I

MATON

T
RICKS& TI
PS
APPROXI

FORDIS
ETS
 APPROXIMATIONS & CALCULATIONS
Overall Concepts
1. Components: All the information given in the graph/table is definitely important. Do not ignore the
minor details given because these minor details may convert your chance of getting a call into not
getting a call. As you have to spend three to five minutes on a particular block of four/five questions,
so it is better to spend 10 – 15 seconds on the interpretation and understanding of graphs only.

2. Co-relation: So many times there are two or three tables/graphs given. You should always try to co-
relate the graphs given and understand the real relationship between the graphs, before start
solving the questions.

3. Choices: Before solving any question you must always see the choices given there under.
Spending 3-4 seconds to see the choices could reduce your time by 15-30 seconds in each of the
questions. Keep in mind that even a fraction of a second saved is worth it. Just think that kind of
questions you were supposed to do in five minutes in the ninth and tenth standard, how the
examiner can assume you to solve those questions in one minute. The simple logic is that here you
are supposed to work smartly by taking the choices given into consideration.

4. Calculations : Try to reduce the calculation work by intelligent guessing. Because if you work
intelligently, you will have to do only 50 % of the calculations that you actually do in the exam. It is
the most significant proportion of your time that you spend in solving data interpretation section.
Mind it the time spend on this component could be reduced by 25 – 50 % by intelligent and smart
work. Coming after this is the detailed discussion on how to approximate and calculate quickly.

5. Confidence: Have confidence in yourself. Any kind of emotion will not help in this case. In so many
cases when you are sure than first, second and fourth options cannot be the answer. Then have
confidence in yourself to mark third option as the answer. Here do not waste your time in verifying
whether third option is really the answer or not.

Mastering Calculations and Approximations.

You must read the options along with the question. The extent to which you will do calculations, depend
upon how far your options are. If the options are close, you need to do exact calculations. If options are far,
then approximation will work. That's why; you must glance through options after reading the question and
then only start solving questions. Use of this technique requires the ability to judge whether options are
close or far. There is no set method for this. This judgement develops by practice and conscious effort to
decide whether options are far or near.

Break-up method of Subtraction

a) Calculate ; 512 – 289

Though what we asked here is simple, but most of you would like to write in order to find the answer.
Just take a simple approach. Take one completely rounded number, which falls between these two
number e.g. 500. The first no. is 12 more than that and the second number is 211 less than that.
Thus the difference between the two numbers happens to be 12 + 211 = 223.

b) Solve ; 857 – 532

In this case the best way is 800 – 500 = 300 and 57 – 32 is 25. Thus the answer happens to be 325.
But mind one thing in case of both of the above discussed examples, the writing part was just to
convey you the method. But you have to put the same habit to do it mentally. If you start doing it by
writing it would not help much.

c) Solve ; 321.43 – 169.59

321 + 0.43 – ( 170 – 0.41) = 151.84

Break-up method of Multiplication

d) Solve ; 42 × 7
42 can be broken as (40 + 2).
So, = (40 + 2) × 7 = 280 + 14 = 294.
42 is broken in such way that multiplication becomes easy.
 We could have broken as 39 + 3 also but multiplying 39 with 7 is not easy. So, 42 was broken as 40
+ 2 since doing 40 × 7 and 2 × 7 are easy.

e) Solve ; 89 × 12
= (90 – 1) × 12 = 1080 – 12 = 1068
Or = 89 × (10 + 2) = 890 + 178 = 1068.
So, you can break any number, but you must have observed that breaking 89 makes it easier as
compared to breaking 12.
This quality of knowing which number to break develops with practice.

f) Solve ; 236 × 23
= 236 × (20 +3) = 4720 + 708 = 5428.

Calculating Percentages when number is required

Terminology: formula for %age is
% = (number / base) × 100.
So, if you have to calculate 20 as % of 50, you will do = (20/50) × 100 = 40 where 20 is number, 50 is base
and 40 is % .
We will follow this terminology throughout this course.
When a number needs to be calculated, mostly use of formula is lengthy. Let's see a shortcut. For this
shortcut, remember how to calculate 10 %, 1 % and 0.1 %. Calculating these three percentages is the
simplest thing that you can do with numbers. You do not have to write anything for this.
You just move the decimal place for 10% one place, for 1% two places and for 0.1% three places and so on.
So, 10% of 2456 = 245.6 ; 1% of 2456 = 24.56 ; .1% of 2456 = 2.456
So, now, let’s see a shortcut. Because this percentages are easy to calculate, you should try to break any
percentage given in the form of these three percentages.

a) Solve ; 20 % of 2456.
20% can be broken as 2 × 10% ⇒ 10% is 245.6.
⇒ So, 20% = 2 × 245.6 = 491.2

b) Solve ; 22 % of 2456
22 can be broken as 2 × 10% + 2 × 1%
⇒ 2 × 245.6 + 2 × 24.5 = 491.2 + 49 = 540.2

c) Solve ; 74 % of 2456
74% can be broken as 7 × 10% + 4 × 1%
⇒ 7 × 245.6 + 4 × 24.5 = 1719.2 + 98 = 1817.2.

Here for the same question alternately you should have thought that 74% = 75% - 1%. Why you should think
like this because 75% = 3/4. Thus you can calculate 2456 × 3/4 = 1842. Subtract from this 1% i.e. 24.56 and
you get 1817.4.
You must have observed in these examples, that % is broken in such manner that 1 get all things as 10%,
1%, or .1% etc.

d) Solve ; 48 % of 314
48% can be broken as
5 × 10% - 2 × 1%
⇒ 5 × 31.4 - 2 × 3.1
⇒ 157 - 6.2 = 150.8

Kindly notice the breakup here in these questions. 48% can be broken as 4 × 10% + 8 × 1%. But we know
multiplying with 8 is tougher than multiplying with 2. So, we broke 48% as 5 × 10% - 2 × 1%.
Here for the same question alternately you should have thought that 48% = 50% - 2%. Why you should think
like this because 50% = 1/2. Thus you can calculate 314 × 1/2 = 157. Subtract from this 2% i.e. 6.28 and
you get 150.8.
e) Solve ; 26 % of 924.
= 2 × 92.4 + 6 × 9.2 ⇒ 184.8 + 55.2 ⇒ 240

Here for the same question alternately you should have thought that 26% = 25% + 1%. Why you should
think like this because 25% = 1/4. Thus you can calculate 924 × 1/4 = 231. Add in this 1% i.e. 9.24 and you
get 240.2.

Here the objective of doing it here in two ways is very simple. It is that that fractional values of the decimals
and percentages are very important and one method which is the best for one kind of question may not be
the best for some other question. Thus having calculative strengths i.e. tables, squares, cubes and fractions
with you is very important.

Calculating Percentages when % is required

f) Solve: 15 is what % of 40.
For solving this type of questions also, we use the basic break-up method, i.e., we use 10%, 1% and
0.1% of base
⇒10% of 40 is 4. So, 30% will be 3 × 4 =12.
⇒15 can be written as 12+3 where 12 is 30% of 40.
⇒1% of 40 is .4. So, 7% will be 2.8.
⇒15 can be further written as 12(30%) + 2.8(7%) + .2.

So, 15 will be slightly more than 37% of 40. Don't worry if method is not very clear now. It will take time to
understand. Let's see the method again with detail notes.
Secondly here just learn one more thing. But first be clear that the exam you are going to take is a multiple
choice exam and do not have to write the exact answer, rather you have to choose the right answer from the
choices given. Simply see that 10% of 40 is 4, thus 40% of 40 will be 16, whereas you only require 15, thus
it can very well be stated that the answer is close to 40%, but slightly less than that.

g) Solve ; 26 is what % of 120.

⇒10% of 120 = 12. So, 20% will be 24.
(we calculate 20% as it takes us near to 26)
⇒26 = 24 + 2
(Here 24 we got from above)
⇒ 1% of 120 = 1.2. So, 2% will be 2.4

(We calculate 2% as it takes us near to 2, the remainder above). So, 26 = 24 (20%) + 2 (2% appx.) = 22%
appx.
Here we knowingly took simple numbers to explain the method and we wrote too much to explain the
method. But once you have understood the method, then you can calculate even for big & complex numbers
and do it without writing much.
Alternately 10% is 12, and 20% will be 24. The required no. is 26, thus can be stated that the answer is
close to 20% but slightly more than that.

h) Solve ; 37.4 is what % of 237

7.4 = 23.7 (10%) + 14.4 (6%) - 0.7 (.3%) = 15.7% (app.)
This is the maximum writing you need to do once you master the method. Let's see the calculations
in detail. I believe 23.7 (10%) is clear to you by now. 1% of 237% is 2.37%. We can round this off to
2.4. So 6% will be 14.4 ⇒ 23.7 (10%) + (6% appx.) = 38.1 (16% appx.). But we need to calculate
37. So, subtract .7 that is approximately. 3 %.
Alternately 10% is 23.7, and thus 5% will be 11.8. Thus sum of these two becomes 35.5 and the 1%
of the no. is 2.37, which will make the total more than 37.4. Thus answer is slightly less than 16%.

i) Solve ; 556.7 is what % of 797

Following the alternate method here 10% is 79.7, and 70% will be 555. The answer is close to 70%,
but slightly more than that.
Calculating fractions
Though we can solve fractions by break-up method, some fractions can be solved by rounding off or
approximations also. Let's see

a) Solve ; 12 / 61

Here 61 can be written as 60.

So, 12 / 61 becomes 12 / 60 = 1 /5 = .2
But 0.2 isn't the actual answer. It is the approximate answer. The actual answer will be different from 0.2.
But the question is whether it will more than 0.2 or less than 0.2.
Since we decreased the denominator, the actual answer will be less than the approximate answer.
So the actual answer will be something like 0.18 or 0.19.
Knowing whether the actual answer is more or less than the approximate answer is knowing the direction.
Having an idea about the direction is important for successful use of approximation in Quantitative Aptitude
& DI.

Let's see some rules for knowing the direction

a) If denominator is increased, then actual answer is more than approximate answer.
b) If denominator is decreased, then actual answer is less than approximate answer.
c) If numerator is increased, then actual answer is less than approximate answer.
d) If numerator is decreased, then actual answer is more than approximate answer.

The 3 digit thumb rule

In DI, you should never deal with more than 3 digits. Always ignore digits and reduce it down to 3 digits.

Let's see examples:

a) Solve ; 10920000 / 455

Ignore four zeros in 10920000.
So, we get 1092/455 = 910(200%) + 182 (40%) = 240% = 2.4
Bringing back four zeros, which we ignored earlier we get 24000

b) Solve ; 527831 / 4567

Let's ignore three digits from numerator and one digit from denominator. We get 528 in numerator (after
rounding off 527.8) and 457 in denominator (after rounding off 456.7)
⇒ 528 /457 = 457 (100%) + 46(10%) + 25 (6% appx.) = 116% = 1.16.

Adjusting digits we ignored earlier, we bring back two digits, we get 116 as net we are ignoring two digits in
numerator.

Converting ratios to decimals

For converting ratios into decimals, we use the break-up method discussed earlier.

a) Convert 116:177 into decimals.

Here, you need to divide 116 by 177. Use break-up method for decisions.
116 / 177 = 106 (60%) + 10 (6%appx.) = 66% = 0.66
Instead of break-up you can use rough approximations also. So, 116 / 177 can be rewritten as 116 / 180 =
.65. As denominator was increased, so actual expression will be more than .65.

Change of units
1 lakh has five zeroes = 1,00,000
1 crore has seven zeroes = 1,00,00,000
The British system of units works with the help of three zeroes.
1 thousand has 3 zeroes.
1 million has six zeroes = 1,000,000
1 billion has nine zeroes = 1,000,000,000
So, 1 million = 10 lakhs
So, 1 billion = 1000 million or 100 crores.
1 Km = 1000 m.
1 m. = 100 cm.
1 inch = 2.5 cm.
1 foot = 12 inch = 30 cm.
1 yard = 3 foot.

Summary
In DI, read the data and questions very carefully. You can't solve questions correctly if you haven't
understood the questions. Many students read the questions very fast in order to save time. They find that
they either have to read the questions again or they leave those questions for lack of understanding. Both
alternatives are bad. The way out is to read the question slowly & carefully. You should concentrate and
make it a point that you understand the question in one single reading. Similarly, you should spend some
time on the data and understand it. There is no point in trying to solve questions if you haven't understood
the data.

Strategy for DI Block

1. First spend ≅ 15 to 30 seconds in having a look at and analyzing the graph. Do not consider it a
waste of time. Spending this time once would necessarily reduce the ≅ 12 - 18 seconds you will
otherwise spend in solving every question in the block.

2. Read all the information carefully, specifically the minor details ( which you consider minor ) given,
like

a) in ’000 b) in tons of c) lakh bales of 150 kg. each

d) profit = revenue – cost e) last nine months/ for the first quarter

3. If any * or like symbol is given, carefully read the information next to the symbol in the footnote and
relate it with the graph.

4. Try to read every question without missing even a single word from the statement. Be cautious
where the information given in the graph denotes in ‘000 or in lakhs. In such cases either the
questions should also include ‘000 or lakhs respectively or the options should have ‘000 or lakhs in
them respectively. This is A VERY COMMON ERROR AND

IN A TYPICAL 50 QUEST ION-SECTION YOU MIGHT commit 2 to 3 ERRORS of this type.

5. After reading the question relate the question to the graph and then see what is required to be
calculated.

6. Now see the choices. How far away are they from each other and what kind of guesses can take
you closer to the answer.

7. After seeing the choices you can calculate the approximate answer, e.g. in order to multiply 122 and
179 you can multiply 12 with 18 along with 2 zeroes in the end, this would give you an
approximation. In 95% of the cases there would be only 1 option close to the approximation and that
would be the right answer.

8. Never forget to make a distinction between the increase and the percentage increase (where the
former represents the absolute and the latter represents the relative)

9. Try to read carefully X is what percent of Y & X is how much percent more than Y. In the former
case (X ÷ Y)× 100 will give you the answer and in the latter case [(X – Y) ÷ Y] × 100 will give you the
answer.
 DATA INTERPRETATION
What is Data Interpretation?
What is Data - Interpretation?
The very basic objective of data is to assist in obtaining the required information to take decisions. This act
of organizing and interpreting data to get meaningful information under a given set of conditions is Data
Interpretation.

Why is D.I. important in MBA Entrance?

It checks the ability of a person to calculate fast and comprehend relevant information which is essential for
potential managers.

What is the weightage of D.I. in different entrance examinations?

Normally D.I. forms a separate section by itself. The number of questions vary from 25-40. It has an overall
weightage of 20% and is given in combination with Logical Reasoning or Data Sufficiency.

What does it require to master D.I.?

D.I. requires only the concept of arithmetic and statistics; most problems entail the comparison of numbers;
very few problems require formulae.
The most important key to solve D.I. is filtering out the useful information from a big basket of information. In
this step, we identify the rest of the data as trash ; Now with lesser data to work with things become easier.

Note: D.I. requires a good practice of dealing in numbers, viz. percentages i.e. 37.5 is what % of 70, 20
amounts to 33.3% in a total of how much, what is % increase etc. Knowledge of multiplication tables,
squares, cubes etc. reduces calculation time drastically.

Types of DI Problems
Numerical data pertaining to any situation can be presented in the following ways.
i. Numerical data tables
ii. Line Graphs * Single line, Single axis
* Multiple line, Single axis
* Multiple line, Double axis
iii. Bar Chart * Vertical
* Horizontal
iv. Pie Chart
v. Case-lets
vi. Combination graph Line + Bar / Line + Pie/Bar + Pie
vii. Venn diagram (Set theory).
viii. Directional graphs
ix. Geometrical diagram
x. Network diagram
We’ll study each of the above in detail below.

Numerical Data Tables

Characteristics
1. Simplest and most convenient tool for presenting data.
2. Easiest and most accurate way to define data in non graphical manner using systematic rows and
columns.
3. These require close scanning and are time consuming to interpret.
4.Title of table: Describes the contents of table and precisely defines the kind of data and period for which it
occurred.
Column heading defines the information contained in various columns and also specifies the unit of
measurement in some cases.
Note: Generally the information is arranged in a table in alphabetic order or chronological order, zero is
indicated by O. In case of — (dash) or blank, it is interpreted that the corresponding data is not available.
Illustration:
Power Generation: Sector wise installed capacity in MW.

Year NTPC NHPC BARC Total

1990 7900 6390 420 14710
1991 8200 6610 420 15230
1992 8900 6780 420 16100
1993 9100 6965 640 16705
1994 10150 7530 640 18320
1995 11000 8500 640 20140
1996 12000 9200 640 21840
1997 13000 9880 640 23520
1998 15200 10200 800 26200
1999 16700 10450 800 27950
2000 19000 11000 800 30800

1. The two years in which additional nuclear capacity was installed at BARC are:

1. 1990 and 1991 2. 1993 and 1998 3. 1993 and 1996 4. 1990 and 2000 5.None of the
above

2. The year in which %age increase in Hydel capacity (NHPC), over that of the previous year, was
maximum, is:

1. 1991 2. 1997 3. 1999 4. 1995 5.None of the

above

3. In 2000, the %age share of BARC in total installed capacity was approximately

1. 2.59 2. 10.0 3. 50.42 4. 1.11 5. 2.00

4. If total power generated in a NTPC unit be 40% of installed capacity, in NHPC be 50% of installed
capacity and in BARC be 90% of installed capacity, then total power generation in 1998 would be:

1. 11900MW 2. 19835 MW 3. 5015 MW 4. 22100MW 5. None of these

5. In 1990 the % share of NTPC in total installed capacity was approximately

1. 50 2. 45 3. 26 4. 54 5. 60

6. The growth in the installed thermal capacity of NTPC between 1991 and 1999 was approximately

1. 130% 2. 51% 3. 92% 4. 103% 5. None of these.

Solutions
Let us first understand what the data is all about. The heading tells us that the data that follows is going to
talk about installed capacity of some companies. If you happen to be an electrical engineer, then all this stuff
about MW is child’s play for you. But if you are part of the overwhelming majority who are not, then don’t
worry. Let us look at traps that could be set which the non jargon familiar can fall into. One could be the trap
of semantics. In the above example, this could mean that there could be a question on the actual power
production by some utility. Now beware semantics over here. The data given is actually about installed
capacity; the question is about actual production. Look out, is there something in the question that tells you
what the production and capacity relationship was. Is there a “Cannot be determined” somewhere in the
options?
We move south and find the next line to be that of column headings.
So starting from left we explore each of the headings and try to understand what it means.
The first column tells us that the data is a time series data. Statistics are available for a number of years.
The second column is titled NTPC. So this is going to tell us about what installed capacities NTPC had for
the years mentioned in column 1. The second and third column follow on similar lines.
The last column is different.
It is titled Total.
So what total does this represent?
Installed capacity of NTPC+NHPC+BARC?
May be, may be not.
Here is where you can afford to be skeptical.
To digress a little, let us do a confirmatory test.
Look at the data in the first row below the headings. Is 7900 + 6390 + 420 = 14710.
Since we are only checking just round off all numbers to the nearest thousand and check: 8 + 6 = 14.
So the total is indeed a total of all the previous columns.
Now the explanation for the digression.
The gullible student can sometimes be tricked by Total.
The total could represent the entire installed capacity of the industry.
If there are other players in the industry, then the total will be more than the total of NTPC + NHPC + BARC.
Having seen the titles and interpreted what they mean, don’t bother to look at any of the data that is given
below.
Data should always be looked up on a need-to-know basis.
Filling your gray matter with lots of figures at this time is not going to help.
So now time for the first question.

1. The two years in which additional nuclear capacity was installed at BARC are:

Now that we have seen the question, the first thing you need to ask yourself, is “What part of the
data am I going to focus on to be able to answer this question?”
Here the skeptic can see a bit of a danger in nuclear capacity. Does BARC also have non-nuclear
capacity.
In such cases the skeptic should run down immediately to the options to check for a “cannot be
determined”. Doesn’t seem to be there in this case, so we will call this doubt a false alarm and move
on.
The question is about BARC, so we are going to be focusing on the BARC column. Also one of the
key words in the question is additional capacity. This means the capacity added during some year.
How does one calculate that? By seeing the difference between the current year capacity and the
previous year capacity. If the current year capacity is greater than the previous year’s capacity then
there has been an addition of capacity that year.
So we take our toothcomb and start searching.
In 1993, increase from 420 to 640 MW
In 1998, increase from 640 to 800 MW
Hence Answer is 2

2. The year in which %age increase in Hydel capacity (NHPC), over that of the previous year, was
maximum, is:

Over here the column to focus on is NHPC.

Also here do not bother checking all the years, go down and zero in on the years mentioned in the
options.
Remember the question is not asking you to find absolute growths; we only need to have a relative
idea of which year saw the biggest growth.
One easy way is comparing growths of two years at a time.
Between 1 and 2:
6610 − 6390 220
% r in 1 = × 100 ⇒ × 100 (1)
6610 6610
9880 − 9200 680
% r in 2 = × 100 ⇒ × 100 (2)
9200 9200
Clearly Option 2 is > Option 1
Now similarly compare Options 2 and 3
We find option 2 > option 3.
Now compare options 2 and 4
We find option 4 > option 2 and in fact the highest.
Hence the answer is option 4

3. In 2000, the %age share of BARC in total installed capacity was approximately

This is again one of the favorite types of questions.

Here your powers of division and fractions are being tested.
So we first zero in on the year 2000 and find that installed capacity was 800 MW.
 In the same year total installed capacity was 30,800 MW.
800
Reqd. ratio = × 100
30800
We know that 8/3 = 2 2/3 = 2.66 % approx (2.59% is the exact answer, but don’t bother with such
precision. In most cases such approximation is good enough).
Here answer is (1)

4. If total power generated in a NTPC unit be 40% of installed capacity, in NHPC be 50% of installed
cap. and in BARC be 90% of installed capacity, then total power generation in 1998 would be:

This one is a sum designed to measure your calculation brawn. What you will have to do is first go
on to the 1998 row and look up the installed capacity figures.
Multiplying these figures with the percentage utilization figures given in the problem, we get.
40 50 90
× 15200 + × 10200 + × 800 = 6080 + 5100 + 720
100 100 100
In doing approximations look at the lowest number, in this case 800. We treat that as 8, and
accordingly will delete two zeroes from all the figures in order to make life easier for us.
So over here, the approximations are 60 + 50 + 7 = 117.

Of course remember to add the zeroes back now = 11700 MW (11900 MW is the precise answer).
Hence 1 is the answer.

5. In 1990 the % share of NTPC in total installed capacity was approximately

Let us go down to 1990, we find NTPC capacity to be 7900 MW. The same year total Capacity was
14710 MW.
7900
So the required ratio = × 100
14710
Here for such divisions which we know are close to 50%, we can use a short trick.
What is double of the numerator?
7900*2 = 15800.
Since 14710 is less than 15800, the fraction can be reduced to something like 1/1.9..., this has to be
more than 50%.
Let us have a look at the options.

1. 50 2. 45 3. 26 4. 54 5. 60
We have now eliminated the first three options, and 60% seems to be on the higher side so answer
should be 4.

6.
The growth in the installed thermal capacity of NTPC between 1991 and 1999 was approximately %
growth capacity
= (Installed capacity in 1999 - Installed capacity in 1991)
× 100
Installed capacity in 1991
16700 − 8200
= = × 100 103.65%
8200
Hence Answer is (4)

Line Graphs
Ch ar acte r istics
A. As against the data being defined precisely in tables, a line graph (or as a matter of fact all graphical
representations. give only an approximate idea.

B. The picture it gives is more vivid in showing the trends and comparisons than mere numbers.

C. It indicates the variation of a parameter w.r.t. another. These parameters are calibrated on the X and Y
axis.
Note: Slope is the most important observation in this case. It helps in comparing the magnitude of change
between any two consecutive points on graph. E.g. Steeper the slope, greater is the change in magnitude
between two consecutive points.
Illustr at ion

DIRECTIONS: The following graph shows the annual food grain production from 1992 to 1997. Refer to the
graph and answer the questions given below.

140
120
100
Production

80
60
40
20
0
1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997
Years

1. How much is the approximate percentage increase in production from 1992 to 1993?

1. 60 2. 40 3. 130 4. 110

2. In which year was the production equal to the average of that of 1997 and 1992?

1. 1996 2. 1995 3. 1993 4. 1994

3. In how many cases was the production below the average of the given years?

1. 3 2. 4 3. 2 4. 1

4. If production in 1998 is estimated to be 20% lower than that in 1997, the estimate of 1998
production is?

1. 100 units 2. 120 units 3. 104 units 4. 96 units

5. The largest increase in foodgrain production has been in

1. 1993 2. 1995 3. 1997 4. 1996

6. If the lowest figure of production is removed from the data, the average for the remaining years is…..

1. 108 units 2. 104 units 3. 110 units 4. 112 units.

Solutions
1. How much is the approximate %age increase in production from 1992 to 1993?
Here we look up the values of the production for the 2 years first. Locate 1992 on the X axis, which
denotes years.
Move vertically up along the Y axis direction in 1992, and we get value of production in 1992 as 80.
In the same way we get the value of production in 1993 as 110.
In calculating % increases and decreases it is important to remember that the original year is the
one that is used as the reference year, in this case 1992.
First we calculate the absolute increase which is 110 – 80 = 30. Now we have to express 30 as a
percentage of the production in 1992, which is 80.
So the required answer is 100 × 30/80 = 37.5%.
Hence answer is (2).

2. In which year was the production equal to the average of that of 1997 and 1992?
The production in 1992 was 80, that in 1997 was 120.
 80 + 120
The average production of 1992 and 1997 = 100
2
This was the production in 1994. Answer is (4)

3. In how many cases was the production below the average of the given years?
80 + 110 + 130 + 100 + 120 + 65
Average production for 6 years = = 101
6

Clearly in 1992, 1994 and 1996, the production was less than average. Hence answer (1)
A small digression over here. We can also calculate the average by using a small statistical property
which states that the median and average are typically very close for most normally distributed data.
To calculate the median value in graphical data, use the edge of a paper and move it upwards till
only half the data points are visible. The intersection of the edge of the paper with the Y axis is the
median value – and approximately the average.

4. If production in 1998 is estimated to be 20% lower than that in 1997, the estimate of 1998
production is?
The production in 1997 is 120 units.
20% of 120 = 24 units less.
120 – 24 = 96 units is the new production.
Hence answer is (4)

5. The largest increase in food grain production has been in

This is a question where graphical data can really be interpreted well without any calculations.
We call this visual inspection.
So what do we inspect?
Here note that absolute increase has been asked.
The difference in Y coordinates of adjacent years will give us the increase.
Since the space between consecutive years is the same on the X axis, we can check the slopes of
various segments.
The steepest slope means the highest increase.
By visual inspection, the steepest slope is in 1997 (55 units by calculation).

6. If the lowest figure of production is removed from the data, the average for the remaining years is…..
Here the lowest figure is 65.
In Data interpretation, we must make use of any calculations that we have already done for previous
problems.
In question 3, we had found the total to be 605.
So we subtract 65 from this.
The total for the remaining years is 605 – 65 = 540.
Thus the required average = 540 / 5 = 108 units.
Answer is (1)
Bar Charts
Ch ar acte r istics
A. The data is plotted on X and Y axes as bars. The thick line (bar) whose width is shown is only for pictorial
attention.
B. These are much more accurate than line graphs since they do not involve any interpolation or
extrapolation between two points and data measurement.
C. The data is represented in discrete packets.

140
120 25
100
25 25
Med Scale 80
50
Large Scale 60 25 25 25
Small Scale 50
40 25
25
50 50 50
20 25
0
1990 1991 1992 1993

Illustr at ion
1. Total small scale industries newly incorporated over the entire period exceeds the total large scale
industries by ...

1. 100 2. 50 3. 25 4. 75

2. Total medium scale companies newly incorporated over the entire period as a % of total companies
newly incorporated over the same period is
1. 33 % 2. 31.25 % 3. 21 % 4. 44.66 %

3. During which year did the total newly incorporated companies show the maximum % growth
compared to the previous year?

1. 1990 2. 1992 3. 1991 4. 1993

4. Which segment has shown a constant growth over the entire period?

1. Small 2. Medium 3. Large 4. None

5. The number of medium scale companies incorporated in 1993 as a % of small scale companies
incorporated in 1990 is

1. 50 % 2. 400 % 3. 100 % 4. 200%

So lu tio n s
The first thing that strikes as one sees the bar chart is that there is an overall trend of growth in the total
number of units registered.
Here the figures of each unit have been given along side, so our task is made simpler.
In cases where the separate values have to be estimated, a good way of doing it is to transfer the values
from the bar we require, by marking on the edge of the paper and measuring the distance between the
marks on the Y axis.

By inspection, we note that

Total small scale = 25 + 50 + 50 + 50 = 175
Total med. scale = 25 + 25 + 25 + 50 = 125
Total large scale = 25 + 25 + 25 + 25 = 100

In both bar chart and line graph questions, converting some of the data to a table format is of help in
answering questions.
1. Total small scale industries newly incorporated over the entire period exceeds the total large scale
by:
Total diff. between small scale and large scale incorporation is 175 - 100 = 75
Hence Answer is (4)

2. Total medium scale companies newly incorporated over the entire period as a % of total companies
newly incorporated over the same period is
Total for all companies = 400
Total med companies = 125
125
Required % = × 100 = 31.25 %. Answer is (2)
400

3. During which year did the total newly incorporated companies show the maximum % growth
compared to the previous year?
Since our bars represent the total no of companies, this question can be solved without calculations.
We need to see over here two things.
One is the increase.
The second is the base from which this increase has happened. Please note that the answers might
vary for absolute increases and % increases.
Increase of 25 occurs in 1991 and 93.
Since initial value of 75 in1991 is less than the initial value of 100 in 1993, the % in 1991 is 33% as
compared to 25% in 1993. Hence answer is (3)

4. Which segment has shown a constant growth over the entire period?
By direct observation, the large scale companies’ growth has been constant at 25 units each year.
Remember the fact that details are for newly incorporated companies.
You may be tempted to answer “None” over here.
Answer is (3)

5. The number of medium scale companies incorporated in 1993 as a % of small scale companies
incorporated in 1990 is
50
Required ratio is or 200 %
25

Pie Charts
Ch ar acte r istics
A. The total quantity in question is distributed over a total angle of 3600 which is one complete circle or pie.
B. The data is plotted w.r.t. to only one parameter and hence the usage is restricted.
C. Useful in representing proportions or percentages or shares of various elements w.r.t. total quantity
Illustr at ion
1. Approximately how many degrees should there be in the central angle of the sector for agriculture
expenditure?

1. 220 2. 213 3. 210 4. 208 5. 198

2. Approximately what is the ratio of expenditure on agriculture to that on dairy?

1. 8:3 2. 9:2 3. 70:1 4. 10:1 5. 6:1

3. In Haryana in 2000 a total expenditure of 120mn Rs. was incurred. Approximately how many mn did
the Haryana government spend on roads?

1. 15.4 2. 20 3. 9 4. 12 5. 10.8

4. If Rs. 9mn were spent in 2000 for Dairy what would have been total expense for that year in mn?

1. 150 2. 140 3. 160 4. 130 5. 125

5. In 1999, Haryana spent 11% of all its expenses on Roads. To answer the question “Did Haryana
spend more on Roads expenditure in 1999 than in 2000?”, we

1. Do not require any additional data.

2. Require to know the total amount spent in each year.
3. Require the exact %age breakup of the various items of expenses in 1999.

Solut ions
1. Approximately how many degrees should there be in the central angle of the sector for agriculture
expenditure?
In a pie chart, 100% is spread over 360° or 2π radians.
Therefore 1 % = 3.6°
Agriculture expenditure = 59 %.
Therefore 3.6 × 59 = 212.4°
Answer is (2)
2. Approximately what is the ratio of expenditure on agriculture to that on dairy?
Over here one common mistake is that students calculate the actual values of agriculture and dairy.
Since budget expenditure is proportional to % of area covered, ratio of agriculture to dairy
expenditure would be ratio of corresponding % allocations.
Agriculture 59 10
Therefore, = ≈ .
Dairy 6 1
Answer is (4)

3. In Haryana in 2000 a total expenditure of 120mn Rs. was incurred. Approximately how many mn did
the Haryana government spend on roads?
Total expenditure = 100% = 120 bn Rs.
Expenditure on roads = 9% = 9/100 × 120 = Rs. 10.8mn.

4. If Rs. 9mn were spent in 2000 for Dairy what would have been total expense for that year in mn?
9mn were spent for dairy
This represents 6% of total expenditure in 2000
Dairy expenditure
=6 × 100 ;
Total expenditure
9
=6 × 100
Total expenditure
9
Total Exp = × 100 = Rs. 150 mn
6

5. In 1999, Haryana spent 11% of all its expenses on Roads. To answer the question, “Did Haryana
spend more on Roads expenditure in 1999 than in 2000?”, we....
% gives us just a proportional indication of total quantity.
Unless total expenditure is known, % of that is meaningless.
Hence to compare expenditure on roads in 1999 and 2000. Total amount spent must be known.
Answer is (2)

Caselets
Ch ar a c te ri s ti c s

A. The data is usually in the form of a paragraph.

B. It is one of the most difficult to manage since the interpretation of required data in a meaningful manner is
left to the student’s ability to comprehend the hidden facts.

Illustr at ion
BILT has 10% market share in paper and sells 1000 pieces for Rs.10 each. It launches a new product to
captivate the customer. The overall market grows by 20% each year for the next 2 years and BILT is able to
increase its market by gaining 20% market share every year for the next 2 years. It raises prices by Rs.5
every year. The cost structure has a fixed and variable component. Its fixed costs are Rs.5,000 every year.
Variable costs are Rs.5 in the first year and this increases by Rs.3 every year. The market share here refers
to share by volume, i.e. number of items sold.
Revenues = number of item sold × price
Profits = Revenue - Total costs

1. What is the market size in the second year?

1. 3600 2. 12000 3. 1200 4. Data insufficient

2. What is BILT’s revenue in the first year?

1. 1000 2. 5000 3. 0 4. 10000

3. What was BILT’s average revenue over the 3 years?

1. 66000 2. 66330 3. 69330 4. 75000

4. What is the profit made by the company in the 3rd year?

1. 26800 2. 59800 3. 64800 4. 46300

5. What would BILT’s S.P. in the 3rd year have been, had the profits in the 3rd year been the same as
the second year’s profit ?

1. 15 2. 20 3. 14.5 4. Data insufficient

So lu tio n s
Making a table on basis of data given
Year BILT Shere Mkt Size BILT Sales Price Revenues
Year 1 0.1 10,000 1,000 10 10,000
Year 2 0.3 12,000 3,600 15 54,000
Year 3 0.5 14,400 7,200 20 144,000

Year Revenues Fixed at Var Cost Profit

Year 1 10,000 5,000 5,000
Year 2 54,000 5,000 28,800 20,200
Year 3 144,000 5,000 79,200 59,800
Therefore;
nd
Answer to Ques. 1 is 2 option.
th
Answer to Ques. 2 is 4 option.
rd
Answer to Ques. 3 is 3 option.
nd
Answer to Ques. 4 is 2 option.

Question 5: Profit in year 3 = 20,200, fixed cost = 5,000

Therefore,
Variable cost = 79,200
Total cost = 84,200
Profit = 20,200
Therefore Revenues = 104,400 for 7200 items
Therefore Price = 14.5.
Hence Answer is (3)

Combination Graphs

Sales 30o
350 315
300 40o Repayment of loans
250 210 210
200 175 Expenses
150 140 Interest Ads 50o
150 120 Revenue
100
100
50
0
91 92 93 94 Distribution of Revenues for all the given years.

Given Profit = Revenue − Expenses

Illustr at ion
1. For which year is the profit maximum?

1. 91 2. 92 3. 93 4. 94

2. In which year is the profit expenses as a % of revenue the minimum?

1. 91 2. 92 3. 93 4. 94

3. The difference of revenues from repayment of loan in 1994 and interest in 1991 works out to

1. 35 Cr 2. 45 Cr 3. 50 Cr 4. 80 Cr

4. Expenses in which year are equal to the revenue from interest?

1. 91 2. 92 3. 93 4. 94

5. The total profit over the given 4 yrs as % of total expenses over the same period is greater than the
% profit of how many of the given years?

1. 1 2. 2 3. 3 4. 4
So lu tio n s
Year 1991 1992 1993 1994
Expenses 100 150 140 210
Revenue 120 210 175 315
Profit 20 60 35 105
% Profit 20 40 25 50
1. By referring to the table we get, Profit as 20, 60, 35 and 105. Please note that the % profit has not
been asked in this question.
Here Answer is (4)

2. 20/120 = Year 1 = 0.166

60/210 = Year 2 = 0.285
32/175 = Year 3 = 0.200
105/315 = Year 4 = 0.333
Min. is 0.166
Answer (1)
o
3. Angle representing interest = 360° – (50 + 40 + 30 ) = 240
40 240
Required difference = × 315 − × 120 = 35 – 80 = – 45
360 360
A deficit of 45 Cr. Hence Answer is (2)
rd
4. Revenue from interest is 240/360 = 2/3 .
rd
So we need to look out for years in which expenses are 2/3 of revenue.
Expenses in 94 = 210
Revenue from interest in 1994 = 315 × 240/360 = 210
Hence Answer is (4)

5. Total Profit = 20 + 60 + 35 + 105 = 220

Total Expenses = 100 + 150 + 140 + 210 = 600
x
Now 220 = × 600
100
x = 36.67% ; 36.67 is > 20 and 25 ; Hence Answer is (2)
Venn Diagrams

Pepsi 550

300 100
100
Limca Coke
450 200 650

Character ist ics

A. In this, data is represented using Venn diagrams.
B. The block is solved using basic principles of set theory.

Illustr at ion
Out of a total population of 2800, a survey was conducted for soft drink preferences:
Number of people drinking only Coke = 650
Number of people drinking only Pepsi = 550
Number of people drinking only Limca = 450
Number of people drinking all three = 100
Number of people drinking Pepsi as well as Coke = 200
Number of people drinking Pepsi as well as Limca = 400
Number of people drinking Coke as well as Limca = 300

1. Find the number of people drinking Pepsi?

1. 950 2. 1050 3. 650 4. 550

2. Find the number of People having no soft drink?

1. 450 2. 550 3. 2550 4. 2650

3. Find the number of people drinking exactly 1 drink?

1. 1050 2. 1450 3. 1550 4. 1650

4. Find number of people drinking at least 2 drinks?

1. 400 2. 500 3. 600 4. 700

So lu tio n s

1. People drinking Pepsi = People drinking only Pepsi + People who have 2 drinks Pepsi and Coke +
People who have 2 drinks Pepsi and Limca + People who have all three drinks.
For calculating People who have 2 drinks Pepsi and Coke, we need to subtract people who have all
three from the former value, viz; 200 – 100 = 100 people drink 2 drinks Coke and Pepsi.
So the final calculation becomes: 550 + 100 + 100 + 300 = 1,050 ; As is clear from the diagram,
required answer is (2)

2. Total sample = 2800 ; People drinking one or more drink = 450 + 550 + 650 + 300 + 100 + 200 +
100 = 2,350. People with no drinking habit = 2,800-2,350 = 450. Hence (1)

3. People with one drink only = Pepsi + Coke + Limca = 550 + 650 + 450 = 1,650. Required answer
(4)
4. People with at least 2 drinks = People with 2 drinks + People with all 3 drinks
= P ∩ C + P ∩ L + C ∩ L − 2 × P ∩ C ∩ L ⇒ 200 + 400 + 300 – 200 = 700. Required answer (4)

Directional Graphs

4 km

O K 9 km
1 km A

5 km
5 km

B C
2 km

Character ist ics

A. The 4 Directions - N. S. E. W. are represented using horizontal and vertical lines.
B. Easy to crack using basic formula of Pythagoras Theorem.
C. Usually asked either in diagram or paragraph form.
Illustr at ion
Sunil started walking towards Sector 17 (east wards. after walking a distance of 1Km, he turns southwards
and walks 5 Km.
Again he turns to East and now walks 2 km. Finally, he turns to the North and walks 9 km. How far is he
from his starting point?
Making a diagram on basis of information given; let O be starting point, then D would be final point via path
A, B, C.
In the triangle O K D
OK = 3 Km
KD = 4 Km
Therefore OD = OK 2 + KD 2 = 9 + 16 = 5

3d Triangular Diagram
Ch ar acte r istics

A. In this data can be presented on a triangular plane with the sides of the triangle acting as different axes.
The distance of a point from the vertex in a direction parallel to the side (axis. will be its coordinate.

Maths (100)

M: 75 M: 75
C: 0 O C : 25
P: 25 P:0

M: 50 M: 50
C: 0 T Q W C : 50
P: 50 P:0

M: 25 M: 25
C: 0 U C : 75
P: 75 P:0
R V
S

M: 0 M:0 M:0 Chemistry

C : 25 C : 50 C: 75 (100)
Physics (100) P : 75 P: 50 P: 25

Illustr at ion
O, Q, R, S, T, U, V, W represent colleges

Given triangular bar represents % of students offering Physics Chemistry and Maths in various colleges.

1. If total number of students in colleges O, Q, R, S are 600, 750, 900, 1200 respectively, which had
the largest number of students offering Chemistry?

1. O 2. Q 3. R 4. S

2. Among U, R, V, and S the colleges where less than 50% of students offered Maths are:

1. S 2. V 3. U 4. U, R, V, S
3. The total number of students in colleges R and V are 600 and 1000 respectively. How many
students studying physics in R and V?

1. 500 2. 600 3. 450 4. 550

4. College O and T have 600 students each. How many of these are studying Math?

1. 650 2. 750 3. 950 4. 800

5. If the total number of students in the five colleges O, Q, R, S, T are 400, 600, 800, 300, 1000
respectively, what is the average (per college. of students offering Chemistry in these colleges?

1. 296 2. 81 3. 165 4. 68

Solut ions
1. College % offering Chemistry Number of Students Offering Chemistry
O 12.5 75
Q 33.33 250
R 25 225
S 62.5 750
Hence Answer (4) This can also be guessed from diagram since C among O, Q, R, and S is nearest to C.

2. All colleges below line TQW will have less than 50% of students offering Maths. Hence Answer (4)

3. As in diagram, in R = 50% are studying Physics in V = 25% are studying Physics.

Hence 50/100 × 600 + 25/100 × 1000 = 550; Hence Answer (4)

4. In college O, 75% are studying Maths = 75/100 × 600 = 450

In college T, 50% are studying Maths = 50/100 × 600 = 300
Hence in college O and T i.e. 450 + 300 = 750 study Math Hence Answer is (2)

5. Total = 826
Therefore Average = 826/5 = 165.2
The number of student’s chemistry in colleges O, Q, R, S and T are 50, 200, 200, 187.5 and 166.3
respectively.
Sum this up to get 803.8. So average is 803.8/5 = 166. Hence Answer (3)

Network Diagram

Character ist ics

A. This is a geometrical representation of a route map
B. Using this map we can find the shortest distance between any two points given under a setup condition
C. Useful in situations where optimization of time and energy are important.
Illustr at ion
1. The shortest route between 1 and 8 is

1. 1 - 2 - 3 - 6 2. 1 - 4 - 5 - 6 3. 1 - 2 - 7 - 5 - 6 4. None of these

2. The shortest distance between 1 and 6 in Km is

1. 40 2. 36 3. 34 4. None of these

3. The shortest route between 4 and 8 is

1. 4 - 5 - 6 - 8 2. 4 - 7 – 8 3. 4 - 5 - 7 - 8 4. None of these

4. The shortest distance between 2 and 8 in Km

1. 40 2. 36 3. 42 4. 38

5. The total number of distant routes possible are (only forward direction as indicated by arrows)

1. 9 2. 11 3. 13 4. None of these

Solut ions
1. 1 - 2 - 3 – 6 = 10 + 12 + 18 + 8 = 48 Km
1 - 4 - 5 – 6 = 10 + 16 + 10 + 8 = 44 Km
1 - 2 - 7 - 5 - 6 = 10 + 8 + 18 + 8 + 10 + 8 = 62 Km.
Shortest route is 1 - 7 – 8 = 22 + 14 = 36 Km.
The remaining routes allowing 2-way traffic are definitely longer. Hence answer is (4)

2. Shortest distance between 1 and 6 as seen is

1 - 7 - 6 = 22 + 12 = 34 Km. Answer is (3)

3. The shortest distance between 4 and 8 as seen is

4 - 7 - 8 = 18 + 14 = 32 Km
4 - 7 - 6 – 8 = 18 + 12 + 8 = 38 Km
4 - 5 - 6 – 8 = 16 + 10 + 8 = 34 Km
4 - 5 - 7 - 8 route is not possible. Answer is 2.

4. All route length between 2 and 8 can be

2 - 3 - 6 - 8 = 12 + 18 + 8 = 38 Km
2 - 4 - 5 - 6 – 8 = 8 + 16 + 10 + 8 = 42 Km
2 - 4 - 5 - 7 - 8 = 8 + 16 + 8 + 14 = 46 Km.
2 - 4 - 7 – 8 = 8 + 18 + 14 = 40 Km
2 - 4 - 7 - 5 - 6 – 8 = 8 + 18 + 8 + 10 + 8 = 52Km
2 - 4 - 7 - 6 - 8 = 8 + 18 + 12 + 8 = 46 Km Hence Answer (4)

5. The total number of routes, in forward direction, as counted and verified physically is 13. Answer (3)

Summary
1. Understand the arrangement of data.

2. Read the question carefully.

3. Filter out the information required for the particular question from the data.

4. Approximate.

5. Eliminate.
Things to Master
1. Learn to play with numbers.
Learn tables from 1 to 20 religiously.
Learn squares of numbers from 1 to 35.
Learn cubes of numbers from 1 to 22.
Learn square root of numbers from 1 to 10.
Learn cube root of numbers from 1 to 10.

2. Approximate values judiciously.

3. Look for options. If they are widely placed, approximate accordingly. See if you can eliminate 2
choices.

4. Prioritize your blocks - be it line, pie, bar, caselet etc. and work accordingly.

5. Leave lengthy / logical calculation blocks at first go.

6. Learn reciprocals, percentage by heart.

7. Use your pencil judiciously to set comparisons or (use of ruler is prohibited in CAT). Draw straight
lines.