UNDERSTANDING CULTURE, SOCIETY, AND POLITICS

MODULE 4: HUMAN BIOLOGICAL AND SOCIOCULTURAL EVOLUTION

PART II: SOCIOCULTURAL EVOLUTION

INTRODUCTION:
This module tackles the sociocultural evolution of societies beginning from the hunting and
gathering stage up to the post-industrial stage. It also discusses the political evolution alongside the
development of early civilizations. These topics will help the learners familiarize themselves and
identify the transformation of societies, provide critical insights into their development and changes,
and discover their implications in modern-day society.

LEARNING OUTCOMES:
• Explain the different types of societies
• Analyze how societies evolve through time
• Understand the political developments of early civilizations

READ! READ! READ!

THE SOCIAL AS "DRIVER OF INTERACTION"
The process of sociocultural evolution explains why human societies change through time. In
this process, societies produce new forms of subsistence, acquire more knowledge, develop different
levels of innovation, and apply new forms of technology as a response to the challenges posed by the
environment. Gerhard Lonski (1924-2015), an American sociologist, argued that human society
undergoes transformation and evolution and, in the process, develops technological advancement. This
is called sociocultural evolution For Lenski, the development of technology, the information acquired
by humans on how to apply societal resources as a response to humans needs and wants, leads to the
evolution and transformation of society (Macionis, 2006, p. 44-45). Societies are of different types and
their types depend on their level of development. These include the following:
1. Hunting and gathering
2 Horticultural
3. Pastoral
4. Agricultural
5. Industrial
6. Post-industrial
HUNTING AND GATHERING SOCIETIES
The oldest and most basic way of economic subsistence is hunting and gathering. Hunting and
gathering societies produce simple forms of tools used to hunt for animals and gather plants and
vegetation for food. In this society, the men are tasked to hunt large animal game like deer, elk, moose,
and other animals available in their areas. The women, on the other hand, are responsible for the
collection of vegetation, berries, and small edible crops. Because of this setup, scientists describe the
relationship between men and wornen as being equal.
During the time of the early humans around 3,000,000 years ago, most people were hunters
and food gatherers. Since hunting and gathering societies rely on nature for their food, they frequently
move and do not have permanent settlements. Hence, they are nomadic societies. Most of the time,
hunters and gatherers live in caves and pit or underground houses that are dug and covered with tree
branches and leaves. Hunting and gathering societies spend most of their time hunting animal game
and collecting edible crops and vegetation. During the Paleolithic period (2,500,000-10,000 BCE).
these societies lived in small groups with only 20 to 30 members. If there were an abundant supply of
food, members increased to 40 to 50. Family is the basic unit of hunting and gathering societies. They
usually have a shaman or a priest who acts as the leader of the group. Since hunters and gatherers rely
on nature for food and survival, they believe that spirits live in the world.

HORTICULTURAL AND PASTORAL SOCIETIES

Horticultural societies developed around 10,000 years ago and they are described as
semisedentary societies because they do not frequently move as opposed to hunting and gathering
societies. These societies subsist through small-scale farming. They produce and use simple forms of
hand tools to plant crops. They use hoes and digging sticks to bore holes in the grounds for seed
planting. These artifacts were first used in the fertile regions in West Asia (Middle East) and Southeast
Asia. By around 6,000 years ago, these simple farming tools were also used in Western Europe and
China.
In horticultural societies, there is a surplus of food. Because food supply is more than enough
to feed the members of society, some of its members engage in other forms of subsistence like making
crafts and trading. Some members become priests.
Pastoral societies developed around 10,000 years ago. The principal means of subsistence of
pastoralists is animal domestication. Pastoralist societies developed in dry regions of the world where
raising crops was not possible. These societies are classified as animal herders and subsist based on
the resources provided by their animals. Pastoralists are also engaged in small-scale trading with other
groups. They are described as semisedentary as well because they have settlements, but they do not
stay in one place permanently. As opposed to hunting and gathering societies, both horticultural and
pastoral societies are described as having unequal social relations because some members act as the
ruling elite.
AGRICULTURAL SOCIETIES AND THE NEOLITHIC REVOLUTION
Agricultural societies began 5,000 years ago during the Neolithic Period (8000-4000 BCE).
During this time, the Neolithic Revolution occurred. With this major sociocultural and economic
development, agricultural societies started to cultivate wheat, barley, peas, rice, and millet between
8000 and 3500 BCE. During this time, humans began to farm and domesticate animals as their form
of subsistence. By 7000 BCE, Neolithic people produced cultivation tools and developed farming skills
that can support and sustain a town with a population of over a thousand people. This was evident in
Jericho located in the Jordan River Valley and Catal Huyuk located in Turkey Agriculture developed
in Western Asia (Middle East) by 3500 BCE and the abundant supply of resources produced through
plant cultivation led to the rise of the early civilizations.
This new form of economic subsistence eventually spread in different parts of the world, and
it became known as the Neolithic Revolution, which transformed societies into agricultural societies.
The Agricultural Revolution that started in West Asia (Middle East) moved to the east of India.
The cultivation of wheat and barley crops also spread northward to Europe where people also
developed the cultivation of oats and rye. Plant cultivation also spread in northern China during the
Neolithic period. A millet-based system of agriculture developed along the Huang He River basin.
Later, the agricultural revolution based on rice cultivation developed in mainland Southeast Asia
before 5000 BCE.
Animal domestication provided Important contributions to the Neolithic people. Sheep, goats,
and pigs were the first animals domesticated in West Asia between 8500 and 7000 BCE Horned cattle,
on the other hand, were only domesticated around 6500 BCE. The domestication of cattle and sheep
provided the Neolithic people with additional sources of nutrition. Animal meat, for example, provided
them with more sources of protein while animal hides and skin served as materials for clothes. Animal
horns and bones were also utilized for making needles and other utensils while animal manure was
used as soil fertilizers.
During the Neolithic Revolution, agricultural societies developed, and their population
increased into millions. They also settled permanently and improved the technology for farming.
Through agricultural revolution, members of society produced surplus of food supply that were
transported by animal-powered wagons. As the society developed and its members developed
specialization, money became a form of exchange replacing the barter system. The development of
agriculture also led to an increase in social inequality because most people in society acted as serfs and
slaves while a few members became elites and acted as owners of lands and other resources.

INDUSTRIAL SOCIETIES
Industrial societies began when the Industrial Revolution swept through Europe during the late
eighteenth century and the first half of the nineteenth century (from 1780s to 1850s). During the
Industrial Revolution, new sources of energy were harnessed, advanced forms of technology were
applied, and machineries were invented. These changes led to industrialization or the transformation
of an agricultural society into a production and manufacturing based one. This was made possible by
the use of advanced sources of energy that operated factory machineries. Industrialization produced a
number of changes in society. It created centralized workplaces, economic interdependence, formal
education, and complex social systems. During this time, people left their farmlands and transferred to
the urban areas to work in factories.
POST-INDUSTRIAL SOCIETIES
With the development of information technology and computers, many societies transformed
into post-industrial societies. The United States, like many other developed countries, have reached
the post-Industrial era and undergone a post-industrial revolution. The Post-Industrial Revolution is an
important development from the Industrial Revolution as economic production focused on the use and
application of new information technology rather than factories (Macionis 2002, p. 46). In the post-
industrial era, Macionis (2002) writes that production "centers on computers and other electronic
devices that create, process, and apply ideas and information." Daniel Bell, an American sociologist
at Harvard University, introduced the rise of the post-industrial society. According to Bell (1999),
post-industrial societies are characterized by the following:
1. Transfer of labor workforce from manufacturing to service
2. A significant increase in the number of professional and technical employment and a decline in the
number of skilled and semiskilled workers
3. Education as the basis of social mobility
4. Human capital as an essential aspect of understanding the strength of society
5. Application of "intellectual technology" which is based on the application of mathematics and
linguistics and the use of algorithms and software programming models
6. Focus on communication infrastructure
7. Knowledge as source of invention and innovation

POLITICAL EVOLUTION AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF EARLY CIVILIZATION

The development of the early civilizations showed the political evolution of society. A
civilization develops because of a society's highly advanced level of culture, social organization,
political developments, judicial system, arts, and other forms of culture at a particular time.
The four major civilizations in the world flourished along the rich river plains or river valleys.
These included the Sumerian civilization that developed along the Tigris and Euphrates River in West
Asia; the Indus Valley civilization that started along the Indus River Valley in India; the Shang
civilization of China that developed near the Huang Ho/Huang He River; and the Egyptian civilization
that started along the Nile River. These river valley civilizations are considered the cradles of human
civilization because it was in these river valley systems where the Chinese, Indian, Egyptian, and
Sumerian civilizations developed and flourished. What are the characteristics of these civilizations?
Below are their important characteristics:
1. Developed and highly advanced cities
2. Well-defined city centers
3. Complex and systematic institutions
4. Organized and centralized system of government 5. Formalized and complex form of religion
6. Job specialization
7. Development of social classes
8. Implementation of large-scale public works and infrastructure like defense walls, monuments,
temples, mausoleums, government edifices, trading centers, and markets
9. Sophisticated and detailed forms of arts and architecture
10. Advanced technology
11. System of writing and recording
Political systems of civilizations have a highly centralized and well-organized form of
government whose leaders are powerful enough to order the building of massive infrastructure and
implement new policies for citizens. The political system of the early civilizations had a clear hierarchy
of officials with specific functions and responsibilities. They also had codified laws and rules that were
obeyed and followed by the people. The early civilizations also developed an organized, stable, and
effective government to ensure the safety of the people and supervise the production and distribution
of the food supply. Political leaders of early civilizations were also tasked to do the following:
1. Craft laws
2. Implement laws
3. Impose justice and punishment
4. Collect taxes
5. Sometimes act as religious leaders as well
The table below presents the different political systems of the four major cradles of civilization.
Note that each civilization had a different set of social classes and political leaders.
Social and Political Systems of the Sumerian, Egyptian, Indus Valley, and Shang Civilizations
Social Class Sumer Egypt Indus Valley Shang
Political leader Priests and Pharaoh Brahmin King Priest
and highest Royalty
social class
Other social 1. Wealthy 1. Government 1. Kshatriyas Working class
classes merchants officials 2. Visayas (farmers,
2. Ordinary 2. Soldiers 3. Sudras craftsmen, soldiers)
workers 3. Scribes 4. Pariah
 4. Merchants
5. Craftsmen
6. Peasants
7. Slaves

REFERENCE/S:
Contreras, A. P., Dela Cruz, A. R. D., Erasga, D. S., Fadrigon, C. C. (2018). Understanding Culture,
Society, and Politics. Phoenix Publishing House, Inc. Quezon City, Philippines