect. It is often useful to organise this section according to the research questions,
explaining how you will analyse the data to answer each question. This section must
be planned before any data is collected, otherwise it may be impossible to analyse
the data in such a way as to answer the questions.
o Ethical Considerations
o Limitations and Delimitations
- A limitation identifies potential weaknesses of the study. Think about your
analysis, the nature of self-report, your instruments, the sample. Think about
threats to internal validity that may have been impossible to avoid or
minimize—explain.
- A delimitation addresses how a study will be narrowed in scope, that is, how
it is bounded. This is the place to explain the things that you are not doing and
why you have chosen not to do them—the literature you will not review (and
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why not), the population you are not studying (and why not), the
methodological procedures you will not use (and why you will not use them).
Limit your delimitations to the things that a reader might reasonably expect
you to do but that you, for clearly explained reasons, have decided not to do.
 CONCLUSION
- The conclusion reiterates the importance or significance of your proposal and provides a
brief summary of the entire study. This section should be only one or two paragraphs long,
emphasizing why the research problem is worth investigating, why your research study is
unique, and how it should advance existing knowledge.
- Someone reading this section should come away with an understanding of:
 Why the study should be done,
 The specific purpose of the study and the research questions it attempts to answer,
 The decision to why the research design and methods used where chosen over other
options,
 The potential implications emerging from your proposed study of the research
problem, and
 A sense of how your study fits within the broader scholarship about the research
problem.
 REFERENCES
- Follow a specific bibliographical style regarding use of references in text and in the reference
list. Of course, your committee or discipline may dictate the one you have to adopt .
- Only references cited in the text are included in the reference list; however, exceptions can be
found to this rule. For example, committees may require evidence that you are familiar with a
broader spectrum of literature than that immediately relevant to your research. In such
instances, the reference list may be called a bibliography.
 APPENDIXES
- Include appendices, if necessary. Appendices are common to most types of research proposal.
They include any supporting documents that are necessary for readers to understand the
proposal. You’ll often refer to your appendices throughout the proposal, giving readers a
chance to flip to them and read them over.
- The following materials are appropriate for an appendix. Consult with your committee Chair.
o Verbatim instructions to participants.
o Original scales or questionnaires. If an instrument is copyrighted, permission in
writing to reproduce the instrument from the copyright holder or proof of purchase
of the instrument.
o Interview protocols.
o Sample of informed consent forms.
o Cover letters sent to appropriate stakeholders.
o Official letters of permission to conduct research.
75
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Moualy Ismail University

School of Arts & Humanities

II. DEFINITIONS OF RESRACH

- The following are the important definitions of research:

III. CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH

IV. CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD RESEARCHER

VI. MOTIVATIONS OF RESARCH

VII. FUNCTIONS AND SIGNIFICANCE OF RESEARCH

B. Objectives (Descriptive, Co-relational, Exploratory and Explanatory)

- PRACTICE : WHICH OF THESE CAN BE CLASSIFIED AS RESEARCH?

 CONSIDER THE FOLLOWING CASE AND DISCUSS HOW DOES IT DIFFER

 MATCH EACH TYPE WITH ITS PROPER DEFINITION

II. THE IMPORTANCE OF ETHICS IN RESREARCH

III. ETHICAL PRINCIPLES

3. Lack of informed consent

8. Affiliation and conflicts of interest

IV. ETHIC AND THE ISSUE OF QUALITY

PRACTICE: CONSIDER EACH OF THE FOLLOWING CASES AND EVALUATE

II. STEPS OF THE RESEARCH PROCESS

PRACTICE: Use the following topics to develop research topics

2. Extensive Literature Survey/ A Review Of Literature :

3. Development of Theoretical and Conceptual Frameworks

ii. Solutions to narrow the research question

B. Clarification of the research hypothesis

5. Research Design: the research strategy to conduct research

RESEARCH PAPER: DEFINITIONS, TYPES & ELEMENTS

I. WHAT IS A RESEARCH PAPER?

II. WHAT ARE THE CHARACTERISTICS OF A DECENT RESEARCH PAPER?

III. AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF WRITING A RESEARCH PAPER

IV. TYPES OF RESEARCH PAPERS

V. ELEMENTS OF THE RESEARCH PAPER

5. Table of contents (with page numbers for each section)

WRITING THE RESEARCH PAPER I: TITLE & ABSTRACT

• [Result]: A [method] study of [topic] among [sample]

2- Other tips for writing an effective research title

2- Qualities of a good research paper abstract

4- Things to avoid in an abstract

WRITING THE RESEARCH PAPER II- TABLE OF CONTENTS

I. Uses /functions of a table of contents

II. Types of tables of contents/outline

C. Division: Each heading should be divided into 2 or more parts. Example:

D. Other key features of a contents page are:

IV. CHECKLIST FOR TABLE OF CONTENTS

WRITING THE RESEARCH PAPER III – INTRODUCTION

A- RESEARCH PROBLEM STATEMENT

2- Sources Of Research Problems

3- Why do Need to Define a Research Problem?

4- What are the Key Characteristics of a Statement of the Problem?

5- How Formulating a Research Problem

PRACTICE: Evaluate the following research problems taken from MA papers

Investigating Intercultural Communicative Competence among Moroccan EFL University

Research Problem and objectives of the study

Investigating Learners' Competence in the Acquisition of English Locative Prepositions:

The research problem

1- Characteristics of purpose statment

Sample of a purpose statement

2- Characteristics of objectives of research

Sample of objectives of research