Breathing and Exchange of Gases carbon dioxide thus produced in this process. Various kinds of structures are foun: the exchange of gases with the envis structures in few animals in brief. is given in this chapter. id in various animals which facilitate ironment. We shall study these The exchange of gases in human beings TOPIC Respiration : Types and Respiratory Organs As we already know cellular respiration occurs in the presence or absence of oxygen. So, it is of the following types 1. Aerobic Respiration ‘When oxygen is used for respiration, its called aerobic respiration. The organisms undergoing the process are termed as aerobes. 2. Anaerobic Respiration Te occurs in the absence of molecular oxygen in the cytoplasm (also called as fermentation). It yields only about 5% of the food energy. The organisms undergoing the process are called anaerobes, eg. yeats oxidise glucose te ethanol and CO;. Deum Coen Respiratory Organs « Respiratory Organs Be ULC ieniee De anes teu een BU) Oe aes lea «Exchange of Gases Decne Transport, Regulation or eed + Transport of Gases Bee Leer] De ea rein and Exchange of Gases sic respiration appeared first in primitive i due 10 the absence of oxygen there, Prin isa catabolic process. It breaks organic ‘ Mle vind releases their bond energy. Prmtweatting and respiration are not samo, Breathing eterno respation and is physical process, while set ssa biochemical process involving exchange of oxidation of fod. Inspiration isan active process of pitation is passive process. panna nie OP Bt 5 espiratory Organs in Animals animal groups have evolved different Bum of breathing forthe exchange of gas. snimals ike sponges, cnidarians, Platyhelminthes Gelving roundworms exhange © by simple Jao hough body surface, Annelds like earthworms iso wough skin and few forms exhibie gills to respire. per have gills, trachea, book gills, book lungs for tic on, In several forms cutaneous exchange is also a. es feather-like gills, pulmonary sac and body surface ssed by most of the molluscs. In echinoderms suze, cloacal respiratory tree, skin, gills, peristominal oa ure ae ue eapst7 ps The highly vascularised bags called lungs are used rik erestrial forms for the exchange of gases, reptiles, birds and mammals. Amphibians (frog) Bie through their skin as well as lungs luman Respiratory System lan respiratory system may be divided into two pr components, i.e. conduction of gases and ion or exchange of gases. onduction of Gases pomp includes the passage for transportation phetic air to the lung alveoli and return from ” the exterior. It clears air, humidifies it and bring ba ckmPerature. In this par, gaseous exchange place. It is also called dead air space. "lous parts are as follows iatal Nares (Nostrils) There is a pair of slits at lower end of the nose, which opens into the Neg eae through the nasal passage. Foe tambers Pair of passage located at the back ils just above the mouth cavity. Nasal (iii) Internal Nares Th (iv) Nasopharynx Ic is the upper («) Larynx It is the upper part o! 151 wo septum is a median partition that separate the chambers. =“ ce Each chamber has three regions: ee respiratory and olfactory. The chambet a es pseudostratified ciliated epithelium by wich i stent Biered (by hairs) and moistened @Y TO of ese are the posterior Pet d into the the nasal chambers that lea a ioe ich internal nares open i ee f trachea. Larynx is offen caled the Adam’ apple and is MO. sig prominent in men than in women, It allows ee pase ino lungs. Nasopharynx opens * flottis ofthe larynx into trachea. Glorts Si-like apercure that remains open swallowing. ‘The glotis bears a lea-like cartilaginous flap, the epiglottis ac its anterior region. Te closes the glottis eo Check the entry of food during swallowing. Lag helps in sound production and hence, all the sound box. ‘The laryngeal skeleton consists of nine cartilages, jie, three single (thyroid, cricoid and epiglottis) and iform). except during three paired (arytenoid, corniculate and cunei Thyroid cartilage is involved in formation of ‘Adam's apple, cuneiform cartilage connects epiglottis with arytenoid cartilage. Note Snoring during the sleep occurs due to the partial blockage Of respiratory tract by the tongue. (vi) Trachea It is a thin-walled tube, about 11cm long and 2.5 cm wide, It extends upto the mid-thoracie cavity. Ie passes the air to the alveoli. (vii) Primary and Secondary Bronchi At the level of 5th thoracic vertebra, the trachea divides into two tubes, right and left primary bronchi. Each bronchi further divides into secon bronchi. The secondary bronchi baie ino smaller tertiary bronchi, which is further divided into still smaller bronchioles. The small terminal bronchioles give off a number of thin, irregular walled, one cell thick, vascular bag-like st called lung alveoli. me Wall of trachea, bronchi and bronchi composed of fibromuscular tissue nd lined b pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium rich in mucus secreting cells. Cartilagineus rings wast, the walls of the trachea and the their collapse. The branching 1 bronchioles and alveoli form inous rings support bronchi to prevent etwork of by i form the lungs! eee) and has three lobe, : Respiratory/ Exchange of Gases The alveoli and their ducts form this part of the SeR EBONY system. Ics the site of actual diffusion of O2 brachii) between blood and atmospheric air. The ranching network of bronchi, bronchioles and alveoli comprises the lungs, which provide the surface for exchange of gases in humans. Lungs Humans have two lungs one at right and other on left side in chest region. These are triangular bags that constitute the respiratory organ and are site for gaseous exchange (O, / CO,). They lie in the thoracic cavity on the sides of the heart. It is an anatomically airtight chamber. The thoracic cavity is enclosed dorsally by thoracic vertebrae, laterally by the ribs, ventrally by the sternum and closed below by a dome-shaped diaphragm. The arrangement of lungs is such that, any change in the volume of thoracic cavity will be manifested in the pulmonary cavity. This arrangement is necessary for breathing as the pulmonary volume cannot be altered directly. Epigiotis Larynx: Trachea Parietal pleura Visceral pleura Cardiac notch Pleural membranes Avveol! Pleural fuid Bronchiole W/ oninor Sf Fig. 20.1 Diagrammatic view of human respiratory ‘system (sectional view on the left side) Each lung is enclosed by two membranes called the pleura (layers of peritoneum of the thorax). The inner membrane, called the visceral pleuron, firmly bounds to the surface of lungs. The outer membrane, called the parietal pleuron is held to the thoracic wall and diaphragm by connective tissue. Pleural cavity is a very narrow space that exists between the two pleura. It contains the pleural fluid secreted by the pleura, for reducing friction on the lung surface. External Features of Lungs (i) The left lung has two lobes, ie. superior lobe and inferior lobe separated by oblique fissure. It has a cardiac notch, a concave cavity where the heart lies. Teis longer and narrower than right lung. AllénondSC Biology o,,. (ii) The right lung is bigger s i 1 peor lobe, middle lobe and inferior lh" separated by horizontal fsure and oblique i. Knowledge Plus «There are about 300 milion alveoli in the two lungs with a con surface area of about 70! + -Afilm of lecithin ines the alveoli, that Lowers the surface tes 1 irthe chest wali pierced (eg. bya stab wound), atmosphere fushes into the pleural cavity, eliminating the pressure dite ‘cross lung walls causing the lungs to collapse. The condition * called pneumothorax, which is lethal. is ie & Topic Practice 1 Multiple Choice Questions {Oxygen (02) is utilised by an organism to (a) directly breakdown the nutrient molecules (b) indirectly breakdown the nutrient molecules, (c) obtain nourishment from the food (a) burn the organic compounds indirectly * Ans (b) Oxygen (O,) is utilised by the living entities to indirectly breakdown the nutrients like glucose to dete energy for performing various activities, etc. 2yracheal respiration is a feature of (a) cockroach (b) centipedes (©) arachnids (d) Both (a) and (b) Ans (a) Tracheal respiration is a mode of respiration in insects like cockroach, centipedes and millipedes. Arachnid like spiders and scorpion performs book lng respiration. 3€orrect sequence of the air passage in humans is (a) Nose -> Larynx -» Pharynx ~» Bronchioles ~Alvedli (b) Nose > Phi Le .x + Bronchioles (b) Nose -»Pharynx —Laryn ee, jronchioles > 3B (©) Nose -»Pharynx Larynx Bronce (a) External nostril > Nasal passage ~ Inter nostril > Pharynx > Larynx > Trachea “Bronchi —>Bronchioles 7 ‘Ans (d) The correct sequence of ar passage in hme? given by option (4). 4,t which thoracic vertebra does trad into right and left primary bronchi 4 @ 5s (b) 6 9 tothe ‘Ans (a) Trachea is a straight tube extending OP) of sth mid-thoracic cavity, which divides at the thoracic vertebra into the right and left bron’ rea divi?ps ences between tracheoles and by, onchioles Oe Bi fonch are respiratory Thes oles of insects. se are tubes tbs tebe Tey penetrate all parts of the Trey end biindly in tissue The cell du The lunge: oe Yin the eygONe Of alveolar % c Respiration Processes - . 1515 (i) Differences between right and left lungs are Right Lung Left Lung Ithas three lobes and _ It has two lobes with median border is entire, _anteromedian border having cardiac notch. itis larger and heavier. _It is smaller and lighter. ttis shorter, but broader It is longer, but narrower than the left lung. than the right lung. ) 32. Describe the structure of lungs with suitable diagrams. 3 Ans Refer to text on page no. 512. 02 Breathing and Gaseous Exchange yechanism of Respiration main mechanism of respiration is categorised into owing “BIE SEEPS () Breathing (pulmonary ventilation) isthe inflow of smospheric air and release (outflow) of CO, rich alveolar ai. fp fschange of gases (O and CO,) across alveolar membrane as well as in tissues. {i Tansportof gases by the blood. Breathing isan extracellular, energy consuming and physical poss Itinvolves movement of thorax, expansion fsfaion) and deflation of lungs and flow of air into and faa the lungs by creating a pressure gradient berween delungs and the atmosphere. The movement of dighagm and a specialised set of muscles (ie. external adinternal intercostals between the ribs) help in faeraion of such difference of pressure gradients teveen lungs and atmosphere. Breathing mainly involves 1 seps Unspiration {anacive process by which fesh ar enters the lungs. Sy if the pressure within the lungs ulmonary pressure) is less than the atmosP FS Le. negative pressure in lungs with respec °° *Phetic pressure. yheric Lt Following muscles play an important role (i) Diaphragm Ic is lowered by the contraction of its muscle fibres and becomes flat. This causes an increase in the volume of thoracic chamber in the antero-posterior axis, (ii) External Intercostal Muscles They occur between the ribs (internal intercostal muscles are related to expiration). The external intercostal muscles contract and pull the ribs and the sternum upward and outward thus, increasing the volume of thoracic chamber in dorsoventral axis. “Thus, the overall increase in the volume of thoracic cavity causes an increase in pulmonary volume. As a result, there is a decrease in the intra-pulmonary pressure. The greater atmospheric pressure outside the body now causes Fr to flow rapidly into external nares, which sequentially leads to alveoli. From the alveoli, ©. passes into blood of the capillaries and CO, diffuses our from blood to alveoli’s lumen. 2. Expiration It is passive process by which CO) is expelled out from the lungs. Ic takes place when the intra-pulmonary pressure is higher than the atmospheric pressure. ‘The movements of muscles involved in the breathing mechanism are as follows () Diaphragm The muscl relax making it convex, thoracic cavity. le fibres of the diaphragm decreasing volume of theGi) Internal Intercostal Muscles These muscles contract, thus, pulling the ribs downward and inward, decreasing the thoracic volume. The volume of the thoracic cavity, thus decreases thereby reducing the pulmonary volume. As a result, the intra-pulmonary pressure increases slightly above the atmospheric pressure, This in turn causes the expulsion of the air from the lungs. The process of expiration is simpler than inspiration, rien oN 150 mb-f dead sacs volume and 5g « WEES Lungs retun ey to original 2 © Fig. 20.2 Mechanism of breathing showing (a) Inspiration, (b) Expiration Respiratory Volumes and Capacities The quantity of air, the lungs can receive, hold or expel under different conditions are called respiratory (or pulmonary) volumes. Combination of two or more [pulmonary volumes arc called respiratory (pulmonary) icapacities. 1¢ different volumes and capacities are as follows (i) Tidal Volume (TV) It is the volume of air inspired or expired during normal breathing in relaxed or resting position. It is about 500 mL. It consists of (v) Anatomical Dead Space The portion of, (vi) Alveolar Ventilation (minute volume) Ths is iy Various pulmonary capacities are derived from thesbre mentioned volumes. These help in the clinical diagno of functioning of lungs. These are as follows (ii) Functional Residual Capacity (FRC) Iris alveolar volume. aes ' healthy man can inspite oF expire» 3 4900-8000 ml of air per minuge © “PPX his i) Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV), je varie (i) tetFtdonal amount of air that canbe he hs forcibly after a notmal inspiration, 1, Pied ol 2500-3000 mL of air. ‘phe si) Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV) cin - eidond ‘volume of air that can be ee the afer a normal expiration. Ie is ahoye lng, 1000-1100 mL. ool (iv) Residual Volume (RV) It isthe volume of * remaining in the lungs even after a for. expiration. It is about 1100-1200 mi. Te, S measured by spirometry. wat | “oat passage, in which incoming and outgoing yp” completely locked and his ai nt we * gaseous exchange and is about 30% of ada ite. 150 mL. “oi volume of per minute. Alveolar ventilation = (TV— anatomical ded sug x Respiratory rate = (500 = 150) mL x15 times per minue =5.25 litre per minute that moves into and out ofthe ba (i) Inspiratory Capacity (IC) Ics the total vluned air a person can inspire after a normal expran is about 2500-3000 mL. It includes tidal volune and inspiratory reserve volume. IC=TV+IRV i) Expiratory Capacity (EC) It isthe worl vlseé iis air a person can expire after a normal inspite" | includes tidal volume and expiratory reser dius volume, EC= TV+ERV volume of air that will remain in the lungs normal expiration. It includes residual expiratory reserve volume. FRC=RV+ERV (iv) Vital Capacity (VC) It is the maximum air a person can breathe in after a for volsHS UI Uases imum volum: oe eel inupiration, A sis includes TV+ IRV+ ERY, series from 3400-4800 mL. Hp height of individual, Capacity It is dl ) toe Tone tere haces (rata me of Ieincludes iy RV+ERV+TV+ IRV ot (VCxRV) pending upon age, sex alt present tion, i} | Knowledge Plus | «the vtal capacity is higher in athletes, mountain dwellers than in plain | Gels, n men than women and in the young ones than in the old | pesons + Alpulmonary volumes and capacities are about 20-25% less in women | tan in men and they are greater in tall persons and atheletes than in smal and asthenic people. + The volume of air involved in breathing movements can be estimated by | singa spirometer. itis done in clinical assessment of pulmonary functions. + Patil pressure of a gas is the pressure it exerts in a mixture of gases. tis | Sualtothe total pressure of the mixture divided by percentage of that Bsinthe minure, Exchange of Gases The primary sites for exchange of gases are the alveoli and ‘sues, It occurs by simple diffusion mainly based on Besure/concentration gradient. The factors that affect rate of ion are ') Thinness of the membrane. 5 = area of the membrane. py eitablity of che membrane. Solubility of the gases. ait & Person can breathe our | 517 (©) Partial pressure gradient (difference) of gases ‘on the two sides of the diffusing surfaces of lung alveoli. |, Exchange of Gases between Alveoli and Blood The exchange of gases between lung alveoli and pulmonary capillaries is called external respiration. The alveolar wall is very thin with a rich network of blood capillaries. Ie is also called as respiratory membrane (alveolar-capillary membrane). () Alveolar epithelium (ii) Epithelial basement membrane (iii) Their interstitial space (iv) Capillary basement membrane (v) Capillary endothelium All these form a membrane of about 0.2 mm. thickness. This membrane has a limit of gaseous exchange between alveoli and pulmonary blood. It is called diffusing capacity. Ic is the volume of gas that diffuses through membrane per minute for a pressure difference of | mm Hg. Ata particular pressure difference, the diffusion of CO; is 20-25 times faster than oxygen. Thus, the amount of that can diffuse through the membrane per unit difference in partial pressure is much higher as compared to oxygen. To pulmonary vein artery Fig. 20.4 A ciagram of section of an alveolus with the pulmonary capillary Partial pressures (in mm Hg) of oxygen and carbon, dioxide at different parts involved in diffusion in comparison to those in atmosphere are as follows40 8 40 8 oe ae tbove table, pO, in'the alveoli (104 mm XE pai that in the deoxygenated blood in the Pulmonary arteries (95 mm Hg). Soy there is to the blood capillary. Also, ated blood (45 mm Hg) 2 diffuses from blood to the Inspired ait Expired air Blood entering ‘iveolar capilianes ae : Blood entering ‘alveolar capillaries Pulmonary. artery —_ Systemic arteries (ca deoxygenated (carrying oxygenated biood) blood) Oz PCO, Body tissues Fig. 20.5 Diagrammatic representation of exchange of gases {at the alveolus and the body tissues with blood and transport ‘of oxygen and carbon dioxide 2. Exchange of Gases between Blood and Tissue Cells This exchange between tissue blood capillaries and tissue cells is called internal respiration. pO, in oxygenated 95 mm Hg) > pO) in body cells (40 mm Hg) wero sin oxygenated blood (40 mm Hg)< pCO) in body cells (45 mm Hg). : . partial pressure differences, oxygen diffuses ion ely Blood to the body cells and CO, diffuses from the body cells to the capillary blood via ‘ese fluid. Now, the blood becomes deoxygenated, ceech is farther carried co the heart by veins and finally it goes to lungs for purification. & Topic Practice 2 Mae le Choice Questions Movement of the air into ang ” carried out by OU Of the (@) imbibition ©) pressur : (©) osmosis (4) dition ‘Ans (b) The movement ofthe air into and out carried out by creating a pressure graders hay Jungs andthe atmosphere. Inspiration ae negative pressure inthe lings with resect atmospheric pressure. he Expiration takes place when there is po in the lungs with respect to the atmosphere eee 7 2. Inspiration is initiated by i (a) extension of the diaphragm (®) contraction of the diaphragm (6) extension of the lungs (@) contraction of the lungs Ans (b) Inspiration is initiated by the contraction of diaphragm, which increases the volume of thee chamber in the antero-posterior axis. The z the external intercostal muscles lifts up the rbseen sternum causing an increase in the volume of tows chamber in the dorso-ventral axis. The overall ines in the thoracic volume causes a similar increase nie pulmonary volume, 3, During expiration, the diaphragm becomes (@) normal (&) flattened (©) dome-shaped (@) oblique Ans (c) Expiration is the process by which CO, i expele out from the lungs. During expiration, musce fie! the diaphragm gets relaxed, making it convex aad dome-shaped, s0 as to decrease the volume of the thoracic cavity. 4, Additional muscles in the .... impacts the sti of humans to increase the strength of inspiration and expiration. Complete the given statement with an appropriate option. (a) chest (©) abdomen - Ans (c) We can voluntarily take deep breat! i te process of deep inspiration, chest distene wf brought about by the external intercos the abdominal muscles. (®) diaphragm ase 5. Aspirometer cannot be used to mea @ic mR oEV @“8834 522) : olume of air inspired or epicg, | Al 40. Whatis tidal volume? Find out the tidal volume for a healthy human in an hour time? Also, label the parts A, B, Cand Din the given figure of alveolus. TOPIC Respiration : Gaseous Transport, 03 Regulation and Disorders Transport of Gases Blood carries oxygen from the lungs to tissue cells for oxidation and carbon dioxide from the tissue cells to the respiratory surface for elimination. Transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide in detail is discussed below Transpo Oxygen Ics done in the following manner (i) As Dissolved Gas About 3% of oxygen in the blood is carried in a dissolved state through the plasma. (ii) As Oxyhaemoglobin About 97% of O, is carried by RBCs in the blood. Haemoglobin is a red coloured iron containing pigment present in RBCs to which ©) can bind in a reversible manner to form oxyhaemoglobin. Four molecules of oxygen bind with one molecule of haemoglobin. + High 0z:1o1 p00, + Low tempsrature + Low Hconcetaton + Low DPG concentration, ‘i Factors tiectin —Fe + 0, DES t00, association and THESE” Guynasmagetin | dissociation of oxygen wth Heeregin haeragiogbin + High 000, low 0 + High torperatre + High H* concentration + High DPG concentration qr hing in relaxed OF Testing poy = Respir v = (a. breaths per minute) 00m 4 26-8 Lx 60 ore ry 2 360 — 480 Laer elven pavity Alveolar wall, C— Red blood eels. —D—Basement substance. a“ jagrammatit tion of e: | dia atic representa om ‘ ore ‘the alveolus and the Body tissuey of garransport of 0; aNECO>- ASO, explain hoy wis exchange of gases occur between bloog and tissue cells. ‘ : Ans Refer to text on page no, 517-518 and fig. no: 205, 1 ’ ( Where, Fe-lron (have strong affinity for oxygen). DPG-Diphosphoglyceraldehyde Oxygen Dissociation Curve or 7 Oxyhaemoglobin Dissociation Curve tis the curve obtained on plotting percentage saturation of Hb with ©, against pO . The curve thus, obtained is sigmoid shaped or S-shaped, under normal conditions. () This curve is useful in studying the effect of factor like pCO,, H* concentration and temperature, etc., on binding of 0, with Hb. (ii) The lower part of the curve indicates dissociation of oxygen from haemoglobin while, the upper part of the curve indicates the acceptance of O, by Hb. Shift to left at low ] pCO, and low 100) temperature if Percentage saturation of 2027 40 60 60 100 Partial pressure of oxygen (mm Ha) Fig. 20.6 Oxvnan dicenniatinn eurehaemoglobin dissociation curve is ane ver eo left oF right by various factors. sa let indicates association of O, by Hb. It niveoli where there is Low pCO, high sr gser concern and femperaure tal blood, there is a shift to left because yobin (2a, 2y) has more affinity for nan the adult Hb (2a, 28), aft vo right indicates dissociation of 0, from Hb. ) ea ieithe tissues where there is low pO2, high ow pH (high H* concentration) and higher Fexperature. y This clearly indicates the lung surface and level. 1g ery 100 mL of oxygenated blood can deliver eed 5 mL of Op t0 the tissues under normal physiological conditions. People fel difficulty in breathing at hills because ait ere falls at hills. So, less oxygen is diffused to lung blood vessels. transport of Carbon Dioxide us form diffuses out of the cells into wre it is transported in following ways that ©, gets bound to Hb on gets dissociated at the tissue 0, in gaseor axles, whe i\Transport in Dissolved Form thou 7% CO, is carried in dissolved form throu sama because of its high solubility. {il Transport as Bicarbonate Thelarest fraction (about 70%) is carried in plasma as Setonate ions (HCO5 ). Ar the tissues site, where 0, ishigh due to catabolism, CO» diffuses into the ‘od (RBCs and plasma) and forms HCO§ and He igh the Carbonic CO, +H,O = H,0Os Caron sable Carbonic dude Carbone Na pation is faster in RBCs because they contain an ‘eg tbonic anhydrase. Increased pH due to the “ger, released during the reaction bind to Hb, tegggb the Bohr’ effec. Pree ea site, where pCO, is low, the reaction pposite direction forming CO, and HO. jssue level and is i bicarbonate at Sse ‘Thus, CO, is trapped a bietPTE I COa. transported to alveoli to ; Hamburger’s Phenomenon (shneree ‘This ie the phenomenon in which 4° N° oy the sons considerably changes ionic balance plasma and erythrocytes This ionic balance is resto ions from the plasma into ide Shift) ed by the diffusion oF chloride he erythrocytes- NaHCO 7 Schematic representation showing th ‘Chioride shift (CA = Carbonic Anhydrase) Fig. 20.; e steps of (iii) Transport as Carbaminohaemoglobin Nearly 20-25% COs is carried by haemoglobin as carbaminohaemoglobin. CO entering the blood combines with the NH, group of the reduced Hb. HbCO, +H* +02 (Carbaminohaemoglobin) HbQ, +CO, == ‘The reaction releases oxygen from oxyhaemoglobin. Factors affecting the binding of CO} and Hb are (i) Partial pressure of CO. (ii) Partial pressure of O3 (major factor). In tissues, pCO, is high and pO, is low, more binding of CO, occurs while, in the alveoli, pCO. is low and pO} is high, dissociation of CO} from HbCO, takes place, i.e. CO, which is bound to Hb from the tissues is delivered at the alveoli, Every 100 ml. of deoxygena vers oxygenated blood d approximately 4 mL. of CO, to the ce Haldane effect states that binding of : i Hb tends to di » baglrd grragg eee isplace CO, from the blood. It is ively more important in an transport than the B eee the Bohr effect in promoting O, ” transport. Thus, Haldar complement cach other et a4 Bohr effect524 | Regulation of Respiration The respiratory rhythm can be maintained and moderated by haven beings to suit che demands of the ody tissues, Teis under dual control, ie. nervous and chemical. This ‘is explained below as. 1. Neural Control ‘The respiratory rhythm centre is composed of a group of neurons located in the medulla oblongata and pons. varolii. A chemosensitive area is located adjacent to thythm centre that is highly sensitive to CO, and hydrogen ions, They increase activity of this centre, which in turn signals the respiratory centre to make necessary changes in ordet to eliminate these substances. Oxygen does not have a significantly direct effect on the respiratory centre of the brain in controlling respiration. Disorders of the Respiratory System ‘The respiratory system can be affected by a number of disorders as given in table below Si ‘The flow chart given below shows the neural cong 7 breathing, Respiratory ._ Modula Respiatoy Von “Group OF) Crome cases nepation samen fEeoteinte aoa fee up erton oma 7 Srna, | Mi remot cae «ESE tenantccue ey * sera peaton Corte, + * pa of pane vert "Ee ‘ 2. Chemical Control Large number of chemoreceptors are located in the Dollies, which lc bilaterally in the bifurcations ofc | yas ‘ common carotid arteries. Their afferent nerve fig through glossopharyngeal cranial nerve and thus respiratory area of the medulla oblongata, Recepios aortcarch and carotid artery recognise changes in gy Hi" concentration and send necessary signals othe yg centre for remedial actions Disorders of Respiratory System Disorders Causes Symptoms Preventions | Cure ‘Asthma Allergens stimulate the Coughing, wheezing, (Gifficuty in breathing) release of histamine from the mast calls causing inflammation of bronchi and bronchioles, Emphysema Cigarette smoking and (infiation or distension of bronchioles or excess amount of mucus clog the bronchi and bronchioles. Due to the collapse of inhalation of other smoke alveolar septa, surface or toxic substances over a area for gas exchange is By avoiding exposure Antibiotic therapy to to allergens, Temove infection, Use of ‘bronchodilator drugs and inhalers for reli Cigarette smoking and exposure to air pollutants must be It causes ineversibie Gistortion. Hence, no permanent cure, ‘Symptomatic treatment involves use of bronchodilators antiiates alveolar sacs) period of time leads to. reduced, lungs inflated, avoided. damage of alveolar walls. exhalation becomes difficult Occupational Occur due to the chronic Proliferation of fibrous respiratory disorders (itis due to occupation Of individual especially those in grincing or stone breaking industry ‘such as anthracosis (Pneumatoconiosis is of Coal workers), silicosis, asbestosis, black lung, byssinosis, brown lung disease, chronic Derylium disease, oto), Pneumonia (acute infecton or inflammation of the alveoli) ‘exposure of harmful substances as silica, aesbestos, etc., (silicosis, asbestosis). The defence mechanism of body fails to cope with the situation, Caused by bacteria Streptococcus Pneumoniae, Other Pathogens (fungi, virus, etc.) may also be the eases came: Connective tissue (fibrosis) harmful dust Of upper part of lung causing inflammation, Avveoli acutely inflamed. Most of its space is filed with fluid and dead WACs, and oxygen therapy. No permanent cure Patient is given symptomatic treatment such as bronchodilators and antibiotics tor secondary infection. Minimise use of Use of protective gears and clothing at work place. Regular health check up of workers, Protection against pathogens, “ Antibiotics are used. 0 treat bacterial infectiongUMMARY nurs cdg et eon ozs te eens ‘of oxygen releasing large fever ot ATPS Por ‘glucose molecule. Anaerobic respiration ree Spe cme eg gilsin fish, sknin earthworms, techea n roaches, ratory system consists ofa nose, larynx, ran r25Pi French and bronchioles, alvel and ngs ache ceo oss iat th ein assed, used for ing, Nasal passage has two chambers for respiratory eotactry PUBOSE. isinoWed in SOU vapereped catego tod oan « tachoa is a non-cols C-shaped 16-17 rings). iy. sort and Bronchioles tim) shea eters the kngs a6 eet form very tin terminal ane are the functional units of ungs. ey biead cel. + ngs are th major respiratory 02" OF respiration ane ay covered by a pleural membrane + rethng is the process of exchange of ONT rich ar from Cn ert with carbon dioxide produced in calls ofthe be. includes inspiration and expiration, + maton occurs when captragm coat 0 Iepation occ eye whe abdominal muses Ss aves fra cay ass "pnd at orers nt the ros 1d production. Epigiotis is ‘ruclure which prevents entry of ible air conducting tube (with ‘The first branching by whien bronchi. Repeated divisions Of ‘pronchioles: supplied with present in ! von relaxation oftne BaphveOr, ‘and external olteduces thoracic VOUT? which Teading to exhalation. Expiration i intercostal muscles, t creates positive pressure Lung volumes and eapactis PoP tang Mang of lungs in ving Body. Te inspiratory reserve voUTe. inspiratory C2P* Volume, expiratory reser epcaty, vital capaci totl enscny Aaveoiarventiation isthe volume alveoli per minute. ‘spirometer s the device Us volumes. Regulation of be adjusted according Nervous regulation occurs by reaP medulla (dorsal) nd fon ocours via cher sand in brain xs in alveol pressure 9°" mapping the a tidal volume ised to meas preathing The ate and depth of breathing can 3 10 body equernents tory centres present 9 moreceptors located in Chemical reguiati carotid, aortic bodies Exchange of gases 00Cu! aitfusion based mainly on piftusing capacty i the imit of 99590 ‘aveol and pulmonary blood. ‘Traneport of gases like orygen and Oz O° in blood. Transpebe transported (2) in physical Swen, as aiid, CO can also be transported as oflungs by simple dients. us exchange between chemical comp Sresponates and carbamino compounds Onyhaemoglobin-cissociation curve studies the relation Cnr paral pressure of oxygen and amount of tyhaomogionin formed or dissociated gn be atfected by (a) CO (b) foetal HD (©) myoglobin. pisorders of respiratory system ocours due toe pipeirement of respiratory organs and ther functions Major ‘Forders include asthma, emphysema,